valves, {122} etc. That it is injurious, in reasonable excess, to the
boiler tubes themselves is yet to be proved. Foaming and priming may be
caused through excess of caustic soda or soda ash, as is well known by
every practical engineer. Tannic acid is to be condemned and the use
of its salts is not to be recommended. It may unite with the organic
matter, present in the form of albuminoids, and with calcium and
magnesium carbonates. That it removes scale is an assured fact; that it
removes iron with the scale is also assured, as tannic acid corrodes an
iron surface rapidly.
Compounds of vegetable origin are widely advertised, but they often
contain dextrine and gum, both of which are dangerous, as they coat
the tubes with a compact scale, not permitting the water to reach the
iron. Molasses is acid and should not be used in the boiler. Starch
substances generally should be avoided. Kerosene must be dangerous, as
it is very volatile and must soon leave the boiler and pass over and
through the engine.
There are two materials the use of which in boilers is not prohibited
through action upon the metal itself or on account of price. These are
soda ash and caustic soda. Sodium triphosphate and sodium fluoride
have both been used with success, but their cost is several hundred per
cent greater than soda ash. If prescribed as per analysis, in slight
excess, there should be no injurious results through the use of caustic
soda and soda ash. It would be practicable to manufacture an intimate
mixture of caustic soda and carbonate of soda, containing enough of
each to soften the average water of a given district.
There is a great deal of fraud in connection with boiler compounds
generally. The better class of venders advertise to prepare a special
compound for special water. This is expensive, save on a large scale,
in reference to a particular water, for it would mean a score or more
of tanks with men to make up the mixtures. The less honest of the
boiler-compound guild consign each sample of water to the sewer and
send the regular goods. Others have a stock analysis which is sent
to customers of a given locality, whether it contains iron, lime, or
magnesium sulphates or carbonates.
Any expense for softening water in excess of 3 cents per 1,000
gallons is for the privilege of using a ready-made softener. Every
superintendent in charge of a plant should insist that the compound
used be pronounced by competent authority free from injurious
materials, and that it be adapted to the water in use.
Boiler compounds should contain only such ingredients as will
neutralize the scale-forming salts present. They should be used only
by prescription, so many gallons per 1,000 gallons of feed water. A
properly proportioned mixture of soda ought to answer the demands of
all plants depending upon that method of softening water in limestone
and shale regions.
The honest boiler compounds are, however, useful for small isolated
plants, because of the simplicity of their action. For plants of from
75 to 150 horse power two 24-hour settling tanks will answer the
purpose of a softening system. Each of these, capable of holding a
day’s supply, provided with a soda tank in common, and with sludge
valves, has paddles for stirring the contents. Large plants are
operated on this principle, serving boilers of many thousand horse
power. Such a system has an advantage over a continuous system, in
that the exact amount of chemical solutions required for softening the
particular water can be applied. For some variations of such a system,
several companies have secured patents. The fundamental principles,
however, have been used for many years and are not patentable.
«Prevention of Boiler Scale.»—The lime contained in the feed water,
either as bicarbonate or as sulphate, is precipitated in the shape
of a light mud, but the walls of the boiler remain perfectly bright
without being attacked in any manner. While under ordinary atmospheric
pressure calcium chromate in solution is precipitated by soda or
Glauber’s salt as calcium carbonate or as calcium sulphate; the latter
is separated under higher pressure by chromates as calcium chromate. An
excess of chromates or chromic acid does not exercise any deleterious
action upon the metal, nor upon the materials used for packing. By the
slight admixture of chromates, two pounds are sufficient for a small
boiler for weeks; no injurious ingredients are carried in by the wet
steam, the injection water, on the contrary, having been found to be
chemically pure.
«Protecting Boiler Plates from Scale.»—
I.—For a 5-horse-power boiler, fed with water which contains calcic
sulphate, take catechu, 2 pounds; dextrine, 1 pound; crystallized soda,
2 pounds; potash, 1/2 pound; cane sugar, 1/2 pound; alum, 1/2
pound; gum arabic, 1/2 pound. {123}
II.—For a boiler of the same size, fed with water which contains lime:
Turmeric, 2 pounds; dextrine, 1 pound; sodium bicarbonate, 2 pounds;
potash, 1/2 pound; alum, 1/2 pound; molasses, 1/2 pound.
III.—For a boiler of the same size, fed with water which contains iron:
Gamboge, 2 pounds; soda, 2 pounds; dextrine, 1 pound; potash, 1/2
pound; sugar, 1/2 pound; alum, 1/2 pound; gum arabic, 1/2 pound.
IV.—For a boiler of the same size, fed with sea water: Catechu, 2
pounds; Glauber’s salt, 2 pounds; dextrine, 2 pounds; alum, 1/2
pound; gum arabic, 1/2 pound.
When these preparations are used add 1 quart of water, and in ordinary
cases charge the boiler every month; but if the incrustation is very
bad, charge every two weeks.
V.—Place within the boiler of 100 horse power 1 bucketful of washing
soda; put in 2 gallons of kerosene oil (after closing the blow-off
cock), and fill the boiler with water. Feed in at least 1 quart of
kerosene oil every day through a sight-feed oil cup attached to the
feed pipe near the boiler—i. e., between the heater and the boiler—so
that the oil is not entrapped within the heater. If it is inconvenient
to open the boiler, then dissolve the washing soda in hot water and
feed it in with the pump or through a tallow cock (attached between the
ejector and the valve in the suction pipe) when the ejector is working.
VI.—A paint for protecting boiler plates from scale, and patented
in Germany, is composed of 10 pounds each of train oil, horse fat,
paraffine, and of finely ground zinc white. To this mixture is added
40 pounds of graphite and 10 pounds of soot made together into a paste
with 1 1/2 gallons of water, and about a pound of carbolic acid.
The horse fat and the zinc oxide make a soap difficult to fuse, which
adheres strongly to the plates, and binds the graphite and the soot.
The paraffine prevents the water from penetrating the coats. The scale
which forms on this application can be detached, it is said, with a
wooden mallet, without injuring the paint.
VII.—M. E. Asselin, of Paris, recommends the use of glycerine as a
preventive. It increases the solubility of combinations of lime, and
especially of the sulphate. It forms with these combinations soluble
compounds. When the quantity of lime becomes so great that it can no
longer be dissolved, nor form soluble combinations, it is deposited
in a gelatinous substance, which never adheres to the surface of the
iron plates. The gelatinous substances thus formed are not carried
with the steam into the cylinder of the engine. M. Asselin advises the
employment of 1 pound of glycerine for every 300 pounds or 400 pounds
of coal burnt.
«Prevention of Electrolysis.»—In order to prevent the eating away of
the sheets and tubes by electrolytic action, it has long been the
practice of marine engineers to suspend slabs of zinc in their boilers.
The zinc, being more susceptible to the electrolytic action than the
iron, is eaten away, while the iron remains unimpaired. The use of
zinc in this way has been found also to reduce the trouble from boiler
scale. Whether it be due to the formation of hydrogen bubbles between
the heating surfaces and incipient scale, to the presence in the water
of the zinc salts resulting from the dissolution of the zinc, or to
whatever cause, it appears to be a general conclusion among those who
have used it that the zinc helps the scale, as well as the corrosion.
Nobody has ever claimed for it that it prevented the attachment of
scale altogether, but the consensus of opinion is that it “helps some.”
«BOILER PRESSURE.»
It hardly pays to reduce pressure on boilers, except in very extreme
cases, but if it can be done by throttling before the steam reaches
the cylinder of the engine it would be an advantage, because this
retains the heat units due to the higher pressure in the steam, and
the throttling has a slight superheating effect. As a matter of fact,
tests go to show that for light loads and high pressure a throttling
engine may do better than an automatic cut-off. The ideal arrangement
is to throttle the steam for light loads; for heavier loads, allow the
variable cut-off to come into play. This practice has been carried into
effect by the design of Mr. E. J. Armstrong, in which he arranges the
shaft governor so that there is negative lead up to nearly one-quarter
cut-off, after which the lead becomes positive, and this has the effect
of throttling the steam for the earlier loads and undoubtedly gives
better economy, in addition to making the engine run more quietly.
«BONE BLACK:»
«Bone or Ivory Black.»—All bones (and ivory is bone in a sense) consist
of a framework of crystallized matter or bone earth, in the interstices
of which organic matter is embedded. Hence if {124} bones are heated
red-hot in a closed vessel, the organic matter is destroyed, leaving
carbon, in a finely divided state, lodged in the bony framework. If
the heat is applied gradually the bone retains its shape, but is quite
black and of much less weight than at first. This bone black or animal
charcoal is a substance which has great power of absorbing coloring
matter from liquids, so that it is largely used for bleaching such
liquids. For example, in the vast industry of beet-sugar manufacture
the solutions first made are very dark in color, but after filtration
through animal charcoal will give colorless crystals on evaporation.
Chemical trades require such large quantities of bone charcoal that its
production is a large industry in itself. As in breaking up the charred
bones a considerable amount of waste is produced, in the form of dust
and small grains which cannot be used for bleaching purposes, this
waste should be worked up into a pigment. This is done by dissolving
out the mineral with hydrochloric acid, and then rinsing and drying the
carbon.
The mineral basis of bones consists mainly of the phosphates of lime
and magnesia, salts soluble in not too dilute hydrochloric acid. A vat
is half filled with the above-mentioned waste, which is then just
covered with a mixture of equal volumes of commercial hydrochloric acid
and water. As the mineral matter also contains carbonates, a lively
effervescence at once ensues, and small quantities of hydrofluoric
acid are also formed from the decomposition of calcium fluoride in the
bones. Now hydrofluoric acid is a very dangerous substance, as air
containing even traces of it is very injurious to the lungs. Hence
the addition of hydrochloric acid should be done in the open air, and
the vat should be left by itself until the evolution of fumes ceases.
A plug is then pulled out at the bottom and the carbon is thoroughly
drained. It is then stirred up with water and again drained, when
it has fully settled to the bottom. This rinsing with clear water
is repeated till all the hydrochloric acid is washed away and only
pure carbon remains in the vat. As for pigment-making purposes it is
essential that the carbon should be as finely divided as possible, it
is as well to grind the washed carbon in an ordinary color mill. Very
little power is required for this purpose, as when once the bone earth
is removed the carbon particles have little cohesion. The properly
ground mass forms a deep-black mud, which can be left to dry or be
dried by artificial heat. When dry, the purified bone black is of a
pure black and makes a most excellent pigment.
Bone black is put upon the market under all sorts of names, such as
ivory black, _ebur ustum_, Frankfort black, neutral black, etc. All
these consist of finely ground bone black purified from mineral matter.
If leather scraps or dried blood are to be worked up, iron tubes are
employed, closed at one end, and with a well-fitting lid with a small
hole in it at the other. As these bodies give off large volumes of
combustible gas during the charring, it is a good plan to lead the
vapors from the hole by a bent tube so that they can be burnt and help
to supply the heat required and so save fuel. Leather or blood gives
a charcoal which hardly requires treatment with hydrochloric acid,
for the amount of mineral salts present is so small that its removal
appears superfluous.
«BONES, A TEST FOR BROKEN.»
Place a stethoscope on one side of the supposed fracture, and a
tuning fork on the other. When the latter is vibrated, and there is
no breakage, the sound will be heard distinctly through bone and
stethoscope. Should any doubt exist, comparison should be made with
the same bone on the other side of the body. This test shows the
difference in the power of conducting sound possessed by bone and soft
tissue.
BONE BLEACHES: See Ivory.
BONE FAT: See Fats.
BONE FAT, PURIFICATION AND BLEACHING OF: See Soap.
BONE POLISHES: See Polishes.
BONE FERTILIZERS: See Fertilizers.
BONES, TREATMENT OF, IN MANUFACTURING GLUE: See Adhesives.
BONE, UNITING GLASS WITH: See Adhesives.
«BOOKS, THEIR HANDLING AND PRESERVATION:»
«The Preservation of Books in Hot Climates.»—Books in hot climates
quickly deteriorate unless carefully guarded. There are three
destructive agencies: (1) damp, (2) a small black insect, (3)
cockroaches. {125}
(1) Books which are kept in a damp atmosphere deteriorate on account of
molds and fungi that grow rapidly when the conditions are favorable.
Books are best kept on open, airy, well-lighted shelves. When there has
been a prolonged spell of moist weather their covers should be wiped,
and they should be placed in the sun or before a fire for a few hours.
Damp also causes the bindings and leaves of some books to separate.
(2) A small black insect, one-eighth of an inch long and a sixteenth
of an inch broad, somewhat resembling a beetle, is very destructive,
and books will be found, if left untouched, after a few months to have
numerous holes in the covers and leaves. If this insect be allowed
plenty of time for its ravages it will make so many holes that bindings
originally strong can be easily torn to pieces. All damage may be
prevented by coating the covers of books with the varnish described
under (3). When books are found to contain the insects they should be
well wrapped and placed in the sun before varnishing.
(3) The appearance of a fine binding may be destroyed in a single night
by cockroaches. The lettering of the binding may, in two or three
days, be completely obliterated.
The following varnishes have been found to prevent effectually the
ravages of cockroaches and of all insects that feed upon books:
I.—Dammar resin 2 ounces
Mastic 2 ounces
Canada balsam 1 ounce
Creosote 1/2 ounce
Spirit of wine 20 fl. ounces
Macerate with occasional shaking for a few days if wanted at once, but
for a longer time when possible, as a better varnish will result after
a maceration of several months.
II.—Corrosive sublimate, 1 ounce; carbolic acid, 1 ounce; methylated or
rum spirit, 1 quart.
Where it is necessary to keep books or paper of any description in
boxes, cupboards, or closed bookcases, some naphthalene balls or
camphor should be always present with them. If camphor be used it is
best to wrap it in paper, otherwise it volatilizes more quickly than is
necessary. In dry weather the doors of closed bookcases should be left
open occasionally, as a damp, still atmosphere is most favorable for
deterioration.
«How to Open a Book.»—Never force the back of the book. Hold the book
with its back on a smooth or covered table; let the front board down,
then the other, holding the leaves in one hand while you open a few
leaves at the back, then a few at the front, and so on, alternately
opening back and front, gently pressing open the sections till you
reach the center of the volume. Do this two or three times and you will
obtain the best results. Open the volume violently or carelessly in any
one place and you will probably break the back or cause a start in the
leaves.
BOOK DISINFECTANT: See Disinfectants.
BOOKS, TO REMOVE FINGER-MARKS FROM: See Cleaning Preparations and
Methods.
BOOKBINDERS’ VARNISH: See Varnishes.
BOOKWORMS: See Insecticides.
BOOT DRESSINGS: See Shoe Dressings.
BOOT LUBRICANT: See Lubricant.
BOOTS, WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.
«BORAX FOR SPRINKLING.»
I.—Sprinkling borax is not only cheaper, but also dissolves less in
soldering than pure borax.
The borax is heated in a metal vessel until it has lost its water of
crystallization and mixed with calcined cooking salt and potash—borax,
8 parts; cooking salt, 3 parts; potash, 3 parts. Next it is pounded in
a mortar into a fine powder, constituting the sprinkling borax.
II.—Another kind of sprinkling borax is prepared by substituting
glass-gall for the potash. Glass-gall is the froth floating on the
melted glass, which can be skimmed off.
The borax is either dusted on in powder form from a sprinkling box or
stirred with water before use into a thin paste.
BORAX AND BORIC ACID IN FOOD: See Food.
BORDEAUX MIXTURE: See Insecticides.
BOROTONIC: See Dentifrices. {126}
BOTTLE-CAP LACQUER: See Lacquer.
BOTTLE CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods, under
Miscellaneous Methods.
BOTTLE STOPPERS: See Stoppers.
BOTTLE VARNISH: See Varnishes.
BOTTLE WAX: See Photography.
BOUILLON: See Beverages.
BOURBON METALS: See Alloys.
BOWLS OF FIRE TRICK: See Pyrotechnics.
BOX GLUE: See Adhesives.
BRAGA: See Beverages.
«BRAN, SAWDUST IN.»
For the detection of sawdust in bran use a solution of 1 part of
phloroglucin in 15 parts of alcohol, 15 parts of water, and 10 parts
of syrupy phosphoric acid. Place 2 parts of the solution in a small
porcelain dish, add a knifepointful of the bran and heat moderately.
Sawdust is dyed red while bran parts only seldom acquire a faint red
color. By a microscopic examination of the reddish parts, sawdust will
be readily recognized.
«Bottles»
«Magic Bottles.»—
The mystery of the “wonderful bottle,” from which can be poured in
succession port wine, sherry, claret, water, champagne, or ink, at the
will of the operator, is easily explained. The materials consist of an
ordinary dark-colored pint wine bottle, seven wine glasses of different
patterns, and the chemicals described below:
Solution A: A mixture of tincture of ferric chloride, drachms vi;
hydrochloric acid, drachms ii.
Solution B: Saturated solution of ammonium sulphocyanide, drachm i.
Solution C: Strong solution of ferric chloride, drachm i.
Solution D: A weak solution of ammonium sulphocyanide.
Solution E: Concentrated solution of lead acetate.
Solution F: Solution of ammonium sulphide, drachm i; or pyrogallic
acid, drachm i.
Package G: Pulverized potassium bicarbonate, drachm iss.
Having poured two teaspoonfuls of solution A into the wine bottle,
treat the wine glasses with the different solutions, noting and
remembering into which glasses the several solutions are placed. Into
No. 1 wine glass pour one or two drops of solution B; into No. 2 glass
pour one or two drops of solution C; into No. 3 one or two drops of
Solution D; leave No. 4 glass empty; into No. 5 glass pour a few drops
of Solution E; into No. 6 glass place a few grains of Package G; into
No. 7 glass pour a little of solution F.
Request some one to bring you some cold drinking water, and to
guarantee that it is pure show that your wine bottle is (practically)
empty. Fill it up from the carafe, and having asked the audience
whether you shall produce wine or water, milk or ink, etc., you may
obtain any of these by pouring a little of the water from the bottle
into the prepared glass. Thus No. 1 glass gives a port-wine color; No.
2 gives a sherry color; No. 3 gives a claret color; No. 4 is left
empty to prove that the solution in the bottle is colorless; No. 5
produces milk; No. 6, effervescing champagne; No. 7, ink.
«Bottle-Capping Mixtures.»—
I.—Soak 7 pounds of good gelatin in 10 ounces of glycerine and 60
ounces of water, and heat over a water bath until dissolved, and add
any desired color. Pigments may be used, and various tints can be
obtained by the use of aniline colors. The resulting compound should be
stored in jars. To apply liquefy the mass and dip the cork and portion
of the neck of the bottle into the liquid; it sets very quickly.
II.—Gelatin 1 ounce
Gum arabic 1 ounce
Boric acid 20 grains
Starch 1 ounce
Water 16 fluidounces
Mix the gelatin, gum arabic, and boric acid with 14 fluidounces of cold
water, stir occasionally until the gum is dissolved, heat the mixture
to boiling, remove the scum, and strain. Also mix the starch intimately
with the remainder of the water, and stir this mixture into the hot
gelatin mixture until a uniform product results. As noted above, the
composition may be tinted with any suitable dye. Before using, it must
be softened by the application of heat. {127}
III.—Shellac 3 ounces
Venice turpentine 1 1/2 ounces
Boric acid 72 grains
Powdered talcum 3 ounces
Ether 6 fluidrams
Alcohol 12 1/2 fluidounces
Dissolve the shellac, turpentine, and boric acid in the mixed alcohol
and ether, color with a spirit-soluble dye, and add the talcum. During
use the mixture must be agitated frequently.
«Show Bottles.»—
I.—Place in a cylindrical bottle the following liquids in the order
named:
First, sulphuric acid, tinted blue with indigo; second, chloroform;
third, glycerine, slightly tinted with caramel; fourth, castor oil,
colored with alkanet root; fifth, 40-per-cent alcohol, slightly tinted
with aniline green; sixth, cod-liver oil, containing 1 per cent of oil
of turpentine. The liquids are held in place by force of gravity, and
alternate with fluids which are not miscible, so that the strata of
layers are clearly defined and do not mingle by diffusion.
II.—Chromic acid 1 drachm
Commercial “muriatic” acid 2 ounces
Nitric acid 2 ounces
Water, enough to make 3 gallons
The color is magenta.
The following makes a fine pink for show carboys:
III.—Cobalt oxide 2 parts
Nitric acid, c. p. 1 part
Hydrochloric acid 1 part
Mix and dissolve, and to the solution add:
Strongest water of ammonia 6 parts
Sulphuric acid 1 part
Water, distilled, q. s. to make 400 parts
This should be left standing in a dark, cool place for at least a month
before putting in the window.
IV.—Green.—Copper sulphate, 300 parts, by weight; hydrochloric acid,
450 parts, by weight; distilled water, to 4,500 parts, by weight.
V.—Blue.—Copper sulphate, 480 parts, by weight; sulphuric acid, 60
parts, by weight; distilled water, to 450 parts, by weight.
VI.—Yellowish Brown.—Potassium dichromate, 120 parts, by weight; nitric
acid, 150 parts, by weight; distilled water, to 4,500 parts, by weight.
VII.—Yellow.—Potassium dichromate, 30 parts, by weight; sodium
bicarbonate, 225 parts, by weight; distilled water, to 4,500 parts, by
weight.
VIII.—Red.—Liquid ferric chloride, officinal, 60 parts, by weight;
concentrated ammonium-acetate solution, 120 parts, by weight; acetic
acid, 30 per cent, 30 parts, by weight; distilled water, to 9,000
parts, by weight.
IX.—Crimson.—Potassium iodide, 7.5 parts, by weight; iodine, 7.5 parts,
by weight; hydrochloric acid, 60 parts, by weight; distilled water, to
4,500 parts, by weight.
All the solutions IV to IX should be filtered. If distilled water be
used these solutions should keep for five to ten years. In order to
prevent them from freezing, either add 10 per cent of alcohol, or
reduce the quantity of water by 10 per cent.