Transcriber’s Notes
Text printed in italics or bold face in the source document have been
transcribed between _underscores_ and =equal signs= respectively.
Small capitals have been replaced with ALL CAPITALS. Characters
between ~tildes~ represent the shape of the character rather than the
character itself.
More Transcriber’s Notes and a list of changes made to the text may
be found at the end of this text.
[Illustration:
_Plate II._
LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVE.
By The Grant Locomotive Works, Paterson, New Jersey.
_Scale, ³⁄₈ in. = 1 foot._]
[Illustration:
_Plate III._
PLAN OF AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVE.
By The Grant Locomotive Works, Paterson, New Jersey.
_Scale, ³⁄₈ in. = 1 foot._]
CATECHISM
OF THE
LOCOMOTIVE
[Illustration: 1886]
BY
MATTHIAS N. FORNEY,
_Mechanical Engineer_.
Will be sent by mail, postage prepaid, on receipt of price $2.50.
FREDERICK KEPPY,
_Scientific Book Publisher_,
No. 38 STATE STREET, BRIDGEPORT, CONN.
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, by
THE RAILROAD GAZETTE,
In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
PREFACE.
Books, like individuals, have their histories, and it seems but
proper that in introducing them somewhat of their ancestry should be
detailed. The present book originated in this wise: the publishers
of the RAILROAD GAZETTE procured a copy of the “Katechismus der
Einrichtung und des Betriebes der Locomotive,” by Georg Kosak. As no
English translation of this excellent little book was known to be in
existence, the editors of the above paper determined to translate
it and adapt it to the American practice in the construction and
management of locomotive steam engines, and republish it in their
journal. The translation was therefore made and submitted to the writer
for revision and adaptation, according to the original intention.
Before the latter was entertained, however, he had commenced writing
an elementary treatise on the locomotive. In revising the first part
of the translation of Mr. Kosak’s book, it was found that the latter
occupied only to a very limited extent the ground which the writer had
“staked out” in his own incomplete plan. He therefore concluded to
abandon the original intention of “adapting” Mr. Kosak’s work, and
determined to rewrite it and make substantially a new book of it. For
the “idea,” however, and to some extent its plan, and for much valuable
material, the author must acknowledge his indebtedness to Mr. Kosak.
In some few cases the language of the translator has been employed, in
part or in whole, without quotation marks, but with an acknowledgment
in a foot-note. A similar plan has also been pursued in using some
other books. This was done to avoid cutting up paragraphs and sentences
into fragmentary parts with numerous quotation marks.
The following books have been consulted and used in writing the
Catechism of the Locomotive: Heat considered as a Mode of Motion, by
Prof. Tyndall; The Conservation of Energy, by Balfour Stewart; Railway
Machinery, by D. K. Clark; Treatise on the Locomotive Engine, by Zerah
Colburn; Treatise on the Steam Engine, by W. J. M. Rankine; Indicator
Experiments on Locomotives, by Professor Bauschinger; Richards’ Steam
Indicator, by Charles T. Porter; Die Schule des Locomotivführers, by J.
Brosius and R. Koch; Mechanics, by A. Morin; The New Chemistry, by J.
P. Cooke, Jr.; Combustion of Coal and the Prevention of Smoke, by C.
Wye Williams; A Treatise on Steam Boilers, by Robert Wilson; Reports of
the American Railway Master Mechanics’ Association; Link Valve Motion,
by William S. Auchincloss, and Emergencies and How to Treat Them, by
Dr. Joseph W. Howe.
For the title of the book an apology is perhaps needed, as the word
Catechism is associated in nearly all persons’ minds we will trust
with early religious and theological instruction, and therefore a
Catechism of the Locomotive is very apt to sound more ludicrous than
scientific. The title of Mr. Kosak’s book was adopted before it was
determined to rewrite it, and it was afterwards not deemed best to
change it. To those who are disposed to smile at it, the precedent
of Mr. Bourne’s excellent Catechism of the Steam Engine is quoted,
and if they will refer to Webster’s Dictionary for the definition of
the word “catechism,” they will find that it means “an elementary
book containing a summary of principles in any science or art, but
appropriately in religion, reduced to the form of questions and
answers, and sometimes with notes, explanations and reference to
authorities,” which is exactly what the present book is intended to be.
To persons accustomed to books and study, the catechetical form is
very apt to seem cumbrous and awkward, but it has some very decided
advantages in writing for those who have not acquired studious habits
of thought. To such the question asked presents first a distinct image
of the subject to be considered, so that the explanation or instruction
which follows is much more apt to be understood than it would be if no
such question had been asked.
The author is indebted to Mr. D. B. Grant for the use of drawings from
which most of the engravings of details of locomotives with which this
book is illustrated have been made, and to other locomotive builders,
whose engines are illustrated in the full-page plates, for the drawings
thereof. He has also received very valuable aid from Mr. Richard H.
Buel, Mechanical Engineer; Mr. William Buchanan, Master Mechanic
of the Hudson River Railroad; Mr. Frank D. Child, Superintendent
of the Hinkley Locomotive Works; and Mr. E. T. Jeffrey, Assistant
Superintendent of Machinery of the Illinois Central Railroad.
The object in writing the book was to furnish a clear and easily
understood description of the principles, construction and operation
of the locomotive engine of the present day, a subject which is not
concisely or adequately treated in any one similar book. If the author
has succeeded in making what he has written plain to plain people, his
aim will be fully accomplished.
_No. 73 Broadway_, NEW YORK.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Preface iii
Introduction ix
Part I. The Steam Engine 1
II. The forces of Air and Steam 8
III. On Work, Energy and the Mechanical Equivalent of
Heat 22
IV. The Slide-Valve 30
V. The Expansion of Steam 47
VI. General Description of a Locomotive Engine 62
VII. The Locomotive Boiler 71
VIII. The Boiler Attachments 115
IX. The Throttle-Valve and Steam-Pipes 155
X. The Cylinders, Pistons, Guide-Rods and Connecting-
Rods 164
XI. The Valve-Gear 181
XII. The Running-Gear 268
XIII. Adhesion and Traction 319
XIV. Internal Disturbing Forces in the Locomotive 328
XV. Miscellaneous 335
XVI. Screw Threads, Bolts and Nuts 341
XVII. Tenders 349
XVIII. Friction and Lubrication 358
XIX. Combustion 365
XX. The Resistance of Trains 406
XXI. Proportions of Locomotives 412
XXII. Different Kinds of Locomotives 427
XXIII. Continuous Train Brakes 442
XXIV. Performance and Cost of Operating Locomotives 448
XXV. Water-Tanks and Turn-Tables 451
XXVI. Inspection of Locomotives 461
XXVII. Running Locomotives 478
XXVIII. Accidents to Locomotives 509
XXIX. Accidents and Injuries to Persons 533
XXX. Responsibility and Qualification of Locomotive
Runners 544
List of Books for Mechanics, Locomotive Runners, Firemen, etc., 550
Plates 551
APPENDIX.
I. Table of the Properties of Steam 585
II. Table of Hyperbolic Logarithms 590
III. Table of the Properties of Different Kinds of Fuel 594
IV. Table of the Resistance of Trains 596
Index 598
INTRODUCTION.
The Catechism of the Locomotive is intended for a large class of
readers, among whom are all kinds of railroad officers and employes,
consisting of locomotive runners, firemen, and the many different
kinds of mechanics employed in railroad shops and in the construction
of locomotive and other kinds of railroad machinery and material.
Besides these there are many amateur engineers, students, and
persons interested directly or indirectly in railroads, and a not
inconsiderable class who are always seeking information on all subjects
whatsoever. It is evident, therefore, that the only way to adapt the
book to all the classes for whom it is intended, was to make it so
plain that the “wayfaring man” will have no difficulty in comprehending
it. It has therefore been written in as clear language as the writer
could command, and the subjects presented are treated as simply and as
plainly as his ability enabled him to do, and with the least possible
employment of either scientific or practical technicalities. The
only deviation from this plan will be found in the use of algebraic
symbols to designate arithmetical calculations. This was done to save
space, and because it was thought that they could be explained so that
even those without any knowledge whatsoever of algebra could easily
comprehend them. To such as have no such knowledge the following
explanation is given:
Suppose it is necessary to add two numbers, say 1,872 and 468. The
calculation, if made arithmetically, would be thus:
1,872
468
-----
2,340
This it will be seen occupies the space of several lines of print. If
we want to express this calculation algebraically, it can be done by
simply writing the two numbers and placing the sign +, called _plus_,
between the two, which indicates that they are to be added together,
thus:
1,872 + 468
To indicate what the _sum_ will be, or what the two added together will
amount to, the sign =, called _equal to_, or the sign of equality, is
placed after the two numbers and between them and the sum, thus:
1,872 + 468 = 2,340,
which can be read as follows:
1,872 _added to_ 468 _is equal to_ 2,340.
Now the only use of the algebraic signs + and = is that they save time
in writing and room in printing, and when persons become accustomed to
their use they make plain a number of operations at a single glance, as
will be shown hereafter.
In the same way that the sign + means _added to_, the sign - means
_less_ or subtracted from, thus:
1,872 - 468 = 1,404,
which is the same as though it was printed as follows:
1,872 _less_ 468 _is equal to_ 1,404.
The sign × means _multiplied by_, or is the sign of multiplication.
Thus:
1,872 × 468 = 876,096;
that is,
1,872 _multiplied by_ 468 _is equal to_ 876,096.
The sign ÷ means divided by, thus:
1,872 ÷ 468 = 4.
which means:
1,872 _divided by_ 468 _is equal to_ 4.
The same thing is expressed by putting a line under the dividend and
writing the divisor under the line, thus:
1,872
----- = 4.
468
These signs are combined in various ways. Thus, supposing we wanted to
add 1,872 to 468 and then divide the sum by 117, it would be necessary,
in order to represent the arithmetical calculation, to do it as
follows:
1872
468
----
117)2340(20
234
----
0
Algebraically it would be stated thus:
1872 + 468
---------- = 20
117
If you wanted to add 124 to the quotient 20 above, the calculation
would be as follows:
1872
468
----
117)2340( 20
234 124
---- ---
0 144
This operation could be expressed by writing it as follows:
1872 + 468
---------- + 124 = 144.
117
If we wanted to multiply the quotient 20 by 124 we would simply put the
sign × instead of + before 124, thus:
1872 + 468
---------- × 124 = 2480.
117
The sign of subtraction or division can be used in the same way.
With these explanations it is believed that any one, with nothing more
than an ordinary knowledge of the four elementary rules of arithmetic,
can understand all the mathematics contained in the following pages.
A little explanation may also be needed of the method of representing
machinery and other structures by mechanical drawings.
[Illustration:
A
B
C
D]
If we want to represent the outside of any object, say an apple, we
make a drawing of it as shown at _A_. Now if we want to show the
inside of the apple, say the seeds and core, we can cut it in half and
represent it as shown at _C_, which is then called a _section_ or
_sectional view_ of the apple. If we represent it as it will appear if
we are above it and looking down on it as shown at _B_, it is called a
_top view_ or _plan_.
It is evident, too, that it might be desirable to show the arrangement
of the seeds in the apple as they would appear if it was cut through in
the other direction, say on the line _a b_, fig. _A_, and as is shown
at _D_. There are therefore two kinds of sections; one _C_, in which
the object is supposed to be cut through vertically, and therefore
called a _vertical section_, the other when the object is supposed
to be cut through horizontally, and therefore called a _horizontal
section_, as shown at _D_.
It is also evident that in looking at a locomotive or any other
object, the appearance of the engine depends upon our position in
relation to it. Thus, if we stand on the side of it, we see that part
of the engine, and a drawing which represents the side, is therefore
called a _side view_ or _side elevation_. A drawing which represents
a locomotive or other object as it would appear to us if we stood in
front of it, is called a _front view_ or _front elevation_, and a
representation of the back part of any object as it would appear to
us if we stood behind it is called a _back view_ or _back elevation_.
Plate I is a side view, Plate II a section, Plate III a top view or
plan;[1] the vignette in the title page is a front view and fig. 71 a
back view of a locomotive. If the drawing is made as the object would
appear if it was turned upside down, and we were looking at it from
above, then it is called an _inverted plan_.
[1] The boiler of the locomotive is supposed to be removed in Plate
III.
It is obvious, too, that it is possible to make a great many different
sectional views of nearly any object, especially of a machine. Thus, we
could suppose a locomotive cut through vertically and lengthwise, as
is shown in Plate II. Such a representation is called a _longitudinal_
section. A locomotive could also be cut through crosswise, as shown
in fig. 40, which is called a _transverse section_. It is of course
possible to represent a transverse section of a machine like a
locomotive at a great many different points; for example, it could be
shown as though it was cut through the smoke-stack as in fig. 40, or
through the boiler farther back, as the latter is shown in fig. 42.
Usually when a section is shown through a cylindrical object like a
smoke-stack or boiler, it is shown through its centre. If, however,
this is not apparent from the drawing or engraving, it should be stated
at what point it is supposed to be taken, thus the section _D_ of the
apple is on the line _a b_ of fig. _A_, and the section _C_ is on the
line _c d_.
In drawing sections, the parts which are supposed to be cut in two are
usually shaded with parallel diagonal lines drawn at equal distances
apart, as shown in the sections of the apple at _C_ and _D_. Sections
are also sometimes represented with solid black surfaces, as in Plates
II and III, and in the engraving of a pump in fig. 66.
Objects which are behind others which are in front of them are often
shown with dotted lines, so as to indicate their position. The seeds of
the apple are thus indicated at _A_.
It is also customary, in drawings of machinery, to take great liberties
with the objects represented and to show them with parts removed or
broken away, if their construction can thus be made plainer. It should
be remembered that the purpose of drawings of this kind is not to give
a pictorial representation of the object as it appears to the eye, but
to make its construction and mode of operation apparent to the mind.
In such drawings therefore all perspective is disregarded. It would
lead us too far were we to explain the reasons for this, and therefore
readers must accept the assertion without the proof.
CATECHISM OF THE LOCOMOTIVE.
PART I.
THE STEAM ENGINE.
QUESTION 1. _What is the motive power employed in ordinary steam
engines?_
_Answer._ The expansive force of steam.
QUESTION 2. _How is this expansive force of steam applied?_
[Illustration: _Fig. 1._
Scale ³⁄₈ in. = 1 foot.
_A._ Cylinder.
_B._ Piston.
_R._ Piston-Rod.
_D._ Front Cylinder-Head.
_C._ Back Cylinder-Head.]
_Answer._ It is applied by admitting it into a _cylinder_ (_A_, fig.
1) in which a _piston_, _B_, is fitted so as to move air-tight from
one end of the cylinder to the other. The steam, if admitted at _C_,
will force the piston _B_ to the opposite end[2] of the cylinder.
When it has reached that end, if the steam is allowed to escape and a
fresh supply is admitted to the cylinder through the opening _d_, it
will move the piston back again. In this way, by alternately admitting
steam at one end and exhausting it from the other, the piston receives
a _reciprocating motion_, which is communicated to the outside of
the cylinder by a rod, _R_, which is called the _piston-rod_, which
works air-tight through an opening in one of the _cylinder-covers_, or
_cylinder-heads_, as they are usually called.
[2] In all ordinary locomotives, the cylinders are so placed that
the head _C_ through which the piston-rod works is behind, and the
other head _D_ in front. The two ends of the cylinder are therefore
designated the _front_ and _back ends_, respectively.
[Illustration: _Fig. 2._
Scale ³⁄₈ in. = 1 foot.
_A._ Cylinder.
_B._ Piston.
_R._ Piston-Rod.
_c._ and _d._ Steam-ways.
_g._ Exhaust-Port.
_V._ Slide-Valve.
_H._ Exhaust-Cavity.
_f.f._ Valve-Seat.
_I. I._ Steam-Chest.
_M._ Valve-Stem.
_r.r._ Rocker.
_F. F._ Fly-Wheel.
_s._ Rocker-Shaft.
_G._ Eccentric.
_K._ Eccentric-Strap.
_L._ Eccentric-Rod.
_E._ Connecting-Rod.
_P._ Crank.
_N._ Crank-Pin.]
[Illustration: _Fig. 3._]
[Illustration: _Fig. 4._
_c._ and _d._ Steam-Ports.
_g._ Exhaust-Port.]
[Illustration: _Fig. 5._
Scale ³⁄₈ in. = 1 foot.]
QUESTION 3. _How is this reciprocating motion of the piston converted
into rotary motion?_
_Answer._ By connecting the end of the piston-rod _R_ (fig. 2) by
another rod, _E_; called a _connecting-rod_, with a crank, _P_, which
is attached to a revolving shaft, _S_. It is apparent that if the
piston _B_ is moved in the direction shown by the dart _R_, a rotary
motion will be given to the crank in the direction of the dart _N_.
When, however, the crank reaches the position shown by the dotted lines
in fig. 5, it is plain that a force applied to move the piston in
either direction will no longer produce a rotary movement of the crank
and shaft. The same thing will occur when the crank is in the opposite
position, shown by the full lines. These two positions are called the
_dead-points_ of the crank.
QUESTION 4. _How is the crank of an ordinary steam engine carried past
the dead-points?_
_Answer._ Stationary engines are usually provided with a large and
heavy wheel, called a _fly-wheel_ (_F F_, fig. 2) which is attached to
the shaft _S_. This wheel receives a sufficient amount of momentum from
the crank, while the latter is moving from one dead-point to the other,
to carry it past those points.
QUESTION 5. _How is the steam admitted to and exhausted from the
cylinder?_
_Answer._ It is admitted through two channels, _c_, _d_, fig. 2, called
_steam-ways_, cast in the cylinder. These ways terminate in a smooth
flat surface, _f f_, called the _valve-seat_. Their openings in the
valve-seat are called _steam-ports_. Between them is another port or
cavity, _g_, called the _exhaust-port_, which communicates with the
open air. The form of these ports is long and narrow, as shown in fig.
4, which represents a plan of them. Over these ports a valve, _V_,
called a _slide-valve_, usually made of cast iron, with a cavity,
_H_, on its under side, is fitted so that by moving it backwards or
forwards it will alternately cover and uncover the two steam-ports.
The valve and valve-seat are inclosed in a sort of box, _I I_, fig.
2, made of cast iron, called a _steam-chest_, into which steam is
admitted from the boiler by a pipe, _J_. When the valve is in the
position represented in fig. 2, the front steam-port is uncovered and
the steam is admitted to the front end of the cylinder, and thus forces
the piston towards the back end. If, when the piston reaches the back
end, the valve be moved into the position shown in fig. 3, the back
steam-port will be uncovered and steam will be admitted to that end of
the cylinder. At the same time it will be observed that the aperture of
the front steam-port _c_ and that of the exhaust-port are both covered
by the cavity in the slide-valve, so that the steam which was admitted
to the front end of the cylinder can escape through the steam-port _c_
into the exhaust-port, and thus into the open air. In this way, by
moving the valve alternately back and forth, steam is simultaneously
admitted first to one end and exhausted from the other, and _vice
versa_.
[Illustration: _Fig. 6._
_G._ Eccentric.
_K. K._ Eccentric-Strap.
_L._ Eccentric-Rod.]
QUESTION 6. _How is the slide-valve moved so as to admit and exhaust
the steam at the right time?_
_Answer._ This is done by what is called an _eccentric_, which is a
circular disc, _G_ (fig. 6), the axis of which is not in the centre.
The outside of the eccentric is embraced by a metal ring, _K K_, made
in two halves, called an _eccentric-strap_. The eccentric is attached
to the shaft by screws or keys, and revolves with it and inside of
the eccentric-strap. To the latter is also attached a rod, _L_, called
an _eccentric-rod_. It is obvious from fig. 6 that if the eccentric
revolves inside of the strap it will impart a reciprocating motion
to the rod _L_. The eccentric, _G_, strap, _K_, and rod, _L_, are
represented in fig. 2. Before describing their operation, or rather
their connection with the valve _V_, it is necessary to understand
that usually the valve-seat is placed on top of the cylinder, in which
position it is difficult to connect the eccentric-rod with the valve.
For convenience, therefore, what is called a _rocker_, _r r_, is placed
between the cylinder and the main shaft of the engine. This rocker has
two arms attached to a shaft, _s_, and the two arms have a vibratory
motion about it, as indicated by the dotted lines. The eccentric-rod
_L_ is attached by a pin to the lower arm of the rocker, and the valve
is connected to the upper arm by the rod _M_, called the _valve-stem_,
or _valve-rod_. It is obvious that as the shaft _S_ and eccentric _G_
revolve, a reciprocating or vibratory motion will be given to the
rocker, which will be communicated to the valve by the valve-stem; and
it is only necessary to fix the eccentric in the proper position on
the shaft, in relation to the crank and piston, to give the valve the
required motion for admitting and exhausting the steam to and from the
cylinder at the right time.