fresh lard with a small addition of cocoanut oil and caustic potash
solution, by the cold process or by boiling. For the cold process, 23
parts of fresh lard and 2 parts of Cochin cocoanut oil are warmed in a
jacketed pan, and when the temperature reaches 113° F. are treated with
9 parts of caustic potash and 2 1/2 parts of caustic soda solution,
both of 38° Bé. strength, the whole being stirred until saponification
is complete. The soap is transferred to a large marble mortar and
pounded along with the following scenting ingredients: 0.15 parts of
oil of bitter almonds and 0.02 parts of oil of geranium rose, or 0.1
part of the latter, and 0.05 parts of lemon oil. The warm process is
preferable, experience having shown that boiling is essential to the
proper saponification of the fats. In this method, 80 parts of lard and
20 parts of Cochin cocoanut oil are melted together in a large pan,
100 parts of potash lye (20° Bé.) being then crutched in by degrees,
and the mass raised to boiling point. The combined influence of the
heat and crutching vaporizes part of the water in the lye, and the soap
thickens. When the soap has combined, the fire is made up, and another
80 parts of the same potash lye are crutched in gradually. The soap
gets thicker and thicker as the water is expelled and finally throws up
“roses” on the surface, indicating that it is nearly finished. At this
stage it must be crutched vigorously, to prevent scorching against the
bottom of the pan and the resulting more or less dark coloration. The
evaporation period may be shortened by using only 50 to 60 parts of
lye at first, and fitting with lye of 25° to 30° strength. For working
on the large scale iron pans heated by steam are used, a few makers
employing silver-lined vessels, which have the advantage that they are
not attacked by the alkali. Tinned copper pans are also useful. The
process takes from 7 to 8 hours, and when the soap is finished it is
transferred into stoneware vessels for storage. Clear vegetable oils
(castor oil) may be used, but the soaps lack the requisite nacreous
luster required.
«TRANSPARENT SOAPS.»
The mode of production is the same for all. The fats are melted
together, sifted into a double boiler, and the lye is stirred in at
111° F. Cover up for an hour, steam being allowed to enter slowly.
There is now a clear, grain-like soap in the kettle, into which the
sugar solution and the alcohol are crutched, whereupon the kettle
is covered up. If cuttings are to be used, they are now added. When
same are melted, the kettle will contain a thin, clear soap, which is
colored and scented as per directions, and subsequently filled into
little iron molds and cooled.
«Rose-Glycerine Soap.»—
I.—Cochin cocoanut oil 70,000 parts
Compressed tallow 40,000 parts
Castor oil 30,000 parts
Caustic soda lye, 38° Bé 79,000 parts
Sugar 54,000 parts
Dissolved in
Water 60,000 parts
Alcohol 40,000 parts
Geranium oil (African) 250 parts
Lemon oil 200 parts
Palmarosa oil 1,200 parts
Bergamot oil 80 parts
«Benzoin-Glycerine Soap.»—
II.—Cochin cocoanut oil 66,000 parts
Compressed tallow 31,000 parts {653}
Castor oil 35,000 parts
Caustic soda lye, 38° Bé 66,000 parts
Sugar 35,000 parts
Dissolved in
Water 40,000 parts
Alcohol 35,000 parts
Brown, No. 120 200 parts
Powdered benzoin (Siam) 4,200 parts
Styrax liquid 1,750 parts
Tincture of benzoin 1,400 parts
Peru balsam 700 parts
Lemon oil 200 parts
Clove oil 70 parts
«Sunflower-Glycerine Soap.»—
III.—Cochin cocoanut oil 70,000 parts
Compressed tallow 50,000 parts
Castor oil 23,000 parts
Caustic soda lye, 39° Bé 71,000 parts
Sugar 40,000 parts
Dissolved in
Water 30,000 parts
Alcohol 40,000 parts
Brown, No. 55 250 parts
Geranium oil 720 parts
Bergamot oil 300 parts
Cedar-wood oil 120 parts
Palmarosa oil 400 parts
Vanillin 10 parts
Tonka tincture 400 parts
«MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS:»
«Szegedin Soap.»—Tallow, 120 parts; palm kernel oil, 80 parts.
Saponify well with about 200 parts of lye of 24° Bé. and add, with
constant stirring, the following fillings in rotation, viz., potash
solution, 20° Bé., 150 parts, and cooling salt solution 20° Bé., 380
parts.
«Instrument Soap.»—A soap for cleaning surgical instruments, and other
articles of polished steel, which have become specked with rust by
exposure, is made by adding precipitated chalk to a strong solution of
cyanide of potassium in water, until a cream-like paste is obtained.
Add to this white castile soap in fine shavings, and rub the whole
together in a mortar, until thoroughly incorporated. The article to
be cleaned should be first immersed, if possible, in a solution of 1
part of cyanide of potash in 4 parts of water, and kept there until the
surface dirt and rust disappears. It should then be polished with the
soap, made as above directed.
«Stain-Removing Soaps.»—These are prepared in two ways, either by
making a special soap, or by mixing ordinary soap with special
detergents. A good recipe is as follows:
I.—Ceylon cocoanut or palm seed oil 320 pounds
Caustic soda lye, 38° Bé 160 pounds
Carbonate of potash, 20° Bé 56 pounds
Oil of turpentine 9 pounds
Finely powdered kieselguhr 280 pounds
Brilliant green 2 pounds
The oil having been fused, the dye is mixed with some of it and stirred
into the contents of the pan. The kieselguhr is then crutched in from
a sieve, then the lye, and then the carbonate of potash. These liquids
are poured in in a thin stream. When the soap begins to thicken, add
the turpentine, mold, and cover up the molds.
II.—Rosin grain soap 1,000 pounds
Talc (made to a paste with weak carbonate of potash) 100 pounds
Oil of turpentine 4 pounds
Benzine 3 pounds
Mix the talc and soap by heat, and when cool enough add the turpentine
and benzine, and mold.
III.—Cocoanut oil 600 pounds
Tallow 400 pounds
Caustic soda lye 500 pounds
Fresh ox gall 200 pounds
Oil of turpentine 12 pounds
Ammonia (sp. gr., 0.91) 6 pounds
Benzine 5 pounds
Saponify by heat, cool, add the gall and the volatile liquids, and mold.
«Soap Substitutes.»—
I.—Linseed oil 28 pounds
Sulphur 8 pounds
Aluminum soap 28 pounds
Oil of turpentine 4 pounds
II.—Aluminum soap 15 pounds
Almadina 25 pounds
Caoutchouc 50 pounds
Sulphur 6 pounds
Oleum succini 4 pounds
«Shampoo Soap.»—
Linseed oil 20 parts
Malaga olive oil 20 parts
Caustic potash 9 1/2 parts
Alcohol 1 part
Water 30 parts
{654}
Warm the mixed oils on a large water bath, then the potash and water
in another vessel, heating both to 158° F., and adding the latter hot
solution to the hot oil while stirring briskly. Now add and thoroughly
mix the alcohol. Stop stirring, keep the heat at 158° F. until the mass
becomes clear and a small quantity dissolves in boiling water without
globules of oil separating. Set aside for a few days before using to
make the liquid soap.
The alcohol may be omitted if a transparent product is immaterial.
«Sapo Durus.»—
Olive oil 100 parts
Soda lye, sp. gr., 1.33 50 parts
Alcohol (90 per cent) 30 parts
Heat on a steam bath until saponification is complete. The soap thus
formed is dissolved in 300 parts of hot distilled water, and salted
out by adding a filtered solution of 25 parts of sodium chloride and 5
parts of crystallized sodium carbonate in 80 parts of water.
«Sapo Mollis.»—
Olive oil 100 parts
Solid potassium hydroxide 21 parts
Water 100 parts
Alcohol (90 per cent) 20 parts
Boil by means of a steam bath until the oil is saponified, adding, if
necessary, a little more spirit to assist the saponification.
«Sand Soap.»—Cocoa oil, 24 parts; soda lye, 38° Bé., 12 parts; sand,
finely sifted, 28 parts; cassia oil, .0100 parts; sassafras oil, .0100
parts.
«Salicylic Soap.»—When salicylic acid is used in soap it decomposes,
as a rule, and an alkali salicylate is formed which the skin does
not absorb. A German chemist claims to have overcome this defect by
thoroughly eliminating all water from potash or soda soap, then mixing
it with vaseline, heating the mixture, and incorporating free salicylic
acid with the resulting mass. The absence of moisture prevents any
decomposition of the salicylic acid.
«Olein Soap Substitute.»—Fish oil or other animal oil is stirred
up with sulphuric acid, and then treated with water. After another
stirring, the whole is left to settle, and separate into layers,
whereupon the acid and water are drawn off, and caustic soda solution
is stirred in with the oil. The finishing stage consists in stirring in
refined mineral oil, magnesium chloride, borium chloride, and pure seal
or whale oil, in succession.
«Mottled Soap.»—Tallow, 30 parts; palm kernel oil, 270 parts; lye, 20°,
347 1/2 parts; potassium chloride solution, 20°, 37 1/2 parts.
After everything has been boiled into a soap, crutch the following dye
solution into it: Water, 5 1/2 parts; blue, red, or black, .0315
parts; water glass, 38°, 10 parts; and lye, 38°, 1 1/2 parts.
«Laundry Soap.»—A good, common hard soap may be made from clean
tallow or lard and caustic soda, without any very special skill in
manipulation. The caustic soda indicated is a crude article which may
now be obtained from wholesale druggists in quantities to suit, at a
very moderate price. A lye of average strength is made by dissolving
it in water in the proportion of about 2 pounds to the gallon. For
the saponification of lard, a given quantity of the grease is melted
at a low heat, and 1/4 its weight of lye is then added in small
portions with constant stirring; when incorporation has been thoroughly
effected, another portion of lye equal to the first is added, as
before, and the mixture kept at a gentle heat until saponification
appears to be complete. If the soap does not readily separate from the
liquid, more lye should be added, the soap being insoluble in strong
lye. When separation has occurred, pour off the lye, add water to the
mass, heat until dissolved, and again separate by the use of more
strong lye or a strong solution of common salt. The latter part of
the process is designed to purify the soap and may be omitted where
only a cruder article is required. The soap is finally remelted on a
water bath, kept at a gentle heat until as much water as possible is
expelled, and then poured into frames or molds to set.
«Dog Soap.»—
Petroleum 5 parts by weight
Wax 4 parts by weight
Alcohol 5 parts by weight
Good laundry soap. 15 parts by weight
Heat the petroleum, wax, and alcohol on a water bath until they are
well mixed, and dissolve in the mixture the soap cut in fine shavings.
This may be used on man or beast for driving away vermin.
«Liquid Tar Soap» (Sapo Picis liquidus).—
Wood tar 25 parts
Hebra’s soap spirit 75 parts
«Ox-Gall Soap for Cleansing Silk Stuffs.»—To wash fine silk stuffs,
such as {655} piece goods, ribbons, etc., employ a soap containing a
certain amount of ox gall, a product that is not surpassed for the
purpose. In making this soap the following directions will be found
of advantage: Heat 1 pound of cocoanut oil to 100° F. in a copper
kettle. While stirring vigorously add 1/2 pound of caustic soda lye
of 30° Baumé. In a separate vessel heat 1/2 pound of white Venice
turpentine, and stir this in the soap in the copper kettle. Cover the
kettle well, and let it stand, mildly warmed for 4 hours, when the
temperature can be again raised until the mass is quite hot and flows
clear; then add the pound of ox gall to it. Now pulverize some good,
perfectly dry grain soap, and stir in as much of it as will make the
contents of the copper kettle so hard that it will yield slightly to
the pressure of the fingers. From 1 to 2 pounds is all the grain soap
required for the above quantity of gall soap. When cooled, cut out the
soap and shape into bars. This is an indispensable adjunct to the dyer
and cleaner, as it will not injure the most delicate color.
«SOAP-BUBBLE LIQUIDS.»
I.—White hard soap 25 parts
Glycerine 15 parts
Water 1,000 parts
II.—Dry castile soap 2 parts
Glycerine 30 parts
Water 40 parts
SOAP POLISHES: See Polishes.
SOAP, TOOTH: See Dentifrice.
SODA PAINT: See Paint.
SODA WATER: See Beverages.
SODIUM HYPOSULPHITE: See Photography.
SODIUM SILICATE AS A CEMENT: See Adhesives, under Water-Glass Cements.
SODIUM SALTS, EFFERVESCENT: See Salts.
«Solders»
«SOLDERING OF METALS AND THE PREPARATION OF SOLDERS.»
The object of soldering is to unite two portions of the same metal
or of different metals by means of a more fusible metal or metallic
alloy, applied when melted, and known by the name of solder. As the
strength of the soldering depends on the nature of the solder used,
the degree of strength required for the joint must be kept in view in
choosing a solder. The parts to be joined must be free from oxide and
thoroughly clean; this can be secured by filing, scouring, scraping,
or pickling with acids. The edges must fit exactly, and be heated to
the melting point of the solder. The latter must have a lower melting
point than either of the portions of metal that require to be joined,
and if possible only those metals should be chosen for solder which
form alloys with them. The solder should also as far as possible have
the same color and approximately the same strength as the article whose
edges are to be united.
To remove the layers of oxide which form during the process of
soldering, various so-called “fluxes” are employed. These fluxes are
melted and applied to the joint, and act partly by keeping off the air,
thus preventing oxidation, and partly by reducing and dissolving the
oxides themselves. The choice of a flux depends on the quantity of heat
required for soldering.
Solders are classed as soft and hard solders. Soft solders, also called
tin solders or white solders, consist of soft, readily fusible metals
or alloys, and do not possess much strength; they are easy to handle on
account of their great fusibility. Tin, lead-tin, and alloys of tin,
lead, and bismuth are used for soft solders, pure tin being employed
only for articles made of the same metal (pure tin).
The addition of some lead makes the solder less fusible but cheaper,
while that of bismuth lowers the melting point. Soft solders are used
for soldering easily fusible metals such as Britannia metal, etc.,
also for soldering tin plate. To prepare solder, the metals are melted
together in a graphite crucible at as low a temperature as possible,
well stirred with an iron rod, and cast into ingots in an iron mold.
To melt the solder when required for soldering, the soldering iron is
used; the latter should be kept as free from oxidation as possible, and
the part applied should be tinned over.
To make so-called “Sicker” solder, equal parts of lead and tin are
melted together, well mixed, and allowed to stand till the mixture
begins to set, the part still in a liquid condition being then poured
off. This mixture can, however, {656} be more easily made by melting
together 37 parts of lead and 63 parts of tin (exactly measured).
Soldering irons are usually made of copper, as copper is easily heated
and easily gives up its heat to the solder. The point of the iron must
be “tinned.” To do this properly, the iron should be heated hot enough
easily to melt the solder; the point should then be quickly dressed
with a smooth flat file to remove the oxide, and rubbed on a piece of
tin through solder and sal ammoniac. The latter causes the solder to
adhere in a thin, even coat to the point of the iron. A gas or gasoline
blow torch or a charcoal furnace is best for heating the iron, but a
good, clean coal fire, well coked, will answer the purpose.
When in use, the iron should be hot enough to melt the solder readily.
A cold iron produces rough work. This is where the beginner usually
fails. If possible, it is well to warm the pieces before applying the
iron. The iron must not be heated too hot, however, or the tin on the
point will be oxidized. The surfaces to be soldered must be clean.
Polish them with sandpaper, emery cloth, a file, or a scraper. Grease
or oil will prevent solder from sticking.
Some good soldering fluid should be used. A very good fluid is made
by dissolving granulated zinc in muriatic acid. Dissolve as much zinc
as possible in the acid. The gas given off will explode if ignited.
To granulate the zinc, melt it in a ladle, and pour it slowly into a
barrel of water. A brush or swab should be used to spread the fluid on
the surfaces to be soldered. If the point of the soldering iron becomes
dirty, it should be wiped on a cloth or piece of waste that has been
dampened with the soldering fluid.
«Soldering of Metallic Articles.»—In a recently invented process the
parts to be united are covered, on the surfaces not to be soldered,
with a protective mass, which prevents an immediate contact of
the solder with the surfaces in question, and must be brushed off
only after the soldered pieces have cooled perfectly, whereby the
possibility of a change of position of these pieces seems precluded.
For the execution of this process the objects to be soldered, after the
surfaces to be united have been provided with a water-glass solution
as the soldering agent and placed together as closely as possible or
united by wires or rivets, are coated in the places where no solder
is desired with a protective mass, consisting essentially of carbon
(graphite, coke, or charcoal), powdered talc or asbestos, ferric
hydrate (with or without ferrous hydrate), and, if desired, a little
aluminum oxide, together with a binding agent of the customary kind
(glue solution, beer).
Following are some examples of the composition of these preparations:
I.—Graphite, 50 parts; powdered coke, 5 parts; powdered charcoal, 5
parts; powdered talc, 10 parts; glue solution, 2.5 parts; drop beer,
2.5 parts; ferric hydrate, 10 parts; aluminum oxide, 5 parts.
II.—Graphite, burnt, 4 parts; graphite, unburnt, 6 parts; powdered
charcoal, 3 parts; powdered asbestos, 1 part; ferric hydrate, 3 parts;
ferrous hydrate, 2 parts; glue solution, 1 part.
The article thus prepared is plunged, after the drying of the
protective layer applied, in the metal bath serving as solder (molten
brass, copper, etc.), and left to remain therein until the part to be
soldered has become red hot, which generally requires about 50 to 60
seconds, according to the size of the object. In order to avoid, in
introducing the article into the metal bath, the scattering of the
molten metal, it is well previously to warm the article and to dip it
warm. After withdrawal from the metal bath the soldered articles are
allowed to cool, and are cleaned with wire brushes, so as to cause the
bright surfaces to reappear.
The process is especially useful for uniting iron or steel parts, such
as machinery, arms, and bicycle parts in a durable manner.
«Soldering Acid.»—A very satisfactory soldering acid may be made by
the use of the ordinary soldering acid for the base and introducing a
certain proportion of chloride of tin and sal ammoniac. This gives an
acid which is superior in every way to the old form. To make 1 gallon
of this soldering fluid take 3 quarts of common muriatic acid and allow
it to dissolve as much zinc as it will take up. This method, of course,
is the usual one followed in the manufacture of ordinary soldering
acid. The acid, as is well known, must be placed in an earthenware or
glass vessel. The zinc may be sheet clippings or common plate spelter
broken into small pieces. Place the acid in the vessel and add the zinc
in small portions so as to prevent the whole from boiling over. When
all the zinc has been added and the action has stopped, it indicates
that enough has been taken up. Care must be taken to see that there is
a little zinc left in the bottom, as {657} otherwise the acid will be
in excess. The idea is to have the acid take up as much zinc as it can.
After this has been done there will remain some residue in the form
of a black precipitate. This is the lead which all zinc contains,
and which is not dissolved by the muriatic acid. This lead may be
removed by filtering through a funnel in the bottom of which there is
a little absorbent cotton, or the solution may be allowed to remain
overnight until the lead has settled and the clear solution can then
be poured off. This lead precipitate is not particularly injurious to
the soldering fluid, but it is better to get rid of it so that a good,
clear solution may be obtained. Next, dissolve 6 ounces of sal ammoniac
in a pint of warm water. In another pint dissolve 4 ounces of chloride
of tin. The chloride of tin solution will usually be cloudy, but this
will not matter. Now mix the 3 solutions together. The solution will
be slightly cloudy when the 3 have been mixed, and the addition of a
few drops of muriatic acid will render it perfectly clear. Do not add
any more acid than is necessary to do this, as the solution would then
contain too much of this ingredient and the results would be injurious.
This soldering acid will not spatter when the iron is applied to it. It
has also been found that a poorer grade of solder may be used with it
than with the usual soldering acid.
«ALUMINUM SOLDERS.»
To solder aluminum it is necessary previously to tin the parts to be
soldered. This tinning is done with the iron, using a composition of
aluminum and tin. Replace the ordinary soldering iron by an iron of
pure aluminum. Preparation of aluminum solder: Commence by fusing the
copper; then add the aluminum in several installments, stir the mixture
well with a piece of iron; next add the zinc and a little tallow or
benzine at the same time. Once the zinc is added do not heat too
strongly, to avoid the volatilization of the zinc.
I.—Take 5 parts of tin and 1 part of aluminum. Solder with the iron or
with the blowpipe, according to the article in question.
II.—The pieces to be soldered are to be tinned, but instead of using
pure tin, alloys of tin with other metals are employed, preferably
those of tin and aluminum. For articles to be worked after soldering,
45 parts of tin and 10 parts of aluminum afford a good alloy, malleable
enough to be hammered, cut, or turned. If they are not to be worked,
the alloy requires less aluminum and may be applied in the usual manner
as in soldering iron.
«Aluminum Bronze.»—I.—Strong solder: Gold, 89 parts; fine silver, 5
parts; copper, 6 parts.
II.—Medium solder: Gold, 54 parts; fine silver, 27 parts; copper, 19
parts.
III.—Weak solder: Gold, 14 parts; silver, 57 parts; copper, 15 parts;
brass, 14 parts.
«BRASS SOLDERS.»
Brass solder consists of brass fusible at a low temperature, and is
made by melting together copper and zinc, the latter being in excess. A
small quantity of tin is often added to render the solder more fusible.
Hard solders are usually sold in the form of granules. Although many
workers in metals make their own solder, it is advisable to use hard
solder made in factories, as complete uniformity of quality is more
easily secured where large quantities are manufactured.
In making hard solder the melted metal is poured through birch twigs in
order to granulate it. The granules are afterwards sorted by passing
them through sieves.
When brass articles are soft-soldered, the white color of the solder
contrasts unpleasantly with the brass. If this is objected to, the
soldered part can be colored yellow in the following manner:
Dissolve 10 parts of copper sulphate in 35 parts of water; apply the
solution to the solder, and stir with a clean iron wire. This gives the
part the appearance of copper. To produce the yellow color, paint the
part with a mixture consisting of 1 part of a solution of equal parts
of zinc and water (1 part each) and 2 parts of a solution of 10 to 35
parts respectively of copper sulphate and water and rub on with a zinc
rod. The resulting yellow color can, if desired, be improved by careful
polishing.
The quality of soft solder is always judged in the trade from the
appearance of the surface of the castings, and it is considered
important that this surface should be radiant and crystalline, showing
the so-called “flowers.” These should be more brilliant than the dull
background, the latter being like mat silver in appearance. If the
casting has a uniform whitish-gray color, this is an indication that
the alloy contains an insufficient quantity of tin. In this case {658}
the alloy should be remelted and tin added, solder too poor in tin
being extremely viscid.
Most of the varieties of brass used in the arts are composed of from
68 to 70 per cent copper and from 32 to 30 per cent zinc. Furthermore,
there are some kinds of brass which contain from 24 to 40 per cent
zinc. The greater the quantity of zinc the greater will be the
resemblance of the alloy to copper. Consequently, the more crystalline
will the structure become. For hard soldering only alloys can be
employed which, as a general rule, contain no more than 34 per cent of
zinc. With an increase in copper there follows a rise in the melting
point of the brass. An alloy containing 90 per cent of copper will melt
at 1,940° F.; 80 per cent copper, at 1,868° F.; 70 per cent copper,
at 1,796° F.; 60 per cent copper, at 1,742° F. Because an increase in
zinc causes a change in color, it is sometimes advisable to use tin for
zinc, at least in part, so that the alloy becomes more bronze-like in
its properties. The durability of the solder is not seriously affected,
but its fusibility is lowered. If more than a certain proportion of tin
be added, thin and very fluid solders are obtained of grayish-white
color, and very brittle—indeed, so brittle that the soldering joints
are apt to open if the object is bent. Because too great an addition
of tin is injurious, the utmost caution must be exercised. If very
refractory metals are to be soldered, brass alone can be used. In some
cases, a solder can be produced merely by melting brass and adding
copper. The following hard solders have been practically tested and
found of value.
«YELLOW HARD SOLDERS:»
Applebaum’s Compositions.—
I.—Copper 58 parts
Zinc 42 parts
II.—Sheet brass 85.42 parts
Zinc 13.58 parts