wood, and other materials is prepared by making a bowl of starch
paste in the usual way, and then adding 1 ounce of Venice turpentine
per pound of paste, and {42} boiling and stirring the mixture until
the thick turpentine has become well incorporated. Venice turpentine
stirred into flour paste and boiled will also be found a very
adhesive cement for fastening cardboard, strawboard, leatherette, and
skiver leather to wood or metal; but owing to the resinous nature
of the Venice turpentine, such pastes are not suitable for mounting
photographic prints. The following half-dozen compounds are suitable
mountants to use with silver prints:
Alcohol, absolute 10 ounces
Gelatine, good 1 ounce
Glycerine 1/2 to 1 ounce
Soak the gelatine in water for an hour or two until it is completely
softened; take the gelatine out of the water, and allow it to drain,
and put it into a bottle and pour alcohol over it; add the glycerine
(if the gelatine is soft, use only 1/2 ounce; if the gelatine is
hard, use 1 ounce of the glycerine), then melt the gelatine by standing
the bottle in a vessel of hot water, and shake up very well. For use,
remelt by heat. The alcohol prevents the prints from stretching or
cockling, as they are apt to, under the influence of the gelatine.
In the following compound, however, only sufficient alcohol is used to
serve as an antiseptic, and prevent the agglutinant from decomposing:
Dissolve 4 ounces of photographic gelatine in 16 ounces of water (first
soaking the gelatine therein for an hour or two until it is completely
softened), then remove the gelatine from the water, allow it to drain,
and put it into the bottle, and pour the alcohol over it, and put in
the glycerine (if the gelatine is soft, use only 1/2 ounce; if the
gelatine is hard, use 1 ounce of the glycerine), then melt the gelatine
by standing the bottle in a vessel of hot water, and shake up well and
mix thoroughly. For use, remelt by heat. The alcohol prevents the print
from stretching or cockling up under the influence of the gelatine.
The following paste agglutinant is one that is very permanent and
useful for all purposes required in a photographic studio: Take 5 pints
of water, 10 ounces of arrowroot, 1 ounce of gelatine, and a 1/2 pint
(10 fluidounces) of alcohol, and proceed to combine them as follows:
Make arrowroot into a thick cream with a little of the water, and in
the remainder of the water soak the gelatine for a few hours, after
which melt the gelatine in the water by heating it, add the arrowroot
paste, and bring the mixture to the boil and allow to boil for 4 or 5
minutes, then allow to cool, and mix in the alcohol, adding a few drops
of oil of cloves.
Perhaps one of the most useful compounds for photographic purposes is
that prepared as follows: Soak 4 ounces of hard gelatine in 15 ounces
of water for a few hours, then melt the gelatine by heating it in a
glue pot until the solution is quite clear and free from lumps, stir in
65 fluidounces of cold water so that it is free from lumps, and pour in
the boiling-hot solution of gelatine and continue stirring, and if the
starch is not completely cooked, boil up the mixture for a few minutes
until it “blows,” being careful to keep it well stirred so as not to
burn; when cold add a few drops of carbolic acid or some essential oil
as an antiseptic to prevent the compound from decomposing or becoming
sour.
A useful photographic mucilage, which is very liquid, is obtained
by mixing equal bulks of gum-arabic and gum-dragon mucilages of the
same consistence. The mixture of these mucilages will be considerably
thinner than either of them when alone.
As an agglutinant for general use in the studio, the following is
recommended: Dissolve 2 ounces of gum arabic in 5 ounces of water,
and for every 250 parts of the mucilage add 20 parts of a solution of
sulphate of aluminum, prepared by dissolving 1 part of the sulphate
in 20 parts of water (common alum should not be used, only the pure
aluminum sulphate, because common alum is a mixture of sulphates, and
usually contaminated with iron salts). The addition of the sulphate
solution to the gum mucilage renders the latter less hygroscopic, and
practically waterproof, besides being very adhesive to any materials,
particularly those exhibiting a smooth surface.
«MUCILAGES:»
«For Affixing Labels to Glass and Other Objects.»—I.—The mucilage is
made by simply pouring over the gum enough water to a little more
than cover it, and then, as the gum swells, adding more water from
time to time in small portions, until the mucilage is brought to such
consistency that it may be easily spread with the brush. The mucilage
keeps fairly well without the addition of any antiseptic.
II.—Tragacanth 1 ounce
Acacia 4 ounces
Thymol 14 grains
Glycerine 4 ounces
Water, sufficient to make 2 pints
{43}
Dissolve the gums in 1 pint of water, strain and add the glycerine, in
which the thymol is suspended; shake well and add sufficient water to
make 2 pints. This separates on standing, but a single shake mixes it
sufficiently for use.
III.—Rye flour 8 ounces
Powdered acacia 1 ounce
Glycerine 2 ounces
Oil of cloves 40 drops
Water, a sufficient quantity.
Rub the rye flour and the acacia to a smooth paste with 8 ounces of
cold water; strain through cheese cloth, and pour into 1 pint of
boiling water and continue the heat until as thick as desired. When
nearly cold add the glycerine and oil of cloves.
IV.—One part, by weight, of tragacanth, when mixed with 95-per-cent
alcohol to form 4 fluidounces, forms a liquid in which a portion of
the tragacanth is dissolved and the remainder suspended; this remains
permanently fluid, never deteriorates, and can be used in place of the
present mucilage; 4 to 8 minims to each ounce of mixture is sufficient
to suspend any of the insoluble substances usually given in mixtures.
V.—To 250 parts of gum-arabic mucilage add 20 parts of water and 2
parts of sulphate of alumina and heat until dissolved.
VI.—Dissolve 1/2 pound gum tragacanth, powdered, 1/4 pound gum
arabic, powdered, cold water to the desired consistency, and add 40
drops carbolic acid.
«Mucilage of Acacia.»—Put the gum, which should be of the best kind,
in a flask the size of which should be large enough to contain the
mucilage with about one-fifth of its space to spare (i. e., the product
should fill it about four-fifths full). Now tare, and wash the gum with
distilled water, letting the latter drain away as much as possible
before proceeding further. Add the requisite quantity of distilled
water slowly, which, however, should first have added to it about 10
per cent of limewater. Now cork the flask, and lay it, without shaking,
horizontally in a cool place and let it remain quietly for about 3
hours, then give it a half turn to the right without disturbing its
horizontal position. Repeat this operation three or four times during
the day, and keep it up until the gum is completely dissolved (which
will not be until the fourth day probably), then strain through a thin
cloth previously wet with distilled water, avoiding, in so doing, the
formation of foam or bubbles. This precaution should also be observed
in decantation of the percolate into smaller bottles provided with
paraffine corks. The small amount of limewater, as will be understood,
is added to the solvent water in order to prevent the action of free
acid.
«Commercial Mucilage.»—Dissolve 1/2 pound white glue in equal parts
water and strong vinegar, and add 1/4 as much alcohol and 1/2 ounce
alum dissolved in a little water. To proceed, first get good glue and
soak in cold water until it swells and softens. Use pale vinegar. Pour
off the cold water, then melt the glue to a thick paste in hot water,
and add the vinegar hot. When a little cool add the alcohol and alum
water.
«To Render Gum Arabic More Adhesive.»—I.—Add crystallized aluminum
sulphate in the proportion of 2 dissolved in 20 parts of water to 250
parts of concentrated gum solution (75 parts of gum in 175 parts of
water).
II.—Add to 250 parts of concentrated gum solution (2 parts of gum in 5
parts of water) 2 parts of crystallized aluminum sulphate dissolved in
20 parts of water. This mixture glues even unsized paper, pasteboard
on pasteboard, wood on wood, glass, porcelain, and other substances on
which labels frequently do not adhere well.
«Envelope Gum.»—The gum used by the United States Government on postage
stamps is probably one of the best that could be used not only for
envelopes but for labels as well. It will stick to almost any surface.
Its composition is said to be the following:
Gum arabic 1 part
Starch 1 part
Sugar 4 parts
Water, sufficient to give the desired consistency.
The gum arabic is first dissolved in some water, the sugar added, then
the starch, after which the mixture is boiled for a few minutes in
order to dissolve the starch, after which it is thinned down to the
desired consistency.
Cheaper envelope gums can be made by substituting dextrine for the gum
arabic, glucose for the sugar, and adding boric acid to preserve and
help stiffen it.
«Mucilage to Make Wood and Pasteboard Adhere to Metals.»—Dissolve 50
parts, by weight, of lead acetate together with 5 parts, by weight,
of alum in a little water. Make a separate solution of 75 parts, by
weight, of gum arabic in 2,000 parts, by weight, of water, stir in
this 500 {44} parts, by weight, of flour, and heat slowly to boiling,
stirring the while. Let it cool somewhat, and mix with it the solution
containing the lead acetate and alum, stirring them well together.
«Preservation of Gum Solution.»—Put a small piece of camphor in the
mucilage bottle. Camphor vapors are generated which kill all the
bacterial germs that have entered the bottle. The gum maintains its
adhesiveness to the last drop.
ADULTERANTS IN FOODS: See Foods.
ADUROL DEVELOPER: See Photography.
ÆSCO-QUININE: See Horse Chestnut.
AGAR AGAR PASTE: See Adhesives.
«AGATE, BUTTONS OF ARTIFICIAL.»
Prepare a mixture or frit of 33 parts of quartz sand, 65 parts calcium
phosphate, and 2 parts of potash. The frit, which has been reduced by
heat to the fusing point, is finely ground, intimately mingled with a
small quantity of kaolin and pressed in molds which yield button-shaped
masses. These masses, after having been fired, are given a transparent
glaze by any of the well-known processes.
AGATE (IMITATION): See Gems, Artificial.
AGING OF SILK: See Silk.
AGING, SILVER AND GOLD: See Plating.
«AIR BATH.»
This air bath is employed in cases in which, upon drying or heating
substances, acid vapors arise because the walls of the bath are not
attacked by them. For the production of the drying apparatus take a
flask with the bottom burst off or a bell jar tubulated above. This
is placed either upon a sand bath or upon asbestos paper, previously
laid upon a piece of sheet iron. The sand bath or the sheet iron is
put on a tripod, so that it can be heated by means of a burner placed
underneath. The substance to be dried is placed in a glass or porcelain
dish, which is put under the bell jar, and if desired the drying dish
may be hung on the tripod. For regulating the temperature the tubulure
of the jar is closed with a pierced cork, through whose aperture the
thermometer is thrust. In order to permit the vapors to escape, the
cork is grooved lengthwise along the periphery.
AIR BUBBLES IN GELATINE: See Gelatine.
AIR, EXCLUSION OF, FROM SOLUTIONS: See Photography.
«AIR-PURIFYING.»
«Ozonatine» is a fragrant air-purifying preparation consisting of
dextrogyrate turpentine oil scented with slight quantities of fragrant
oils.
ALABASTER CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.
ALBATA METAL: See Alloys.
«ALBUMEN IN URINE, DETECTION OF.»
Patein (_Pharm. Zeit._) recommends the following test for albumen in
urine: Dissolve 250 grams of citric acid in a sufficient quantity of
water, add enough ammonia to neutralize, then 50 grams of alcohol,
and finally enough water to make 1 liter. To the acid (or acidulated)
urine, one-tenth its volume of the ammonium-citrate solution made
as above is added, and the whole heated in the usual manner. The
appearance of the faintest turbidity is said to indicate with positive
certainty the presence of albumen.
ALBUMEN PAPER: See Photography.
ALBUMEN PASTE: See Adhesives.
«Alcohol»
After the manuscript of this book was ready for the press, Congress
passed the bill which has since become a law, whereby the prohibitive
tax on industrial or denatured alcohol is removed. So important is this
legislative measure that the Editor has deemed it wise to insert an
article on the sources of alcohol and the manufacture of alcohol from
farm products. Because the first portion of the book was in type when
this step was decided upon, the Editor was compelled to relegate to a
later page a monograph which should properly have appeared here. The
reader will find the matter on alcohol referred to under the heading
{45} “Spirit”; likewise methods of denaturing and a list of denaturants.
ALCOHOL, DILUTION OF: See Tables.
«Alcohol, Tests for Absolute.»—The committee for the compilation of the
German Arzneibuch established the following tests for the determination
of absolute alcohol:
Absolute alcohol is a clear, colorless, volatile, readily imflammable
liquid which burns with a faintly luminous flame. Absolute alcohol has
a peculiar odor, a burning taste, and does not affect litmus paper.
Boiling point, 78.50. Specific gravity, 0.795 to 0.797. One hundred
parts contain 99.7 to 99.4 parts, by volume, or 99.6 to 99.0 parts, by
weight, of alcohol.
Absolute alcohol should have no foreign smell and should mix with water
without cloudiness.
After the admixture of 5 drops of silver-nitrate solution, 10 cubic
centimeters of absolute alcohol should not become turbid or colored
even on heating.
A mixture of 10 cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol and 0.2 cubic
centimeter of potash lye evaporated down to 1 cubic centimeter should
not exhibit an odor of fusel oil after supersaturation with dilute
sulphuric acid.
Five cubic centimeters of sulphuric acid, carefully covered, in a
test tube, with a stratum of 5 cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol,
should not form a rose-colored zone at the surface of contact, even on
standing for some time.
The red color of a mixture of 10 cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol
and 1 cubic centimeter of potassium-permanganate solution should not
pass into yellow before 20 minutes.
Absolute alcohol should not be dyed by hydrogen sulphide water or by
aqueous ammonia.
Five cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol should not leave behind a
weighable residue after evaporation on water bath.
«Absolute Alcohol.»—If gelatine be suspended in ordinary alcohol
it will absorb the water, but as it is insoluble in alcohol, that
substance will remain behind, and thus nearly absolute alcohol will be
obtained without distillation.
«Perfumed Denaturized Alcohol.»—
East India lemon oil 1,250 parts
Mirbane oil 1,000 parts
Cassia oil 50 parts
Clove oil 75 parts
Lemon oil 100 parts
Amyl acetate 500 parts
Spirit (95 per cent) 7,000 parts
Dissolve the oils in the spirit and add the amyl acetate. The mixture
serves for destroying the bad odor of denaturized spirit in distilling.
Use 50 parts of the perfume per 1,000 parts of spirit.
«Solid Alcohol.»—I.—Heat 1,000 parts of denaturized alcohol (90 per
cent) in a flask of double the capacity on the water bath to about
140° F., and then mix with 28 to 30 parts of well-dried, rasped
Venetian soap and 2 parts of gum lac. After repeated shaking, complete
dissolution will take place. The solution is put, while still warm,
into metallic vessels, closing them up at once and allowing the mixture
to cool therein. The admixture of gum lac effects a better preservation
and also prevents the evaporation of the alcohol. On lighting the solid
spirit the soap remains behind.
II.—Smaragdine is a trade name for solidified alcohol. It consists of
alcohol and gun cotton, colored with malachite green. It appears in the
market in the form of small cubes.
«Alcohol in Fermented Beers.»—Experience has shown that 1/4 pound of
sugar to 1 gallon of water yields about 2 per cent of proof spirit,
or about 1 per cent of absolute alcohol. Beyond this amount it is not
safe to go, if the legal limit is to be observed, yet a ginger beer
brewed with 1/4 pound per gallon of sugar would be a very wishy-washy
compound, and there is little doubt that a much larger quantity is
generally used. The more sugar that is used—up to 1 1/2 or 1 1/4
pounds per gallon—the better the drink will be and the more customers
will relish it; but it will be as “strong” as lager and contain perhaps
5 per cent of alcohol, which will make it anything but a “temperance”
drink. Any maker who is using as much as even 1/2 pound of sugar per
gallon is bound to get more spirit than the law allows. Meanwhile it is
scarcely accurate to term ginger beers, etc., non-alcoholic.
«Alcohol Deodorizer.»—
Alcohol 160 ounces
Powdered quicklime 300 grains
Powdered alum 150 grains
Spirit of nitrous ether 1 1/4 drachms
Mix the lime and alum intimately by trituration; add the alcohol and
shake well; then add the spirit of nitrous ether; set aside for 7 days
and filter through animal charcoal.
«Denaturized Alcohol.»—There are two general classes or degrees of
denaturizing, viz., the “complete” and the “incomplete,” according
to the purpose for {46} which the alcohol so denaturized is to be
ultimately used.
I.—Complete denaturization by the German system is accomplished by the
addition to every 100 liters (equal to 26 1/2 gallons) of spirits:
(_a_) Two and one-half liters of the “standard” denaturizer, made of 4
parts of wood alcohol, 1 part of pyridine (a nitrogenous base obtained
by distilling bone oil or coal tar), with the addition of 50 grams to
each liter of oil of lavender or rosemary.
(_b_) One and one-fourth liters of the above “standard” and 2 liters of
benzol with every 100 liters of alcohol.
II.—Incomplete denaturization—i. e., sufficient to prevent alcohol
from being drunk, but not to disqualify it from use for various
special purposes, for which the wholly denaturized spirits would be
unavailable—is accomplished by several methods as follows, the quantity
and nature of each substance given being the prescribed dose for each
100 liters (26 1/2 gallons) of spirits:
(_c_) Five liters of wood alcohol or 1/2 liter of pyridine.
(_d_) Twenty liters of solution of shellac, containing 1 part gum to
2 parts alcohol of 90-per-cent purity. Alcohol for the manufacture of
celluloid and pegamoid is denaturized.
(_e_) By the addition of 1 kilogram of camphor or 2 liters oil of
turpentine or 1/2 liter benzol to each 100 liters of spirits. Alcohol
to be used in the manufacture of ethers, aldehyde, agaricin, white
lead, bromo-silver gelatines, photographic papers and plates, electrode
plates, collodion, salicylic acid and salts, aniline chemistry, and a
great number of other purposes, is denaturized by the addition of—
(_f_) Ten liters sulphuric ether, or 1 part of benzol, or 1/2 part
oil of turpentine, or 0.025 part of animal oil.
For the manufacture of varnishes and inks alcohol is denaturized by the
addition of oil of turpentine or animal oil, and for the production of
soda soaps by the addition of 1 kilogram of castor oil. Alcohol for the
production of lanolin is prepared by adding 5 liters of benzine to each
hectoliter of spirits.
«ALE.»
The ale of the modern brewer is manufactured in several varieties,
which are determined by the wants of the consumer and the particular
market for which it is intended. Thus, the finer kinds of Burton, East
India, Bavarian, and other like ales, having undergone a thorough
fermentation, contain only a small quantity of undecomposed sugar and
gum, varying from 1 to 5 per cent. Some of these are highly “hopped” or
“bittered,” the further to promote their preservation during transit
and change of temperature. Mild or sweet ales, on the contrary, are
less accentuated by lengthened fermentation, and abound in saccharine
and gummy matter. They are, therefore, more nutritious, though less
intoxicating, than those previously referred to.
In brewing the finer kinds of ales, pale malt and the best hops of the
current season’s growth are always employed; and when it is desired to
produce a liquor possessing little color, very great attention is paid
to their selection. With the same object, the boiling is conducted with
more than the usual precautions, and the fermentation is carried on
at a somewhat lower temperature than that commonly allowed for other
varieties of beer. For ordinary ale, intended for immediate use, the
malt may be all pale; but, if the liquor be brewed for keeping, and
in warm weather, when a slight color is not objectionable, one-fifth,
or even one-fourth of amber malt may be advantageously employed. From
4 1/2 to 6 pounds of hops is the quantity commonly used to the
one-fourth of malt, for ordinary ales; and 7 pounds to 10 pounds for
“keeping” ales. The proportions, however, must greatly depend on the
intended quality and description of the brewing and the period that
will be allowed for its maturation.
The stronger varieties of ale usually contain from 6 to 8 per cent
of “absolute alcohol”; ordinary strong ale, 4 1/2 to 6 per cent;
mild ale, 3 to 4 percent; and table ale, 1 to 1 1/2 per cent (each
by volume); together with some undecomposed saccharine, gummy, and
extractive matter, the bitter and narcotic principles of the hop, some
acetic acid formed by the oxidation of the alcohol, and very small and
variable quantities of mineral and saline matter.
Ordinary ale-wort (preferably pale), sufficient to produce 1 barrel,
is slowly boiled with about 3 handfuls of hops, and 12 to 14 pounds of
crushed groats, until the whole of the soluble matter of the latter
is extracted. The resulting liquor, after being run through a coarse
strainer and become lukewarm, is fermented with 2 or 3 pints of yeast;
and, as soon as the fermentation is at its height, is either closely
bunged up for draft or is at once put into strong stoneware bottles,
which are then well corked and wired.
White ale is said to be very nutritious, though apt to prove laxative
to those {47} unaccustomed to its use. It is drunk in a state of
effervescence or lively fermentation; the glass or cup containing it
being kept in constant motion, when removed from the mouth, until the
whole is consumed, in order that the thicker portion may not subside to
the bottom.
ALE, GINGER: See Beverages.
ALFENIDE METAL: See Alloys.
ALKALI, HOW TO DETECT: See Soaps.
ALKALOIDS, ANTIDOTES TO: See Atropine.
«Alloys»
No general rules can be given for alloying metals. Alloys differing
greatly in fusibility are commonly made by adding the more fusible
ones, either in the melted state or in small portions at a time, to
the other melted or heated to the lowest possible temperature at which
a perfect union will take place between them. The mixture is usually
effected under a flux, or some material that will promote liquefaction
and prevent volatilization and unnecessary exposure to the air. Thus,
in melting lead and tin together for solder, rosin or tallow is thrown
upon the surface is rubbed with sal ammoniac; and in combining some
metals, powdered charcoal is used for the same purpose. Mercury or
quicksilver combines with many metals in the cold, forming AMALGAMS, or
easily fusible alloys (q. v.).