for 15 or 20 days. Strain the liquid through a cloth and add the salt.
Rub up mustard with the olive oil in a vessel set in ice, adding a
little of the spiced vinegar from time to time, until the whole is
incorporated and the complete mixture makes 384 parts. {216}
CONDIMENTS, TESTS FOR ADULTERATED: See Foods.
CONDITION POWDERS FOR CATTLE: See Veterinary Formulas.
CONDUCTIVITY OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS: See Alloys.
«Confectionery»
«Cream Bonbons for Hoarseness.»—Stir into 500 parts of cream 500 parts
of white sugar. Put in a pan and cook, with continuous stirring, until
it becomes brown and viscid. Now put in a baking tin and smooth out, as
neatly as possible, to the thickness of, say, twice that of the back of
a table knife and let it harden. Before it gets completely hard draw
lines with a knife across the surface in such manner that when it is
quite hard it will break along them, easily, into bits the size of a
lozenge.
«Nut Candy Sticks.»—Cook to 320° F. 8 pounds best sugar in 2 pints
water, with 4 pounds glucose added. Pour out on an oiled slab and
add 5 pounds almonds, previously blanched, cut in small pieces, and
dried in the drying room. Mix up well together to incorporate the nuts
thoroughly with the sugar. When it has cooled enough to be handled,
form into a round mass on the slab and spin out in long, thin sticks.
«Fig Squares.»—Place 5 pounds of sugar and 5 pounds of glucose in a
copper pan, with water enough to dissolve the sugar. Set on the fire,
and when it starts to boil add 5 pounds of ground figs. Stir and cook
to 240° on the thermometer. Set off the fire, and then add 5 pounds of
fine cocoanuts; mix well and pour out on greased marble, roll smooth,
and cut like caramels.
«Caramels.»—Heat 10 pounds sugar and 8 pounds glucose in a copper
kettle until dissolved. Add cream to the mixture, at intervals, until
2 1/2 quarts are used. Add 2 1/4 pounds caramel butter and 12
ounces paraffine wax to the mixture. Cook to a rather stiff ball,
add nuts, pour out between iron bars and, when cool enough, cut into
strips. For the white ones flavor with vanilla, and add 2 pounds melted
chocolate liquor for the chocolate caramel when nearly cooked.
«Candy Orange Drops.»—It is comparatively easy to make a hard candy,
but to put the material into “drop” form apparently requires experience
and a machine. To make the candy itself, put, say, a pint of water
into a suitable pan or kettle, heat to boiling, and add gradually to
it 2 pounds or more of sugar, stirring well so as to avoid the risk of
burning the sugar. Continue boiling the syrup so formed until a little
of it poured on a cold slab forms a mass of the required hardness. If
the candy is to be of orange flavor, a little fresh oil of orange is
added just before the mass is ready to set and the taste is improved
according to the general view at least by adding, also, say, 2 drachms
of citric acid dissolved in a very little water. As a coloring an
infusion of safflower or tincture of turmeric is used.
To make such a mass into tablets, it is necessary only to pour out on
a well-greased slab, turning the edges back if inclined to run, until
the candy is firm, and then scoring with a knife so that it can easily
be broken into pieces when cold. To make “drops” a suitable mold is
necessary.
Experiment as to the sufficiency of the boiling in making candy may be
saved and greater certainty of a good result secured by the use of a
chemical thermometer. As the syrup is boiled and the water evaporates
the temperature of the liquid rises. When it reaches 220° F., the
sugar is then in a condition to yield the “thread” form; at 240° “soft
ball” is formed; at 245°, “hard ball”; at 252°, “crack”; and at 290°,
“hard crack.” By simply suspending the thermometer in the liquid and
observing it from time to time, one may know exactly when to end the
boiling.
«Gum Drops.»—Grind 25 pounds of Arabian or Senegal gum, place it in a
copper pan or in a steam jacket kettle, and pour 3 gallons of boiling
water over it; stir it up well. Now set the pan with the gum into
another pan containing boiling water and stir the gum slowly until
dissolved, then strain it through a No. 40 sieve. Cook 19 pounds of
sugar with sufficient water, 2 pounds of glucose, and a teaspoonful of
cream of tartar to a stiff ball, pour it over the gum, mix well, set
the pan on the kettle with the hot water, and let it steam for 1 1/2
hours, taking care that the water in the kettle does not run dry; then
open the door of the stove and cover the fire with ashes, and let the
gum settle for nearly an hour, then remove the scum which has settled
on top, flavor and run out with the {217} funnel dropper into the
starch impressions, and place the trays in the drying room for 2 days,
or until dry; then take the drops out of the starch, clean them off
well and place them in crystal pans, one or two layers. Cook sugar and
water to 34 1/2° on the syrup gauge and pour over the drops lukewarm.
Let stand in a moderately warm place over night, then drain the syrup
off, and about an hour afterwards knock the gum drops out on a clean
table, pick them apart, and place on trays until dry, when they are
ready for sale.
«A Good Summer Taffy.»—Place in a kettle 4 pounds of sugar, 3 pounds
of glucose, and 1 1/2 pints of water; when it boils drop in a piece
of butter half the size of an egg and about 2 ounces of paraffine wax.
Cook to 262°, pour on a slab, and when cool enough, pull, flavor, and
color if you wish. Pull until light, then spin out on the table in
strips about 3 inches wide and cut into 4- or 4 1/2-inch lengths.
Then wrap in wax paper for the counter. This taffy keeps long without
being grained by the heat.
«Chewing Candy.»—Place 20 pounds of sugar in a copper pan, add 20
pounds of glucose, and enough water to easily dissolve the sugar. Set
on the fire or cook in the steam pan in 2 quarts of water. Have a
pound of egg albumen soaked in 2 quarts of water. Beat this like eggs
into a very stiff froth, add gradually the sugar and glucose; when well
beaten up, add 5 pounds of powdered sugar, and beat at very little heat
either in the steam beater or on a pan of boiling water until light,
and does not stick to the back of the hand, flavor with vanilla, and
put in trays dusted with fine sugar. When cold it may be cut, or else
it may be stretched out on a sugar-dusted table, cut, and wrapped in
wax paper. This chewing candy has to be kept in a very dry place, or
else it will run and get sticky.
«Montpelier Cough Drops.»—
Brown sugar 10 pounds
Tartaric acid 2 ounces
Cream of tartar 1/2 ounce
Water 1 1/2 quarts
Anise-seed flavoring, quantity sufficient
Melt the sugar in the water, and when at a sharp boil add the cream of
tartar. Cover the pan for 5 minutes. Remove the lid and let the sugar
boil up to crack degree. Turn out the batch on an oiled slab, and when
cool enough to handle mold in the acid and flavoring. Pass it through
the acid drop rollers, and when the drops are chipped up, and before
sifting, rub some icing with them.
«Medicated Cough Drops.»—
Light-brown sugar 14 pounds
Tartaric acid 1 1/2 ounces
Cream of tartar 1/2 ounce
Water 2 quarts
Anise-seed, cayenne, clove, and peppermint
flavoring, a few drops of each.
Proceed as before prescribed, but when sufficiently cool pass the batch
through the acid tablet rollers and dust with sugar.
«Horehound Candy.»—
Dutch crushed sugar 10 pounds
Dried horehound leaves 2 ounces
Cream of tartar 3/4 ounce
Water 2 quarts
Anise-seed flavoring, quantity sufficient.
Pour the water on the leaves and let it gently simmer till reduced to
3 pints; then strain the infusion through muslin, and add the liquid
to the sugar. Put the pan containing the syrup on the fire, and when
at a sharp boil add the cream of tartar. Put the lid on the pan for 5
minutes; then remove it, and let the sugar boil to stiff boil degree.
Take the pan off the fire and rub portions of the sugar against the
side until it produces a creamy appearance; then add the flavoring.
Stir all well, and pour into square tin frames, previously well oiled.
«Menthol Cough Drops.»—
Gelatin 1 ounce
Glycerine (by weight) 2 1/2 ounces
Orange-flower water 2 1/2 ounces
Menthol 5 grains
Rectified spirits 1 drachm
Soak the gelatin in the water for 2 hours, then heat on a water bath
until dissolved, and add 1 1/2 ounces of glycerine. Dissolve the
menthol in the spirit, mix with the remainder of the glycerine, add
to the glyco-gelatin mass, and pour into an oiled tin tray (such as
the lid of a biscuit box). When the mass is cold divide into 10 dozen
pastilles.
Menthol pastilles are said to be an excellent remedy for tickling cough
as well as laryngitis. They should be freshly prepared, and cut oblong,
so that the patient may take half of one, or less, as may be necessary.
«Violet Flavor for Candy.»—Violet flavors, like violet perfumes, are
very complex mixtures, and their imitation is a {218} correspondingly
difficult undertaking. The basis is vanilla (or vanillin), rose, and
orris, with a very little of some pungent oil to bring up the flavor.
The following will give a basis upon which a satisfactory flavor may be
built:
Oil of orris 1 drachm
Oil of rose 1 drachm
Vanillin 2 drachms
Cumarin 30 grains
Oil of clove 30 minims
Alcohol 11 ounces
Water 5 ounces
Make a solution, adding the water last.
«CONFECTIONERY COLORS.»—The following are excellent and entirely
harmless coloring agents for the purposes named:
«Red.»—Cochineal syrup prepared as follows:
Cochineal, in coarse powder 6 parts
Potassium carbonate 2 parts
Distilled water 15 parts
Alcohol 12 parts
Simple syrup enough to make 500 parts
Rub up the potassium carbonate and the cochineal together, adding the
water and alcohol, little by little, under constant trituration. Set
aside over night, then add the syrup and filter.
«Pink.»—
Carmine 1 part
Liquor potassæ 6 parts
Rose water, enough to make 48 parts
Mix. Should the color be too high, dilute with water until the
requisite tint is acquired.
«Orange.»—Tincture of red sandalwood, 1 part; ethereal tincture
of orlean, quantity sufficient. Add the tincture of orlean to the
sandalwood tincture until the desired shade of orange is obtained.
A red added to any of the yellows gives an orange color.
The aniline colors made by the “Aktiengesellschaft für
Anilin-Fabrikation,” of Berlin, are absolutely non-toxic, and can be
used for the purposes recommended, i. e., the coloration of syrups,
cakes, candies, etc., with perfect confidence in their innocuity.
«Pastille Yellow.»—
Citron yellow II 7 parts
Grape sugar, first quality 1 part
White dextrine 2 parts
«Sap-Blue Paste.»—
Dark blue 3 parts
Grape sugar 1 part
Water 6 parts
«Sugar-Black Paste.»—
Carbon black 3 parts
Grape sugar 1 part
Water 6 parts
«Cinnabar Red.»*—
Scarlet 65 parts
White dextrine 30 parts
Potato flour 5 parts
«Bluish Rose.»*—
Grenadine 65 parts
White dextrine 30 parts
Potato flour 5 parts
«Yellowish Rose.»—
Rosa II 60 parts
Citron yellow 5 parts
White dextrine 30 parts
Potato flour 5 parts
«Violet.»—
Red violet 65 parts
White dextrine 30 parts
Potato flour 5 parts
«Carmine Green.»—
Woodruff (Waldmeister) green 55 parts
Rosa II 5 parts
Dextrine 35 parts
Potato flour 5 parts
To the colors marked with an asterisk (*) add, for every 4 pounds,
4 1/2 ounces, a grain and a half each of potassium iodide and sodium
nitrate. Colors given in form of powders should be dissolved in hot
water for use.
«Yellow.»—Various shades of yellow may be obtained by the maceration of
Besiello saffron, or turmeric, or grains d’Avignon in alcohol until a
strong tincture is obtained. Dilute with water until the desired shade
is obtained. An aqueous solution of quercitrine also gives an excellent
yellow.
«Blue.»—
Indigo carmine 1 part
Water 2 parts
Mix.
Indigo carmine is a beautiful, powerful, and harmless agent. It may
usually be bought commercially, but if it cannot be readily obtained,
proceed as follows:
Into a capsule put 30 grains of indigo in powder, place on a water
bath, and heat to dryness. When entirely dry put {219} into a large
porcelain mortar (the substance swells enormously under subsequent
treatment—hence the necessity for a large, or comparatively large,
mortar) and cautiously add, drop by drop, 120 grains, by weight, of
sulphuric acid, C. P., stirring continuously during the addition.
Cover the swollen mass closely, and set aside for 24 hours. Now add
3 fluidounces of distilled water, a few drops at a time, rubbing or
stirring continuously. Transfer the liquid thus obtained to a tall,
narrow, glass cylinder or beaker, cover and let stand for 4 days,
giving the liquid an occasional stirring. Make a strong solution of
sodium carbonate or bicarbonate, and at the end of the time named
cautiously neutralize the liquid, adding the carbonate a little at a
time, stirring the indigo solution and testing it after each addition,
as the least excess of alkali will cause the indigo to separate out,
and fall in a doughy mass. Stop when the test shows the near approach
of neutrality, as the slight remaining acidity will not affect the
taste or the properties of the liquid. Filter, and evaporate in the
water bath to dryness. The resultant matter is sulphindigotate of
potassium, or the “indigo carmine” of commerce.
Tincture of indigo may also be used as a harmless blue.
«Green.»—The addition of the solution indigo carmine to an infusion
of any of the matters given under “yellow” will produce a green color.
Tincture of crocus and glycerine in equal parts, with the addition
of indigo-carmine solution, also gives a fine green. A solution of
commercial chlorophyll gives grass-green, in shades varying according
to the concentration of the solution.
«Voice and Throat Lozenges.»—
Catechu 191 grains
Tannic acid 273 grains
Tartaric acid 273 grains
Capsicin 30 minims
Black-currant paste 7 ounces
Refined sugar, Mucilage of acacia, of each a sufficient quantity.
Mix to produce 7 pounds of lozenges.
CONSTIPATION IN BIRDS: See Veterinary Formulas.
COOKING TABLE: See Tables.
COOLING SCREEN: See Refrigeration.
«Copper»
«Annealing Copper.»—
Copper is almost universally annealed in muffles, in which it is
raised to the desired temperature, and subsequently allowed to cool
either in the air or in water. A muffle is nothing more or less than a
reverberatory furnace. It is necessary to watch the copper carefully,
so that when it has reached the right temperature it may be drawn from
the muffle and allowed to cool. This is important, for if the copper is
heated too high, or is left in the muffle at the ordinary temperature
of annealing too long, it is burnt, as the workmen say. Copper that has
been burnt is yellow, coarsely granular, and exceedingly brittle—even
more brittle at a red heat than when cold.
In the case of coarse wire it is found that only the surface is burnt,
while the interior is damaged less. This causes the exterior to split
loose from the interior when bent or rolled, thus giving the appearance
of a brittle copper tube with a copper wire snugly fitted into it.
Cracks a half inch in depth have been observed on the surface of an
ingot on its first pass through the rolls, all due to this exterior
burning. It is apparent that copper that has been thus overheated in
the muffle is entirely unfit for rolling. It is found that the purer
forms of copper are less liable to be harmed by overheating than
samples containing even a small amount of impurities. Even the ordinary
heating in a muffle will often suffice to burn in this manner the
surface of some specimens of copper, rendering them unfit for further
working. Copper that has been thus ruined is of use only to be refined
again.
As may be inferred only the highest grades of refined copper are used
for drawing or for rolling. This is not because the lower grades, when
refined, cannot stand sufficiently high tests, but because methods
of working are not adequate to prevent these grades of copper from
experiencing the deterioration due to overheating.
The process of refining copper consists in an oxidizing action followed
by a reducing action which, since it is performed by the aid of gases
generated by stirring the melted copper with a pole, is called poling.
The object of the oxidation is to oxidize and either volatilize or turn
to slag all the impurities contained in the copper. This procedure
is materially aided by the fact that the {220} suboxide of copper is
freely soluble in metallic copper and thus penetrates to all parts of
the copper, and parting with its oxygen, oxidizes the impurities. The
object of the reducing part of the refining process is to change the
excess of the suboxide of copper to metallic copper. Copper containing
even less than 1 per cent of the suboxide of copper shows decreased
malleability and ductility, and is both cold-short and red-short. If
the copper to be refined contains any impurities, such as arsenic
or antimony, it is well not to remove too much of the oxygen in the
refining process. If this is done, overpoled copper is produced. In
this condition it is brittle, granular, of a shining yellow color, and
more red-short than cold-short. When the refining has been properly
done, and neither too much nor too little oxygen is present, the copper
is in the condition of “tough pitch,” and is in a fit state to be
worked.
Copper is said to be “tough pitch” when it requires frequent bending
to break it, and when, after it is broken, the color is pale red, the
fracture has a silky luster, and is fibrous like a tuft of silk. On
hammering a piece to a thin plate it should show no cracks at the edge.
At tough pitch copper offers the highest degree of malleability and
ductility of which a given specimen is capable. This is the condition
in which refined copper is (or should be) placed on the market, and
if it could be worked without changing this tough pitch, any specimen
of copper that could be brought to this condition would be suitable
for rolling or drawing. But tough pitch is changed if oxygen is either
added or taken from refined copper.
By far the more important of these is the removal of oxygen, especially
from those specimens that contain more than a mere trace of impurities.
This is shown by the absolutely worthless condition of overpoled
copper. The addition of carbon also plays a very important part in the
production of overpoled copper.
That the addition of oxygen to refined copper is not so damaging
is shown by the fact that at present nearly all the copper that is
worked is considerably oxidized at some stage of the process, and not
especially to its detriment.
Burnt copper is nothing more or less than copper in the overpoled
condition. This is brought about by the action of reducing gases in
the muffle. By this means the small amount of oxygen necessary to give
the copper its tough pitch is removed. This oxygen is combined with
impurities in the copper, and thus renders them inert. For example,
the oxide of arsenic or antimony is incapable of combining more than
mechanically with the copper, but when its oxygen is removed the
arsenic or antimony is left free to combine with the copper. This
forms a brittle alloy, and one that corresponds almost exactly in
its properties with overpoled copper. To be sure overpoled copper is
supposed to contain carbon, but that this is not the essential ruling
principle in case of annealing is shown by the fact that pure copper
does not undergo this change under conditions that ruin impure copper,
and also by the fact that the same state may be produced by annealing
in pure hydrogen and thus removing the oxygen that renders the arsenic
or antimony inert. No attempt is made to deny the well-known fact that
carbon does combine with copper to the extent of 0.2 per cent and cause
it to become exceedingly brittle. It is simply claimed that this is
probably not what occurs in the production of so-called burnt copper
during annealing. The amount of impurities capable of rendering copper
easily burnt is exceedingly small. This may be better appreciated when
it is considered that from 0.01 to 0.2 per cent expresses the amount of
oxygen necessary to render the impurities inert. The removal of this
very small amount of oxygen, which is often so small as to be almost
within the limits of the errors of analysis, will suffice to render
copper overpoled and ruin it for any use.
There are methods of avoiding the numerous accidents that may occur in
the annealing of copper, due to a change of pitch. As already pointed
out, the quality of refined copper is lowered if oxygen be either added
to or taken from it. It is quite apparent, therefore, that a really
good method of annealing copper will prevent any change in the state
of oxidation. It is necessary to prevent access to the heated copper
both of atmospheric air, which would oxidize it, and of the reducing
gases used in heating the muffle, which would take oxygen away from it.
Obviously the only way of accomplishing this is to inclose the copper
when heated and till cool in an atmosphere that can neither oxidize
nor deoxidize copper. By so doing copper may be heated to the melting
point and allowed to cool again without suffering as regards its pitch.
There are comparatively few gases that can be used for this purpose,
but, fortunately, one which is exceedingly cheap and universally {221}
prevalent fulfills all requirements, viz., steam. In order to apply
the principles enunciated it is necessary only to anneal copper in the
ordinary annealing pots such as are used for iron, care being taken to
inclose the copper while heating and while cooling in an atmosphere
of steam. This will effectually exclude air and prevent the ingress
of gases used in heating the annealer. Twenty-four hours may be used
in the process, as in the annealing of iron wire, with no detriment
to the wire. This may seem incredible to those manufacturers who have
tried to anneal copper wire after the manner of annealing iron wire.
By this method perfectly bright annealed wire may be produced. Such a
process of annealing copper offers many advantages. It allows the use
of a grade of copper that has hitherto been worked only at a great
disadvantage, owing to its tendency to get out of pitch. It allows the
use of annealers such as are ordinarily employed for annealing iron,
and thus cheapens the annealing considerably as compared with the
present use of muffles. There is no chance of producing the overpoled
condition from the action of reducing gases used in heating the
muffles. There is no chance of producing the underpoled condition due
to the absorption of suboxide of copper. None of the metal is lost as
scale, and the saving that is thus effected amounts to a considerable
percentage of the total value of the copper. The expense and time
of cleaning are wholly saved. Incidentally bright annealed copper is
produced by a process which is applicable to copper of any shape,
size, or condition—a product that has hitherto been obtained only by
processes (mostly secret) which are too cumbersome and too expensive
for extensive use; and, as is the case with at least one process, with
the danger of producing the overpoled condition, often in only a small
section of the wire, but thus ruining the whole piece.
«COPPER COLORING:»
«Blacking Copper.»—To give a copper article a black covering, clean it
with emery paper, heat gently in a Bunsen or a spirit flame, immerse
for 10 seconds in solution of copper filings in dilute nitric acid, and
heat again.
«Red Coloring of Copper.»—A fine red color may be given to copper
by gradually heating it in an air bath. Prolonged heating at a
comparatively low temperature, or rapid heating at a high temperature,
produces the same result. As soon as the desired color is attained the
metal should be rapidly cooled by quenching in water. The metal thus
colored may be varnished.