A.D. Gifted by nature with rare talent, she was instructed in
every branch of science. After the accession of John, 1118, she
was exiled for conspiring to place her husband upon the throne.
During her retirement she composed the biography of her father.
The _Alexias_ is history in the form of artistic romance. The
truth is embellished to suit the purpose of the author, whose
aim was to glorify the father and his daughter; but with all
its defects, it is still the most interesting and one of the
most valuable products of Byzantine literature. Her work is
practically a continuation of that of her husband, Nicephorus
Bryennius, already mentioned.
=Comnenus= and =Proclus=, Ἰστορία Πρελούμπου καὶ ἄλλων διαφόρων Δεσποτῶν
τῶν Ἰωαννίνων ἀπὸ τῆς ἀλώσεως αὐτῶν παρὰ τῶν Σέρβων ἕως τῆς παραδόσεως
εἰς τοὺς Τούρκους, edited by Andreas Mustoxydes, in his Ἑλληνουμνήμων
(Corfu), 1843-1847; edited by G. Destunis, with a Russian translation,
St. Petersburg, 1858.
This is a fragment of an alleged history of Epirus.
=Constantinus VII=, Flavius Porphyrogenitus, Ἱστορικὴ διήγησις τοῦ βίου
καί τῶν πράξεων τοῦ Βασιλείου τοῦ βασιλέως (Vita Basilii), edited by Leo
Allatius, in his Σύμμικτα, with a Latin translation, Cologne, 1653.
_Constantinus VII_, _Flavius Porphyrogenitus_, only son of
the emperor Leo (VI) Philosophus, was born in 905. He reigned
nominally from 911 to 959, but from 912 to 944 the Eastern
Empire was usurped by Lecapenus. In his enforced retirement
he devoted himself to scholarship, and became an assiduous
writer, compiler, and patron of learning. Besides the _Life of
Basilius_, he wrote works dealing with imperial and provincial
government, military and naval warfare, and court ceremonial.
His surname, _Porphyrogenitus_ (“born in the purple”), was
acquired from πόρφυρα, the name of an apartment in the imperial
palace in which he was born, and hence the origin of the
expression as applied to royalty.
=Corippus=, Flavius Cresconius, Corippi Africani fragmentum carminis
in laudem imperatoris Justini Minoris; Carmen panegyricum in laudem
Anastasii quæstoris et magistri; de laudibus Justini Augusti Minoris
heroico carmine libri IV, edited by Michael Ruiz (Madrid, 1579); Antwerp,
1581; Johannis, Milan, 1820.
_Flavius Cresconius Corippus_, the Latin poet, left two
poems which are useful in tracing the history of his times;
one, _Johannis_, reciting the history of the war of Johannes
Patricius against the Moors; the other, _De Laudibus Justini_,
an extravagant panegyric of the younger Justin (565-578 A.D.).
A remarkable fact about this work is that the identity of its
author with that of the _Johannis_ was not established until
more than two centuries after its publication, for Ruiz merely
asserted that he copied the book from an ancient manuscript,
of which he gave no description. Corippus, however, having
mentioned in his preface that he had previously composed a poem
on the African wars, researches brought the missing _Johannis_
to light in the Royal Library at Buda in 1814, the work having
been wrongly catalogued. Of the life of Corippus we know but
little, except that he was born in Africa in 530 A.D. and died
in 585. His works are found in best form in the Bonn “Corpus.”
=Corpus scriptorum historiæ Byzantinæ=, Bonn, 1828-1878, 49 vols.
This great work was commenced on the recommendation and under
the superintendence of Niebuhr, and after his death continued
by the Royal Prussian Academy. The separate volumes have been
edited by Bekker, Hase, Dindorf, and other distinguished
scholars.
=Critobulus of Imbros=, Ἱστορία, edited by C. Müller in his Fragmenta
Historicorum Græcorum, vol. V, Paris, 1870 (trans. into Hungarian by K.
Szabo, in Monumenta Hungariæ Historica, Scriptores, vol. XXII, Budapest,
1875).
_Critobulus of Imbros_, in about the year 1470, wrote a history
of the sultan Mohammed II, covering the period 1457-1467.
Diffuse in style, and feebly imitating the manner of Greek
classic writers, the only value of Critobulus is that he
represents the Greek mind at the period when it became
reconciled to the rule of the Turkish conquerors.
* * * * *
=Dexippus=, P. Herennius, fragments preserved in the Bonn “Corpus.”
_Dexippus_ wrote three historical works, only fragments of
which are extant. He was a native of Attica, and distinguished
himself in the Gothic invasion of Greece, 262 A.D. His history
was continued by Eunapius.
=Ducas=, Michael, Historia Byzantina, in the Paris, Venice, and Bonn
_corpora_.
_Michael Ducas_, the historian, lived during the latter part
of the fifteenth century. His history embraces the period from
1391 A.D. to the capture of Lesbos in 1462, and is valuable
for judicious, prudent, and impartial statement of facts. He
wrote however, in most barbarous Greek, using quite a number
of foreign phrases, and being seemingly unacquainted with the
Greek classics.
* * * * *
=Easter Chronicle=, Ἐπιτομὴ χρόνων τῶν ἀπο Ἀδὰμ τοῦ προτοπλάστου ἀνθρώπου
ἕως κ’ ἔτους τῆς βασιλείας Ἡρακλείου τοῦ εὐσεβεστάτου καὶ μετὰ ὑπατείαν
ἔτους ιθ’ καὶ ιη’ ἔτους τῆς βασιλείας Ἡρακλείου νέου Κωνσταντίνου τοῦ
αὑτοῦ υἱοῦ ἱνδικτίωνος γ’ (Chronicon Paschale), edited by M. Raderi,
Munich, 1615.
This is a comprehensive chronological table extending
originally from the Creation to 629 A.D. It gets its name
from the computation of the Easter canon upon which Christian
chronology is based. After Eusebius and Syncellus it is the
most important and influential production of Græco-Christian
chronography. The compiler of the chronicle, which is largely
put together out of earlier works, was a contemporary of
the emperor Heraclius (610-641). The text, as it has been
preserved, breaks off at 627 A.D.
=Ephræm of Constantinople=, Ἐφραιμίου χρονικοῦ Καίσαρες, edited by Angelo
Mai, in his Scriptorum veterum nova collectio, Rome, 1828.
_Ephræm_ wrote a chronicle in iambic verse, giving
Roman-Byzantine history from Julius Cæsar to the reconquest of
Constantinople in 1261.
=Eunapius=, Μετά Δέξιππον χρονική ἱστορία, edited by D. Hoeschel,
Augsburg, 1603; by A. Mai, in his Scriptorum veterum nova collectio,
Rome, 1828.
_Eunapius_ was born at Sardis in 347 A.D. He wrote a
continuation of Dexippus, but most of the work is lost.
Eunapius exhibits pagan sympathies, admires Julian, and gives a
deal of information on the manners and customs of his age, the
period covered being 270-404.
=Eustathius of Epiphaneia=, Χρονική ἐπιτομή, fragments preserved in the
Bonn “Corpus.”
_Eustathius_ lived in the reign of Anastasius (491-521). His
history of the world, to 502 A.D., is known only through the
portions preserved by Evagrius.
* * * * *
=Genesius=, Josephus, Βασιλειῶν Βιβλία Δ.
_Genesius_ lived in the middle of the tenth century, and wrote
his Greek history by the order of the emperor Constantine VII,
Porphyrogenitus, whose literary activities have just been
mentioned. His work comprises the histories of Leo V, 813-820,
Michael II, 820-829, Theophilus, 829-842, Michael III, 842-867,
and Basilius I Macedon, 867-886. The work was first printed in
the Venice “corpus.”
=Georgius Monachus=, Βίοι τῶν Βασιλέων, edited by G. A. Fabricius in
volume VII of his Bibliotheca Græca, Hamburg, 1705-1728, 14 vols.
_Georgius Monachus_ (George the Monk), probably lived in the
tenth century, and compiled a chronicle which comprehends the
period from 813 to 948 A.D., being a continuation of Theophanes
Isaurus.
=Georgius Syncellus=, Ἐκλογὴ Χρονογραφίας συνταγεῖσα ὑπὸ Γεωργίου Μοναχοῦ
Συγκέλλου γεγονότος Ταρασίου Πατριάρχου Κωνσταντινουπόλεως ἀπὸ Ἀδὰμ μέχρι
Διολητιανοῦ, first printed in the Bonn “Corpus.”
_George Syncellus_, Albas or Monachus, lived in the eighth and
ninth centuries, and gained his epithet as being the personal
attendant or _syncellus_ of the patriarch Tarsasius, who died
in 806. His chronicle extends from Adam to Diocletian, but was
intended to proceed to 800 A.D., Theophanes of Isaurus actually
continuing it to 811. The chronicle of Syncellus is, together
with Eusebius, the most important work for a knowledge of
Christian chronography.
=Glycas=, Michael, Βίβλος χρονική (Annales), edited by J. Meurius,
Theodori Metochitæ, Historiæ Romanæ, etc., Leyden, 1618; Latin
translation by Leunclavius, Basel, 1572.
_Michael Glycas_ was born either at Constantinople or in
Sicily, but nothing is certain about his personality or period.
His _Annals_, from the Creation, go down to the year 1118, so
that he must have lived after that date. He writes clearly
and concisely, and displays a knowledge of foreign languages.
Meurius, in his edition, erroneously ascribed the book to
Theodorus Metochita.
=Gregoras Nicephorus=, Ῥωμαϊκὴ ἱστορία, edited by H. Wolf, with a Latin
translation, Basel, 1562.
_Gregoras_ (1295-1359) led a life of literary activity which
covered nearly all fields of Byzantine learning. His history is
a continuation of the work of Pachymeres, and commences with
the capture of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204 and goes
down to 1359.
* * * * *
=Hankius=, Martin, De Byzantinarum rerum scriptoribus Græcis, Leipsic,
1677.--=Hesychius of Miletus=, Opuscula, edited by Junius, with a Latin
version, Antwerp, 1572; by Meursius, Leyden, 1613; by J. C. Orellius,
Leipsic, 1820.
_Hesychius_, called the Illustrious, was born at Miletus, and
lived in the times of the emperors Anastasius I, Justin I,
and Justinian II. Accounts of his personality are vague, but
he is known to be the author of the following works: Ἱστορία
Ῥωμαϊκή τε καὶ παντοδαπή, or Χρονικὴ ἱστορία, a synopsis of
world history, from the time of Belus, the alleged founder of
the Assyrian Empire (1402 B.C.), to the death of Anastasius I
in 518; Ὀνοματολόγος ἢ πίναξ τῶν ἐν παιδείᾳ ὀνομαστῶν, which
comprises biographies of Hellenic writers, but of which only
fragments were preserved; Πάτρια Κωνσταντινουπόλεως, a book on
the primitive history of the city of Byzantium which originally
formed part of his history.
* * * * *
=Joannes VI, Cantacuzenus=, Ἱστοριῶν βιβλία Δ, published by Gretserus,
with a Latin translation by Jacob Pontanus, Ingolstadt, 1603; edited by
Pierre Seguier, Paris, 1645.
_Joannes Angelus Comnenus Palæologus Cantacuzenus_, emperor
of Constantinople from 1342 to 1355, is also sometimes styled
Joannes VI, being confused with his ward and rival of the same
name, who, nominally succeeding in 1342, did not actually rule
until 1355. Cantacuzenus’ history covers the period from 1320
to 1357, including his own reign. Its style is easy, dignified,
and discriminative, but often vain and hypocritical when
relating to his own life or friends. It should be compared with
the work of Nicephorus Gregoras, who writes of the same period.
Cantacuzenus also wrote a confutation of Mohammedanism.
=Joannes of Antioch=, Ἱστορία Χρονική ἀπὸ Ἁδάμ. (Historia Chronographica
ab Adamo), edited by Valesius in his Excerpta, Paris, 1634.
_Joannes of Antioch_ wrote a chronicle at a period conjectured
to be about 620 A.D. Nothing is known of his personal life, but
Gelzer is inclined to identify him with the patriarch John of
Antioch (631-649). His history, commencing with Adam, must have
been written after the death of Phocas in 610, for he describes
that ruler as “bloodthirsty,” “ὁ αὐτὸς Φωκᾶς ὑπῆρχεν αἰμοπότης.”
=Joannes of Epiphaneia=, Ἰωάννου σχολαστικοῦ καὶ ἀπὸ ἐπάρχων Ἐπιφανέως
περὶ τῆς τοῦ νέου Χοσρόου προσχωρήσεως πρὸς Μαυρίκιον τὸν Ῥωμαίων
αὑτοκράτορα ἱστοριῶν τόμος ά, edited by B. Hase (with Leo Diaconus),
Paris, 1819; by C. Müller, in his Fragmenta Historicorum Græcorum, Paris,
1841-1870, 5 vols. (new edition 1883); by L. Dindorf, in his Historici
Græci Minores, Leipsic, 1870-1871, 2 vols.
_Joannes of Epiphaneia_ flourished at the end of the sixth
century, and his history deals with the Byzantine affairs from
Justinian to Maurice. The manuscript of his work dates from the
thirteenth century, and is in the Vatican.
=Joannes Laurentius=, Περὶ μηνῶν συγγραφή (De Mensibus Liber), edited by
Nicolaus Schow, Leipsic, 1794.
_Joannes Laurentius_, of Philadelphia, was a Byzantine poet
of the sixth century, but his poems have not survived. His
historical commentary on the Roman calendar, named above, is
compiled from numerous sources, mostly otherwise unknown. He
also wrote Περὶ ἀρχῶν τῆς Ῥωμαίων πολιτείας (De Magistratibus
Reipublicæ Romanæ), in which he gives an unfavourable picture
of the emperor Zeno.
=Joannes Siculus=, Die Chronik des Johannes Sikeliota, edited by A.
Heinrich, Gratz, 1892.
_Joannes Siculus_ is supposed to have written a compendium of
history from the Creation to Michael III, 866 A.D., or perhaps
1204. Much of the work is lost, the extant portion breaking
off in the midst of the Trojan War, after reciting the ancient
history of the Assyrians, Egyptians, Greeks, Jews, Persians,
and Ptolemeans.
=Joel=, Χρονογράφια ἐν συνόψει, first edited by Leo Allatius in the Paris
“Corpus.”
_Joel_ lived in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and wrote
a synopsis of the most important events of history, as known to
him, laying stress on Byzantine affairs. The scope of the work
is from Adam to 1204 A.D.
=John of Ephesus=, Ἱστορία ἐκκλησιάστικη, The third Book of the
Ecclesiastical History of John, Bishop of Ephesus, edited by William
Cureton, Oxford, 1853 (other fragments have been edited by J. P. N. Land,
the Dutch historian, in his Anecdota Syriaca, Leyden, 1856, 4 vols.).
_John_, bishop of Asia, or Ephesus, was born at Amid about
505. He led the Monophysite party and enjoyed the favour of
Justinian. The third book of his history commences with the
persecution under Justin in 571. He tells us that, “Most
of these histories were written at the very time when the
persecution was going on, and under the difficulties caused by
its pressure; and it was even necessary that friends should
remove the leaves on which these chapters were inscribed, and
every other particle of writing, and conceal them in various
places, where they sometimes remained for two or three years.
When therefore matters occurred which the writer wished to
record, it was possible that he might have partly spoken of
them before, but he had no papers or notes by which to read and
know whether they had been described or not. If therefore he
did not remember that he had recorded them, at some subsequent
time he probably again proceeded to their detail; and therefore
occasionally the same subject is recorded in more chapters
than one; nor afterwards did he ever find a fitting time for
plainly and clearly arranging them in an orderly narrative.”
This extract explains the cause of the confused condition of
the _History_. John died in about his eightieth year. The
first book of his history has been lost, the second is only
in fragments; but a manuscript of the third, in the British
Museum, is fairly complete.
=Julianus, Flavius Claudius=, Orationes, edited by P. Martinius and
C. Cantoclarus, in their edition of Julian’s works, Paris, 1583; by
Petavius, Paris, 1630; by Ezechiel Spanheim, Leipsic, 1696. (The orations
have also been published separately.)
_Flavius Claudius Julianus_, better known as Julian the
Apostate, was born at Constantinople, November 17th, 331.
Julian, great as an emperor, was remarkable as an author. He
wrote an immense number of elaborate works on varied subjects
which are important sources of information regarding the
religion and philosophy of his period. The _Orations_ of Julian
are historically valuable, especially those dealing with the
family of Constantine. He also deals in them with Platonic
philosophy and sun-worship, and betrays in many ways his
affection for Paganism as opposed to Christianity.
* * * * *
=Leo Diaconus=, Ἱστορία βιβλίοις ύ, edited by C. B. Hase, with a Latin
translation, Paris, 1818.
_Leo Diaconus_ lived in the tenth century, and was a native
of Caloë, near Mt. Tmolus. He was a student at Constantinople
in 966, and he served as military chaplain under Basilius II
in the war against the Bulgarians (986). His history embraces
the period between 959-975. Honest and fearless when relating
contemporary events, the history, although badly written, and
inaccurate on geography and classical history is important,
since the author is the only contemporary writer on one
of the most brilliant and successful periods of Byzantine
history, that of Nicephorus Phocas and Joannes Zimisces. The
book contains valuable data on the history and customs of the
Bulgarians and Russians, on which Leo is the oldest authority.
=Leo Grammaticus=, Χρονογραφία, τὰ τῶν νέων Βασιλέων περιέχουτα
(Chronographia Res a Recentioribus Imperatoribus Gestas Complectens),
first printed in the Paris “Corpus.”
_Leo Grammaticus_ was one of the continuators of Theophanes.
Nothing certain is known of his life. His Chronicles extend
from 813 A.D. to the death of Romanus Lecapenus in 948, or 949.
* * * * *
=Malalas=, Joannes, Χρονογραφία, edited by Edmund Chilmead, with a Latin
translation, Oxford, 1691.
_Joannes Malalas_ (Malelas) was born at Antioch, most
probably at about the time of Justinian the Great (528-565),
although some authorities assign him to the ninth century.
His voluminous chronicle originally began with the creation
of the world, but the commencement is lost, and the extant
portion begins with the death of Vulcanus and the accession
of his son Sol, and finishes with the expedition of Marcianus
the nephew of Justinian the Great. Malalas relates much that
is absurd, but his account of Justinian is valuable and his
work is extremely important as being the first to represent the
type of a Christian-Byzantine monk’s chronicle, which is so
important in the history of literature. The book is also the
first important monument of the popular Grecised idiom, and
hence has great philological interest. The influence of Malalas
on later Byzantine, oriental, and even western annalists is
immeasurable. For six centuries he was so copied and recopied,
that the original work became superfluous and now there is only
one manuscript of it in existence.
=Malchus Philadelphus=, Βυζανταϊκα, printed in the Bonn “Corpus”
(Excerpta).
_Malchus Philadelphus_, born in Syria, and a rhetorician
of Constantinople, wrote a history which was used in the
_Excerpta de Legationibus_, a compilation undertaken by order
of Constantine VII, Porphyrogenitus. The portion of his work of
which we have knowledge comprehends only the period from 473 to
480 A.D., this part having been preserved by Photius.
=Manasses=, Constantinus, Σύνοψις ἱστορική, Latin version by Leunclavius,
Basel, 1573; edited by J. Meursius, Leyden, 1616; translated into
Slavonic by V. Jagíc, in the Archiv für slavische Philologie, Berlin,
1877; and by J. Bogdan, in his Vechile cronice Moldovenesci pana la
Urechia, Bukarest, 1891.
_Constantinus Manasses_ lived under the emperor Manuel Comnenus
in the middle of the twelfth century, and composed several
works in both rhyme and prose. His history, curiously written
in a kind of rhythmical prose (“political verse”), is a
chronicle from the Creation to the accession of Alexis I in
1081. The edition of Meurius was dedicated to Gustavus Adolphus.
=Menander Protector=, Ἱστορία, edited by Angelo Mai, in his Scriptorum
Veterum nova collectio, vol. II, Rome, 1825-1838, 10 vols.; edited by C.
Müller, in his Fragmenta Historicum Græcorum, vol. IV, Paris, 1841-1870,
5 vols., new edition 1883; by L. Dindorf, in his Historici Græci Minores,
Leipsic, 1870-1871, 2 vols.
_Menander Protector_ was born at Byzantium in the middle of
the sixth century. As a historian, he wrote a continuation of
Agathias, from 558 to 582, and in his turn he was continued by
Theophylactus Simocatta. Menander is often quoted by Suidas and
is one of the best sources for the history of the sixth century.
=Michael Panaretus=, Περὶ τῶν τῆς Τραπεζοῦντος βασιλέων, τῶν Μεγάλων
Κομνῃνῶν, ὅπως καὶ πότς καὶ πόσον ἕκαστος ἐβασιλευσεν, edited by L. F.
Tafel, in his Eustathii Metropolitæ Thessalonicensis opuscula etc.,
Frankfort, 1832; and by Ph. Fallmerayer, in the Abhandlungen of the
Academy of Bavaria, 1844.
_Michael Panaretus_ lived in the first half of the fifteenth
century and gives a chronicle of the empire of Trebizond from
1204 to 1426. He was an eye-witness of many of the events
described, and is particularly valuable on this account.
* * * * *
=Neophytus=, Νεοφύτου πρεσβυτέρου μοναχοῦ καὶ ἐγκλειστοῦ περὶ τῶν κατὰ
τὴν χώραν Κύπρον σκαιῶν (Neophyti Presbyteri Monachi et Inclusi, De
Calamitatibus Cypri), edited by J. B. Cotelier, in his Ecclesiæ Græcæ
Monumenta, Paris, 1677-1686, 3 vols.
_Neophytus_ was born in 1134 and lived as priest and monk
in his native Cyprus. His epistle, as named above, gives an
account of the usurpation of Cyprus by Isaac Comnenus and of
the imprisonment of Isaac by Richard Cœur-de-Lion.
=Nicephorus Callistus Xantoupulus=, Historia Ecclesiastica, Latin
version, edited by Joh. Lang, Basel, 1553; reprinted with scholia, 1560
(61); Antwerp, 1560; Paris, 1562, 1566, 1573; Frankfort, 1588; Greek
text, with Lang’s translation, Paris, 1630, 2 vols.
_Nicephorus Callistus Xantoupulus_ died about 1350, and the
date of his birth has been inferred as about 1290. There
are now extant eighteen of the twenty-three books of his
ecclesiastical history, which was compiled from Eusebius,
Evagrius, and other writers, and covers the period from the
time of Christ to the death of Phocas in 610. The work is
characterised by its elegant style, which is far above that
of his contemporaries. The author’s credulity and lack of
judgment, however, cause the book to abound in fables.
=Nicephorus, Patriarcha=, Κωνσταντινουπόλεως Ἱστορία σύντομος (Breviarum
Historicum), edited, with Latin version, by D. Patavius, Paris, 1616;
translated into French by Monterole, Paris, 1618, and by F. Morel, Paris,
1634; Χρονογραφικὸν σύντομον, edited by Jos. Scaliger, in his Thesaurus
Temporum, Leyden, 1606; by J. Camerarius, in a Latin version, Basel, 1561.
_Nicephorus_, patriarch of Constantinople from 806 to 815, when
he was deposed by Leo Armenus, was born in 758, and held the
office of notary to the emperor Constantine VI. His _Breviarum_
begins with the murder of Maurice in 602 and is continued to
the marriage of Leo IV in 770. The Chronology begins with Adam
and is brought down to the death-year of the author, 828.
Nicephorus is sometimes styled “Confessor” on account of his
firm opposition to the iconoclasts.
=Nicetas Acominatus=, Ἱστορία, edited by H. Wolf, with a Latin version,
Basel, 1457, and by Simon Goulartius, Geneva, 1593.
_Nicetas Acominatus_, was born at Chonæ, Phrygia, in the middle
of the twelfth century, and died at Nicæa, Bithynia, about
1216. He held high offices under Isaac II Angelus; and was at
the taking of Constantinople in 1204, of which he relates an
impressive account. His history in continuation of Zonares
is in ten corollaries of 21 books and deals with the Eastern
emperors from 1180 to 1206. In style at times bombastic,
Nicetas is deeply incensed against the Latin conquerors, but he
is impartial as to his facts.
=Nonnosus=, Ἱστορία, edited by C. Müller, in his Fragmenta Historicorum
Græcorum, Paris, 1841-1870, 5 vols., new edition 1883; by L. Dindorf, in
his Historici Græci Minores, Leipsic, 1870-1871, 2 vols.
_Nonnosus_, who wrote a history of an embassy he undertook to
the Saracens in 533, lived under Justinian I. His original work
has perished, and exists only as an abridgment preserved by
Photius.
* * * * *
=Pachymeres=, Georgius, Historia Byzantina, edited by P. Possimus, Greek
and Latin text, Rome, 1666-1669, 7 vols.
_Georgius Pachymeres_ was born about 1242 at Nicæa, whither his
father had fled after the capture of Constantinople in 1204.
After the recapture of the city, Pachymeres went there to study
divinity and law, and became advocate general of the Eastern
Church and chief justice. He was also employed diplomatically,
and died either in 1310 or 1340. His portrait in wood-cut,
alleged to be derived from an old manuscript is in Wolf’s
edition of Nicephorus Gregoras, Basel, 1562. Pachymeres wrote a
number of works, mainly philosophical, but the most important
is his history, continuing that of Acropolita, in thirteen
books, comprising the histories of the emperors Michael
Palæologus and Andronicus Palæologus. It is written with
calmness, dignity, and a fair amount of impartiality; but the
work is often marred by the introduction of dogmatic theology
in which the author seemed to take a keen delight. He was
indeed the first Byzantine historian to deal with the history
of a highly dogmatic age. Pachymeres was continued by Gregoras
Nicephorus.
=Petrus Patricius=, Ἱστορίαι, edited by L. Dindorf, in his Historici
Græci Minores, Leipsic, 1870-1871, 2 vols.
_Petrus Patricius_, was born at Thessalonica, in the year 500.
He was employed in the diplomatic service by Justinian I, and
died about 562 A.D. His history is supposed to include the
period from the second Triumvirate to a little later than the
time of Constantine the Great, although only the part extending
to the reign of Julian is expressly attributed to him. The
rest is from an excerpt _De sententiis_ the conclusion of
which is usually called Anonymus post Dionem. Only extracts
from it are preserved. Petrus also wrote a work entitled, περὶ
πολιτικῆς καταστάσεως, i.e. on state organisation.
=Photius=, Μυριποβιβλου ἤ Βιβλιοθήκη, edited by David Hoeschelius,
Augsburg, 1601; Latin version by A. Schottus, Augsburg, 1606; Greek and
Latin reprints, Geneva, 1612, and Rouen, 1653; revised Greek text by L.
Bekker, Berlin, 1821-1825.
_Photius_ was related by marriage to the emperor Theophilus,
and in 858 was irregularly elected to the patriarchate of
Constantinople, a circumstance which ultimately led to the
separation of the Eastern and Western churches. These events
will be fully detailed in volume VIII, in our account of the
Papacy. Photius was a man of remarkable intellectual endowment,
and held many high offices. His writings for these reasons are
extremely valuable. His Βιβλιοθήκα is a comprehensive review of
the then existent Greek literature, including historians, civil
and ecclesiastical, biographers, philosophers, orators, poets,
and story writers. Photius has thus preserved accounts of many
writers and works that have otherwise been lost, including
portions of the writings of such men as Demosthenes, Diodorus
Siculus, Hyperides, and Lycurgus. Photius also wrote a number
of theological and ecclesiastical works, a lexicon, and a great
number of letters, all valuable for their pictures of the
mentality of the age.
=Phranzes=, Georgios, Χρονικόν Γεωργίου Φραντζῆ τοῦ προτοβεστιαρίου … Νῦν
προῶτον ἐκδοθὲν ἐπιμελείᾳ φραγκίστου Καρόλου Αλτερ (Alter), Vienna, 1796;
Latin translation by Jacob Pontanus, Ingolstadt, 1604.
_Georgius Phranzes_, the last of the Byzantine historians lived
during the fifteenth century and held high official position
under Constantine XIII. After the capture of Constantinople
by the Turks he entered a monastery, where he composed his
Chronikon, which is a valuable authority for the details of the
capture of Constantinople, and extends from 1259 to 1477. He is
trustworthy when dealing with contemporary events, but indulges
in long digressions. Professor Alter’s edition is the standard;
the translation of Pontanus was characterised by Gibbon as
“deficient in accuracy and elegance.”
=Priscus=, Ἱστορία Βυζαντικὴ καὶ κατὰ Ἀττήλαν, fragments edited by D.
Hoeschelius, Augsburg, 1603, Latin translations by C. Cantoclarus, Paris,
1609; both reprinted by Fabrot in his Excerpta de Legationibus, Paris,
1648; and in Labbé’s Protrephticon, Paris, 1648.
_Priscus_, an early Byzantine historian, was born in Thrace. We
know hardly anything of his life, except for the years 445-447,
when he was at the court of Attila as ambassador for Theodosius
the Younger. His account of Attila was therefore first hand,
but unfortunately only fragments of it have been preserved.
=Procopius=, Ἱστορικὸν ἐν βιβλίοις ὀκτώ, edited by Petrus Pithœus, in
his Codex Legum Wisigothorum, Paris, 1559; edited by D. Hoeschelius,
Augsburg, 1676; edited by B. Vulcanius, in his Scriptores Gothicarum,
Leyden, 1597, 1617; Latin version (claimed as original work by Leonardo
Aretino), De bello Italico adversus Gothos gesto, Foligno, 1470, Venice,
1471; translated into English by H. Holcroft, London, 1653; Ἀνέκδοτα
(Historia Arcana), edited by N. Allemannus, with a Latin version,
Lyons, 1623; Cologne, 1669; edited by Joh. Eichelius, Helmstadt, 1654;
translated into English, London, 1674; Κτίσματα (Libri VI de Ædificus
conditis vel restoratis auspicio Justiniani), edited by J. Hervagius,
Basel, 1531, Paris, 1543; with a Latin translation by F. Craneveld,
Paris, 1537.
_Procopius_, the most important late Greek-Byzantine historian,
was born at Cæsarea, in the beginning of the sixth century.
After studying at Constantinople, his natural gifts gained
him, in 527, a position as secretary to Belisarius, whom
he accompanied in his several wars. He also served with
distinction under Justinian, who created him prefect of
Constantinople in 562. His literary work was extensive, and
much dispute has centred around his name, some claiming, for
instance, that he was a physician on account of his minute
description of the plague. His _History_, is by far his
most important work, dealing with the period 408-554, his
description of his own times being written in a faithful and
masterly manner. Indeed, he is said to have kept a diary when
he accompanied Belisarius upon his expeditions against the
Vandals. His history was continued by Agathias. The Κτίσματα
is an interesting account of the architectural endeavours of
Justinian, somewhat flattering to the emperor’s memory, but
written with a full knowledge of the architectural art. The
Ἀνέκδοτα is a collection of witty and curious stories--court
scandal mostly--the authorship of which is generally ascribed
to Procopius, though some have doubted that it could be the
work of a grave statesman and historian.
* * * * *
=Scylitzes=, Joannes, Σύνοψις ἱστοριῶν συγγραφεῖσα παρὰ Ἰωάννου
κουροπαλάτου καὶ μεγάλου δρουγγαρίου τῆς Βίγλας τοῦ Σκυλίτζη (Synopsis
Historiarum Scripta a Joanne Scylitze Curopalata et Magno Drungario
Vigiliæ), translated into Latin by J. B. Gabius, Venice, 1570.
_Joannes Scylitzes_, surnamed _Curopalates_, held high official
positions at the Byzantine court as late as 1081. The history
now attributed to him, and of which the complete Greek text has
never been published, resembles that of Cedrenus in several
ways, and his claim to original authorship used to be hotly
disputed. It is, however, now generally conceded that Cedrenus
was the copyist. The chronicle includes the period from
811-1079.
=Sicilian History=, edited by F. Batiffol with a Latin translation, in
the Comtes Rendus de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres,
Paris, 1890.
This work, by an unknown Greek, gives events in Sicily from 827
to 965. The Greek text is preserved in two manuscripts,--Cod.
Vatic. 1912 and Cod. Paris, suppl. gr. 920. An old Arabic
manuscript at Cambridge has been recently proved to be a
translation of this history.
=Symeon Metaphrastes=, Χρονογραφία (Annales), in the Paris, Venice, and
Bonn “Corpora.”
_Symeon Metaphrastes_, also called _Magister_ and _Logotheta_,
lived in the second half of the tenth century, and served as
chief secretary of state under Leo VI and Constantine VII.
He was a voluminous writer and compiler, and his _Sanctorum
Vitæ_ gives the biographies of nearly seven hundred saints.
His _Annals_ cover the period from Leo V, 813 A.D., to Romanus
II, 960. His _Chronicle_, a work somewhat different from the
_Annals_, has never been published, and is contained in a
number of manuscripts with varying titles.
* * * * *
=Themistius=, Πολιτικοὶ λόγοι, edited by Aldus, Venice, 1534, and by
Dindorf, Leipsic, 1832; Latin version by Hermolaus Barbarus, Venice,
1481, and often reprinted.
_Themistius_, philosopher and rhetorician, lived at
Constantinople and Rome in the reigns of Constantius, Julian,
Jovian, Valens, Gratian, and Theodosius, all of whom regarded
him with favour. He became a senator, and in the reign of
Theodosius was appointed prefect of Constantinople. He was
frequently employed on embassies and in other public business.
Besides various philosophical works, thirty-five of his
orations survive, several being congratulatory addresses to the
emperors Constantius, Valentinianus, and Valens. He died about
the year 390 A.D.
=Theodorus Anagnostes (Lector)=, Ἐκκλησιαστική ἱστορία, edited by R.
Stephens, in his Excerpta, Paris, 1544; by Christopherson, with a Latin
version, Geneva, 1612; by H. Valesius, Paris, 1673; reprinted, Cambridge,
1720; Turin, 1748.
_Theodorus Anagnostes (Lector)_ lived probably in the reign
of Justin I or Justinian I, and wrote a compendium of
church histories from Constantine the Great to the death
of Constantius II. His _Historia_ covers the period from
Theodosius the Younger to Justin I or Justinian I, but it
survives only in extracts by Nicephorus Callistus (fourteenth
century), by Joannes Damascenus, and others. He is the chief
authority for the reign of the emperors Zeno and Anastasius.
=Theodorus=, bishop of Cyzicus, Χρονικόν.
_Theodorus of Cyzicus_ was supposed to be the author of
a chronicle of the world from Adam to the reconquest of
Constantinople in 1261, but very little is known of his
personality, and his work exists only in fragments, which have
never been published.
=Theodosius of Syracuse=, Θεοδοσίου μοναχοῦ τοῦ καὶ γραμματικοῦ ἐπιστολὴ
πρὸς Λέοντα διάκονον περὶ τῆς ἁλώσεως Συρακούσης, edited by B. Hase (with
Leo Diaconus), Paris, 1819.
_Theodosius_ was a monk of Syracuse, taken away as a captive
to Panormo when the Saracens took Syracuse in 880. While
the events of the catastrophe were fresh in his memory, he
committed them to writing in the form of a letter to Leo
Diaconus.
=Theophanes= of Byzantium, Ἱστορικῶν λόγοι δέκα, fragments edited by
C. Müller, in his Fragmentorum Historicorum Græecorum, vol. IV, Paris,
1841-1870, 5 vols., new edition, 1883; by L. Dindorf, in his Historici
Græci Minores, Leipsic, 1870-1871, 2 vols.
_Theophanes_ of Byzantium lived probably in the sixth century.
His history deals with the Persian War under Justin II, from
the breaking of the truce with Chosroes in 567, and going
down to the tenth year of the war. Theophanes preserved the
record of the bringing of the silkworm to Italy, the Romans not
knowing previously that silk was the product of an insect.
=Theophanes Isaurus=, Χρονικόν, edited by J. Goar, Paris, 1655.
_Theophanes Isaurus_, named also the Confessor, was born of
noble parentage during the reign of Constantine V (741-775),
and while a youth married the daughter of Leo the Patrician.
After discharging sundry public offices he retired from the
world and founded a monastery, his wife going into a convent.
He attended the Council of Nicæa in 787, where he vehemently
defended image worship, and when, in 813, he was called upon to
recant his views, he preferred imprisonment and banishment. His
history begins with Diocletian, 284 A.D., at the point where
Georgius Syncellus stopped, and continues to 813, the time of
his imprisonment, his death occurring in 818. The work is of no
high order, but is valuable in the absence of better sources of
information. His accounts of the affairs of the Eastern Empire
are far more trustworthy than those relating to the Western
Empire, in regard to which he makes the most extraordinary
mistakes. A continuation of Theophanes’ _Chronicle_ was
prepared at the command of Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, and
has come down to us under the title of Χρονογραφία συγγραφεῖσα
ἐκ προστάγματος Κωνσταντίνου τοῦ φιλοχρλιστου δεσπότου καὶ
αὐτοράτορος … ἀρχομένη ὅπου ἔληξε Θεοφάνης … τω βασιλεῖ Μιχαὴλ
υἱοῦ Θεοφίλου τοῦ κουροπαλάτου, ἤγουν ἀπο τῆς βασιλεάς Λέοντος
τοῦ Ἀρμενίου (Scriptores post Theophanen), edited by Leo
Allatius, in his Σύμμικτα, Cologne, 1653; and by Combesius, in
the Paris “Corpus.” The period dealt with is 813-961, and the
compilation is by sundry anonymous writers. Georgius Monachus
and Leo Grammaticus also took up his history from 813.
=Theophilus Abbas=, Life of Justinian, edited by James Bryce, in the
Archivio Storico of the Società Romana de Storia Patria, Rome, 1887.
_Theophilus Abbas_ was cited by N. Allemannus, in his
_Anecdota_, published in 1623, as the author of a life of
Justinian. Nothing, however, was known of the work or of the
author until 1887, when Mr. Bryce discovered the work in
manuscript in the Barberini Library, Rome. The manuscript
purports to be extracted from an original Slavonic manuscript,
but the work appears to be of such a legendary character as
not to be of much historical value. This Theophilus is not at
all to be identified with the jurist Theophilus, who aided
Justinian in the drawing up of his Code.
=Theophylactus Simocatta=, Ἱστορία οἰκουμενή, edited by B. Vulcanius,
Leyden, 1596; by Jacob Pontanus, with a Latin version, Ingolstadt, 1604;
translated into French by F. Morel, Paris, 1603, 1608.
_Theophylactus Simocatta_ was of Egyptian descent, but was
born in Locria. He is known to have held public office under
Heraclius about 610-629 A.D. His history, in continuation of
Menander’s, deals with the life of the emperor Maurice, who
reigned from 582 to 602, and is the oldest and best authority
on the period. It is related that when the author read a
passage from his work after the death of the emperor, the
audience was moved to tears.
* * * * *
=Xiphilinus=, Joannes, Ἐπιτωμή, edited by Leunclavius, Frankfort, 1592;
(see also Dion-Cassius, whose works were abridged by Xiphilinus).
_Xiphilinus_ of Trapezus, the historian, was a nephew of the
patriarch of the same name, and lived in the second half of
the 11th century. He made, at the command of Michael VII Ducas
(1071-1078), an epitome of Dion-Cassius, which unfortunately
includes only books 61-80, because the earlier ones were
lacking in the copy of Dion used by Xiphilinus. His copy was
incomplete in other places also. The work is of value as
preserving the main facts of the original, the greater part of
which is lost, for from book 61-80 of the History of Rome of
Dion-Cassius we have only the abridgment made by Xiphilinus,
and some other epitomes which were probably made by the same
person who epitomised the portion from the 55th to the 60th
book.
* * * * *
=Zonaras=, Joannes, Χρονικόν (Annales), edited by H. Wolf, Basel, 1557, 3
vols.
_Joannes Zonaras_ lived in the twelfth century under the
emperors Alexis I Comnenus and Calo-Joannes. His _Chronicle_
is in eighteen books, and extends from the creation of the
world to the death of Alexis in A.D. 1118. It is compiled from
various Greek authors, such as Josephus and Dion-Cassius. Of
the first twenty books of Dion-Cassius we have nothing but the
abstract of Zonaras. In the latter part of his work Zonaras
wrote as an eye-witness of the events which he describes.
Zonaras, who also wrote a lexicon and other works, was
continued by Nicetas Acominatus.
=Zosimus=, Ἱστορία νεα, edited by F. Sylberg, in his Scriptores Historiæ
Romanæ Minores, Frankfort, 1590; by Ludwig Mendelssohn Dorpat, 1887;
Latin translation by Leunclavius, Basel, 1756; English translation, The
History of Count Zosimus, London, 1814.
_Zosimus_ lived in the age of Theodosius the Younger (408-450),
and probably resided at Constantinople. His history of the
Roman empire, in six books, must have been written after the
year 425, as appears from a record of that year, although
the period actually covered by the history is from the death
of Commodus (192 A.D.) to 410. It is mainly a compilation
from previous historians, but when giving judgment he is
strongly biased in favour of Paganism and against Constantine,
Theodosius, and other champions of Christianity. He has a great
love of the marvellous and his chronology is confused.
_C. Modern Works_
=Abel=, Sigurd, Der Untergang des Langobardenreichs in Italien,
Göttingen, 1859.--=Adams=, W. H. D., Remains of Pompeii and Herculaneum,
London, 1868; 2nd edition, 1878.--=Allcroft=, A. H., The Making of
the Monarchy, London, 1893; (in collaboration with W. F. Masom), Rome
under the Oligarchs, London, 1892; Tutorial History of Rome to 14 A.D.,
London, 1895.--=Aly=, F., Cicero, sein Leben und seine Schriften, Berlin,
1891.--=Alzog=, J. B., Lehrbuch der Universalgeschichte der christlichen
Kirche, Mayence, 1840.--=Ampère=, J. J. A., L’histoire romaine à Rome,
Paris, 1861-1864; L’empire romaine à Rome, Paris, 1867, 4 vols.
_Jean Jacques Antoine Ampère_, French historian, born at Lyons,
August 12th, 1800, died at Pau, March 27th, 1864. He was
professor in the College of France and a member of the French
Academy. In his book Ampère has tried to reconstruct Roman
history from Roman monuments, and the first half is given up
to the period of the kings. The work is rather ingenious than
convincing, being based largely on conjecture, but it is full
of scholarship and artistic enthusiasm.
=Arnold=, Thomas, History of Rome, London, 1840-1843; 1882; History of
the Later Roman Commonwealth, London, 1882, 2 vols.; The Second Punic
War, edited by W. T. Arnold, London, 1886.
_Thomas Arnold_, born at West Cowes, Isle of Wight, June 13th,
1795, was educated at Winchester and Oxford, being elected
fellow of Oriel in 1815. He resided at Oxford until 1819,
devoting himself to historical and theological studies. Upon
leaving the university he settled in Laleham, where his spare
time was occupied with the study of Thucydides and the new
light which had been thrown on Roman history and historical
method generally by the researches of Niebuhr. In August, 1828,
he entered upon his duties as head-master of Rugby. Under his
superintendence this school became a sphere of intellectual,
moral, and religious discipline, where healthy character was
formed and men fitted for the duties and responsibilities of
life. In 1841 he was appointed to the chair of modern history
at Oxford, where he had delivered eight lectures, when he died
very suddenly June 12th, 1842.
Owing to the author’s death his _History of Rome_ was not
completed beyond the Spanish campaign in the Second Punic War
(to B.C. 241). Based on Niebuhr, whose theories on early Roman
history have now been abandoned, the book is thus superseded by
several more recent ones, though its account of the Punic wars
is as satisfactory as any in the English language. The memory
of Arnold has been idealised in _Tom Brown’s Schooldays_, a
novel by Thomas Hughes (1822-1896), who was educated under
Arnold at Rugby.
=Arnold=, W. T., The Roman System of Provincial Administration, London,
1879.
This work well shows the greatness of the Romans in the
administration of provincial affairs. The author was a grandson
of Thomas Arnold.
=Aschbach=, Jos., Geschichte der Westgothen, Frankfort,
1827.--=Assemann=, W., Handbuch der allgemeinen Geschichte, Brunswick,
1853-1864, 6 vols.--=Aube=, Barthélemy, Histoire des persécutions de
l’Église, Paris, 1875, 2 vols.--=Aube=, Benjamin, Les chrétiens dans
l’empire romain de la fin des Antonins jusqu’au milieu du IIIᵐᵉ siècle,
Paris, 1881.
* * * * *
=Babelon=, E. C. F., Description historique et chronologique des monnaies
de la république romaine, Paris, 1885-1886, 2 vols.--=Bähr=, J. C. F.,
Geschichte der römischen Litteratur, Carlsruhe, 1828; 4th edition,
1868-1873, 3 vols.--=Baring-Gould=, S., The Tragedy of the Cæsars,
London, 1892.--=Beaufort=, Louis de, Dissertation sur l’incertitude des
cinq premiers siècles de l’histoire romaine, Paris and Utrecht, 1738;
2nd edition, 1866; English translation, London, 1738; Histoire de la
république romaine, Paris, 1766.--=Becker=, W. A., Handbuch der römischen
Altertümer, Leipsic, 1843-1846, 2 vols. (continued by Marquardt, which
see); Gallus, oder römische Scenen aus der Zeit Augustus, Berlin,
1880-1882, 3 vols.; English translation, Gallus: Roman Scenes in the Time
of Augustus, London, 1882 (in Becker’s _Gallus_ Roman life is represented
much in the same way as Greek life is pictured in his _Charicles_).
_Wilhelm Adolf Becker_ was born at Dresden, 1796, and died at
Meissen, September 30th, 1846. His handbook satisfied a need
which was keenly felt towards the middle of the last century.
The activity in the investigation of old Roman antiquities
called forth by Niebuhr demanded a work giving a general survey
of the certified results of previous investigation. This is
precisely what the _Handbuch_ did. Single items were carefully
examined and placed in their proper position, and the whole
was accompanied by valuable notes giving the most important
sources, a study of which had led the author to his positions,
and giving also opinions differing from his, so that the book
served as a guide to further independent study. The work was
long considered indispensable to specialists, though it has of
late years been superseded somewhat by the works of Mommsen.
For biographical purposes it is still of great value.
=Beesly=, A. H., The Gracchi, Marius, and Sulla, London, 1877.--=Beesly=,
Edward S., Catiline, Clodius, and Tiberius, London, 1878.--=Bekker=, A.,
Corpus Scriptorum Historiæ Byzantinæ; see Byzantine History.--=Beloch=,
Julius, Campanien, Geschichte und Topographie des antiken Neapel und
seiner Umgebung, Berlin, 1879; Breslau, 1890.--=Bergk=, Theodor,
Kritische Bearbeitung des _Monumentum Ancyranum_, Göttingen,
1873.--=Bethmann-Hollweg=, M. A., Gerichtsverfassung und Prozess des
sinkenden römischen Reiches, Bonn, 1834.--=Bickersteth=, A., Outlines
of Roman History, London, 1891.--=Binding=, Karl, Geschichte des
burgundisch-romanischen Königreichs, Leipsic, 1868.--=Block=, G., Les
origines du sénat romain, Paris, 1883.--=Blondel=, J. E., Histoire
économique de la conjuration de Catilina, Paris, 1893.--=Bluhme=,
Friedrich, Die Gens Langobardorum und ihre Herkunft, Bonn, 1868-1874, 2
vols.--=Boissier=, M. L. G., Cicéron et les amis, Paris, 1866; 1872;
La religion romaine, d’Auguste aux Antonins, Paris, 1874, 2 vols.; 2nd
edition, 1878; L’opposition sous les Césars, Paris, 1878; 2nd edition,
1885; La fin du paganisme, Paris, 1891, 2 vols.
_Marie Louis Gaston Boissier_, born at Nîmes, August 15th,
1825, became professor of rhetoric at Nîmes and Paris, and,
in 1861, of Latin eloquence in the College of France. He is a
member of the Academy, and Commander of the Legion of Honour
since 1888. All of Boissier’s works are of interest, presenting
often a wholly new point of view. The work on Roman religion
deals with the religious revolution which took place between
the time of Cicero and of Marcus Aurelius. The change was
from a state of general scepticism to a period when even the
philosophers were religious, and the author traces the causes
of this change. The picture showing the condition of the
inferior classes is particularly interesting. Also in his book
on Cicero the author gives a delightful picture of the society
in which the great orator moved.
=Borsari=, L., Topografia di Roma antica, Milan.--=Botsford=,
George Willis, A History of Rome, London and New York, 1901; The
Story of Rome as Greeks and Romans tell it, London and New York,
1903.--=Bouche-Leclercq=, A., Histoire de la divination dans l’antiquité,
Paris, 1879-1882, 4 vols.; Manuel des institutions romaines, Paris,
1886.--=Bradley=, Henry, The Goths, London, 1888, Article in the
Academy, London, May 15th, 1886.--=Brandis=, C. G., Studien zur
römischen Verwaltungsgeschichte, in Hermes, vol. 31.--=Breal=, Michael,
Les tables Eugubines, texte, traduction et commentaire, avec une
grammaire et une introduction historique, Paris, 1875.--=Breysig=, K.,
Kulturgeschichte der Neuzeit, Berlin, 1901, 2 vols.--=Breysig=, Theodor,
Die Zeit Karl Martels, in Jahrbücher der Deutschen Geschichte, Leipsic,
1869.--=Brosien=, Hermann, Karl der Grosse, Berlin, 1885.--=Browne=, R.
W., History of Roman Classical Literature, London, 1884.--=Brunengo=, G.,
Il Patriziato romano di Carlomagno, Prabo, 1893.--=Bryce=, James, The
Holy Roman Empire, London, 1862.
Bryce’s book shows the mutual relations of Rome and Germany
during the Middle Ages, and is invaluable in throwing clear
light on their intricacies. The author shows that the Roman
Empire continued to exist throughout the Middle Ages, which is
the key to an understanding of the whole period.
=Budinger=, Max, Untersuchungen zur römischen Kaisergeschichte,
Leipsic, 1868-1871, 3 vols. (contains a good account of the Augustan
history).--=Bunbury=, S. H., A History of Ancient Geography, 1879, 2
vols.--=Burger=, C. P., Neue Forschungen zur alten Geschichte Roms,
Amsterdam, 1894.--=Burn=, R., Rome and the Campagna, London, 1870; 2nd
edition, 1875; Old Rome: a handbook to the ruins of the City and the
Campagna, London, 1880.--=Bury=, J. B., History of the Later Roman
Empire, from Arcadius to Irene, London, 1889, 2 vols.; A History of the
Roman Empire, London, 1893. (A biographical notice of this writer has
been given in vol. I, page 295.)
* * * * *
=Canina=, Luigi, Gli edifizi di Roma antica, Rome, 1848-1856, 6
vols.--=Capes=, W. W., The Roman Empire of the Second Century; or the Age
of the Antonines, London, 1876; The Early Empire: from the Assassination
of Cæsar to that of Domitian, London, 1876.--=Capponi=, Gino, Sulla
dominazione dei Longobardi in Italia, in Scritti editi ed inediti,
Florence, 1877, 2 vols.--=Champagny=, F. J. R., Les Césars: Tableau
du monde romain sous les premiers empereurs, Paris, 1841-1853; Les
Césars du IIIᵐᵉ siècle, Paris, 1870.--=Chapot=, V., La classis prætoris
Misenansis, Paris, 1896.--=Charlemagne=, Capitularies of, in Migne’s
Patrologiæ latinæ, Paris, 1844-1855, 221 vols.--=Church=, A. J., Carthage
(Stories of the Nations), London, 1886; Pictures from Roman Life, London,
1893.--=Church=, R. W., The Beginnings of the Middle Ages, A.D. 500-1000,
London, 1877.
This is a good introduction to a study of the Middle Ages,
being one of the best short histories of the time from the fall
of Rome to the dissolution of the Carolingian empire. The book
shows the paths leading up to the union of church and empire
under Otto the Great.
=Clinton=, H. Fynes, Fasti Romani, Oxford, 1845-1850, 2 vols.; An Epitome
of the Civil and Literary Chronology of Rome and Constantinople, from the
Death of Augustus to the Death of Heraclius, edited by H. Fynes Clinton,
London, 1853.
_Clinton’s_ works are standards on the civil and literary
chronology of Greece, Rome, and Constantinople and are
indispensable to students of ancient history.
=Closset=, Leon de, Essai sur l’historiographie des romains,
Brussels, 1850.--=Comyn=, Robert, History of the Western Empire,
London, 1851, 2 vols.--=Coulton=, J. J., Inquiry into the meaning
of the name “Roma,” London, 1893.--=Creighton=, M., Rome, London,
1875.--=Crivellucci=, Amadeo, Papers on Lombard History, in Studi
Storici, Pisa, 1892.--=Cruchon=, G., Les banques dans l’antiquité, Paris,
1879.--=Cruttwell=, C. T., A History of Roman Literature, from the
earliest period to the death of Marcus Aurelius, London and New York,
1877.--=Cumont=, F., Textes et monuments figurés, relatifs aux mystères
de Mithra, Brussels, 1895, 1896, 2 vols.--=Curios=, J. G., Vorgeschichte
Roms, Leipsic, 1878.--=Curteis=, A. M., History of the Roman Empire from
the death of Theodosius to Charlemagne, London, 1875.
This book covers the portion of mediæval history about which
we have the least information. Curteis has based his work
principally upon Gibbon, Milman, and Thierry and gives perhaps
the most acceptable account of the period.
* * * * *
=Dahn=, Felix, Die Könige der Germanen. Wesen und Geschichte des ältesten
Königtums der germanischen Stämme, Würzburg, 1861-1871, vols. 1-6; vol.
7, Leipsic, 1895; Prokopius von Cäserea, Berlin, 1865; Longobardische
Studien, Leipsic, 1876; Urgeschichte der germanischen und romanischen
Völker, Berlin, 1881-1890, 4 vols.--=Davidson=, J. L. S., Cicero and
the Fall of the Republic, in Heroes of the Nations, London and New
York, 1898.--=Deguignes=, Jos., Histoire Générale des Huns, des Turcs,
des Mongols, et des autres Tartares Occidentaux, avant et depuis Jesus
Christ jusqu’à présent, Paris, 1756-1758, 3 vols.--=Denis=, Jacques
François, Histoire des Théories et des idées morales de l’antiquité,
Paris, 1856, 2 vols.--=Dennis=, George, The Cities and Cemeteries of
Etruria, London, 1848, 2 vols.--=Desjardin=, E., Géographie historique et
administrative de la Gaule, Paris, 1876-1893, 4 vols.--=Dindorf=, Ludwig
August, Historici Græci minores, Leipsic, 1870-1871, 2 vols.--=Dirksen=,
H. E., Scriptores Historiæ Augustæ, Leipsic, 1842.--=Dodge=, Theodore
A., Hannibal: Cæsar (Great Captains), Boston, 1892.--=Doesburg=, J. J.,
Geschiedenis der Romenien, Amsterdam, 1890.--=Döllinger=, J. J. von,
Das Kaiserthum Karls des Grossen und seiner Nachfolger, in Akademische
Vorträge, vol. III.; The First Age of Christianity and the Church,
London, 1877.--=Domaszewski=, A. von, Die Heere der Bürgerkriege
in den Jahren 49-42, v. Chr., Neue Heidelberger Jahrbücher, 1894;
1895.--=Dreyfus=, R., Essai sur les lois agraires sous la république
romaine, Paris, 1894.--=Drumann=, W., Geschichte Roms in seinem Übergange
von der republikanischen zur monarchischen Verfassung, 2nd edition,
Berlin, 1899-1902, 2 vols, (contains an excellent account of Sulla).--=Du
Cange=, Charles du F., Histoire de l’empire de Constantinople sous les
empereurs français, Paris, 1657.
_Charles du Fresne Du Cange_, a French lexicographer, was
born at Amiens in 1610. His life was devoted to research into
antiquity and the Middle Ages, and he merited the surname of
the French Varro. His works are very valuable to the student of
ancient or mediæval history.
=Dümmler=, Ernst, Geschichte des ostfränkischen Reiches, Leipsic,
1887-1888, 3 vols.--=Dunham=, S. Astley, History of Europe in the Middle
Ages, London, 1837.--=Duruy=, Jean-Victor, Histoire romaine depuis les
temps les plus reculés jusqu’à la mort de Théodose, Paris, 1879-1885,
7 vols.; Histoire romaine, Paris, 1889-1891; Histoire romaine jusqu’à
l’invasion des barbares, Paris, 1899.--=Dyer=, T. H., A History of the
City of Rome, its structures and monuments, from its foundation to the
end of the Middle Ages, London, 1865; History of the Kings of Rome,
London, 1868.
_Thomas Henry Dyer_, born at London, May 4th, 1804; died
at Bath, Jan. 30, 1888. He was for some time employed as a
clerk in the West India House, but eventually devoted himself
entirely to literature. In his history he finds fault with the
scepticism of writers like Niebuhr, being himself inclined
to accept early Roman history as definite. When he deals
with later historic times, however, he becomes judicious and
trustworthy, but the book has to do with antiquities rather
than institutions and is not so much political as archæological.
* * * * *
=Ebert=, A., Geschichte der christlich-lateinischen Litteratur, Leipsic,
1874-1880, 2 vols.; French translation of vol. II by Aymeric and
Condamin, Paris, 1882, 2 vols.--=Eichhorn=, Karl Friedrich, Deutsche
Staats- und Rechts-Geschichte, Göttingen, 1843-1845, 4 vols.--=Enmann=,
A., Zur römischen Königsgeschichte, St. Petersburg, 1892.--=Esmein=, J.
P. H. E. A., Mélanges d’histoire, du droit et de critique, Paris, 1887.
* * * * *
=Fabia=, P., Les sources de Tacite dans les histoires et les annales,
Paris, 1893.--=Farrer=, T., Paganism and Christianity, London,
1891.--=Favé=, Ildephonse, L’ancienne Rome, Paris, 1880; L’empire
des Francs depuis sa fondation jusqu’à son démembrement, Paris,
1889.--=Finlay=, George, Greece under the Romans, London, 1857; The
History of Greece from its conquest by the Crusaders to its conquest by
the Turks, and of the Empire of Trebizond, London, 1851; History of the
Byzantine and the Greek Empires from 716-1453, Edinburgh and London,
1853-1854, 2 vols.; History of Greece from its Conquest by the Romans to
the present time, edited by H. F. Tozer, Oxford, 1877, 7 vols.--=Fisher=,
G. P., The Beginnings of Christianity, New York, 1877.--=Fiske=, George
Converse, The Politics of the Patrician Claudii, in the Harvard Studies
in Classical Philology, vol. XII, Cambridge, Mass., 1902.--=Flasch=,
F. M., Constantin der Grosse, Würzburg, 1891.--=Förstemann=, Ernst
Wilhelm, Geschichte des deutschen Sprachstamms, Nordhausen, 1874-1875,
2 vols.--=Forsyth=, William, Life of Marcus Tullius Cicero, London,
1867.--=Fountain=, F. O., Defence of Nero, Chiswick, 1892.--=Freeman=, E.
A., General Sketch of European History, London, 1872; Cornelius, Sulla,
and Flavian Cæsars (in Essays, ser. II), London, 1872; Illyrian Emperors
(Essays, ser. III), London, 1880; History of Federal Government in Greece
and Italy, edited by J. B. Bury, London, 1893.--=Friedländer=, Ludwig,
Über den Kunstsinn der Römer in der Kaiserzeit, Königsberg, 1852; Über
die Spiele der alten Römer, in Marquardt’s Römische Staatsverwaltung,
Leipsic, 1873-1878; Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms, Leipsic,
1888-1890, 3 vols.
_Ludwig Friedländer’s_ works represent the cultural side of
Roman life rather than the political. His _Darstellungen aus
der Sittengeschichte Roms_ is one of the most important books
on the subject. In it we get a lifelike picture of the more
important aspects of Roman civilisation during the first two
centuries of the empire.
=Froude=, J. A., Cæsar, London and New York, 1866.--=Fuchs=, J.,
Der zweite punische Krieg und seine Quellen, Polybius und Livius,
Wiener-Neustadt, 1894.--=Furchheim=, Fr., Bibliografia di Pompei,
Ercolano e Stabia, Naples, 1892.--=Fustel de Coulanges=, N. D., La cité
antique, Paris, 1864.
* * * * *
=Gaillard=, Gabriel H., Histoire de Charlemagne, Paris, 1782, 4
vols.--=Gardner=, A., Julian and the last Struggle of Paganism,
London and New York, 1895.--=Gardthausen=, Victor, Augustus und seine
Zeit, Leipsic, 1891, 2 vols.--=Geffcken=, H., Staat und Kirche in
ihrem Verhältniss geschichtlich entwickelt, Berlin, 1875; English
translation, Church and State, their relations historically considered,
London, 1877.--=Gell=, William (in collaboration with John P. Gandy),
Pompeiana: the Topography, Edifices and Ornaments of Pompeii, London,
1821.--=Gelzer=, H., Abriss der byzantinischen Kaisergeschichte, in
Karl Krumbacher’s _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_, Munich,
1897.--=Gerard=, Histoire des Francs d’Austrasie, Brussels, 1865, 2
vols.--=Gerdes=, Heinrich, Geschichte des deutschen Volkes, Leipsic,
1891-1898, 2 vols.--=Gerlach=, F. D., Die Geschichtsschreiber der
Römer bis auf Orosius, Stuttgart, 1855.--=Gfrörer=, August Friedrich,
Geschichte der ost- und westfränkischen Karolinger, Freiburg, 1848, 2
vols.; Byzantinische Geschichten, edited by Weiss, Gratz, 1872-1874,
2 vols.--=Gibbon=, Edward, The History of the Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire, London, 1776-1788, 6 vols.; edited by H. H. Milman, London,
1838-1839, 12 vols.; edited by an English Churchman, London, 1853, 7
vols.; edited by W. Smith, London, 1854-1855, 8 vols.; edited by J. B.
Bury, London, 1896-1900, 7 vols. (see Prolegomena).
_Edward Gibbon_, the most eminent of English historians, was
born at Putney, 1737. His delicate constitution interfered
with his early studies, but at fifteen he entered Magdalen
College, Oxford. In his autobiography he speaks of the fourteen
months he spent there as “the most idle and unprofitable of
his whole life.” Becoming at this time a convert to Romanism,
his father sent him to Lausanne, Switzerland, where he studied
for five years under a Calvinist minister, who won him back
to Protestantism. He returned to England in 1758, and in 1761
published his first work, _Essay on the Study of Literature_,
in French, with which language he was at the time, as he
himself says in his autobiography, more familiar than with
English. His visit to Rome about 1763 first suggested to him
the idea of writing his famous history. The work was finished
in 1787, after the author had spent eighteen years of labour
upon it. It covers the whole period from Trajan to the
conquest of Constantinople, relating not only the political
events and situation, but representing all phases of life in
a wonderfully attractive, frequently dramatic, manner. His
strong bias against Christianity is the only point upon which
he has been attacked. Otherwise, so thorough and exact were
his investigations that although the book was completed over a
century ago, few errors have been brought to light in it by the
steady researches of a century. In 1783 he retired to Lausanne,
where he lived for the remainder of his life. He died in London
in 1794, on one of his visits to England.
=Giesebrecht=, F. W. B. von, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit,
Brunswick, 1855-1888, 5 vols.--=Gilbert=, Otto, Geschichte und
Topographie der Stadt Rom im Alterthum, Leipsic, 1883, 3 vols.--=Gilman=,
A., General History of Rome (Story of the Nations), London and New York,
1886.--=Goldsmith=, Oliver, The History of Rome, from the Foundation
of the City of Rome to the Destruction of the Western Empire, London,
1769; 1825, 2 vols. (A biographical notice of this author has been
given in vol. IV, page 631.)--=Gray=, Elizabeth C. Hamilton, Tour to
the Sepulchres of Etruria, London, 1840.--=Greenidge=, A. H. J., Roman
Public Life, London, 1901.--=Gregorovius=, Ferdinand, Die Geschichte des
römischen Kaisers Hadrian und seiner Zeit, Königsberg, 1851, reprinted
under the title, Der Kaiser Hadrian, Gemälde der römisch-hellenischen
Welt zu seiner Zeit, Stuttgart, 1884; Die Grabdenkmäler der Päbste,
Leipsic, 1857; Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter, Stuttgart,
1859-1873, 8 vols.; 4th edition, 1886-1895; English translation, History
of the City of Rome in the Middle Ages, London, 1894, 6 vols.; Italian
translation ordered by municipal authorities of Rome, Storia della città
di Roma nel medio evo, Venice, 1874-1876, 8 vols.
_Ferdinand Gregorovius_ was born at Neidenburg, Prussia,
January 19th, 1821. He studied theology at Königsberg, but a
journey to Italy, in 1852, caused him to devote his future life
to historical research. For his _History of Rome in the Middle
Ages_, Gregorovius was granted the honorary citizenship of that
city. He died at Munich, May 1st, 1891.
=Grimm=, J., Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer, Göttingen, 1828.--=Grindle=,
G. E. A., The Destruction of Paganism in the Roman Empire, Oxford,
1892.--=Gueldenpenning=, A., Geschichte des oströmischen Reiches, Halle,
1885.--=Guillot=, C., Droit public romain, Mayenne, 1895.--=Guirand=, P.,
La différence entre César et le sénat, Paris, 1878.
* * * * *
=Hadley=, J., Introduction to Roman Law, New York and London,
1874.--=Hagenback=, K. R., Kirchengeschichte von der ältesten Zeit bis
zum 19ten Jahrhundert, Leipsic, 1885, 7 vols.--=Hahn=, H., Jahrbücher
des fränkischen Reiches 741-752, in Jahrbücher der Deutschen Geschichte,
Berlin, 1863.--=Hallam=, H., The View of the State of Europe during
the Middle Ages, London, 1818.--=Hammer-Purgstall=, J. von, Geschichte
des osmanischen Reiches, Vienna, 1827-1834, 10 vols.--=Hardie=, W. R.,
Character and Genius of the Roman People, London, 1895.--=Harnack=,
A., Zur Quellenkritik der Geschichte des Gnosticismus, Leipsic,
1873; Die Zeit des Ignatius und die Chronologie der antiochenischen
Bischöfe, Leipsic, 1878; Das Mönchtum, Seine Ideale und Geschichte,
Giessen, 1881; 4th edition, 1895; Geschichte der altschriftlichen
Litteratur bis Eusebius, Leipsic, 1893; Das Christentum und die
Geschichte, Leipsic, 1896; =Hauréau=, J. B., Charlemagne et sa cour,
Paris, 1852-1855.--=Hegel=, G. W. F., Vorlesungen über die Philosophie
der Geschichte, Berlin, 1833, 8 vols.; English translation by J.
Sibree, Lectures on the Philosophy of History, London, 1857.--=Hegel=,
R., Geschichte der Städteverfassung von Italien, Leipsic, 1847,
2 vols.--=Hemans=, C., Historical and Monumental Rome, London,
1874.--=Herbert=, W., Attila, King of the Huns, London, 1838. (An epic
poem in twelve books, containing also an historical treatise on Attila
and his predecessors.)--=Hertzberg=, G. F., Geschichte Griechenlands
unter der Herrschaft der Römer, Berlin, 1875; Geschichte des römischen
Kaiserreiches, Berlin, 1880-1882; Geschichte der Byzantiner und des
osmanischen Reiches, Berlin, 1882-1884; Geschichte der Römer im
Alterthum, Berlin, 1885.--=Herzog=, E. von, Geschichte und System der
römischen Staatsverfassung, Tübingen, 1884-1891, 2 vols.--=Heyd=,
Wilhelm von, Geschichte des Levantehandels im Mittelalter, Leipsic,
1885-1886.--=Heyne=, C. G., Antiquitates Byzantinæ, 1808-1811.--=Hirsch=,
F., Das Herzogtum Benevent bis zum Untergang des Langobardenreiches,
Leipsic, 1847.--=Hirschfeld=, H. O., Untersuchungen auf dem Gebiete
der römischen Verwaltungsgeschichte, Berlin, 1877; Zur Geschichte des
lateinischen Rechts, Berlin, 1879; Inscriptiones Galliæ Narbonensis
Latinæ, Berlin, 1888; Timagones und die gallische Wanderung, in the
Sitzungsbericht der Berliner Akademie, Berlin, 1894.
_Otto Hirschfeld_, a distinguished German historian and
epigraphist, was born March 16, 1843, at Königsberg, Prussia.
After pursuing philological and historical studies at the
universities of Bonn and Berlin, he was engaged in epigraphical
and historical research in Italy from 1865 to 1867. He was
successively professor at Prague, Vienna, and Berlin, and has
for many years been director of the Institute of Archæology at
Berlin. In addition to several important historical works of
his own production, he has collaborated with Mommsen in the
_Ephemeris epigraphica_, and has contributed largely to the
_Corpus inscriptionum latinarum_ and the _Inscriptiones Gallicæ
Narbonensis latinæ_.
=Hodgkin=, Thomas, Vandals, article in the Ninth Edition of the
Encyclopædia Britannica; The Dynasty of Theodosius, Oxford, 1889; Italy
and her Invaders, Oxford, 1880-1889, 7 vols.; 1899, 8 vols.; Life of
Theodoric, Oxford, 1891; Charles the Great, London, 1899.--=Hœck=,
K., Römische Geschichte vom Verfall der Republik bis zur Vollendung
der Monarchie unter Constantin, Göttingen, 1841.--=How=, W. W. (in
collaboration with H. D. Leigh), A History of Rome to the Death of
Cæsar, London.--=Howorth=, H. H., The Westerly Drifting of Nomads,
article in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vol. V,
London, 1874.--=Hullman=, K. D., Geschichte des byzantinischen Handels,
Frankfort, 1808.
* * * * *
=Ihne=, W., Römische Geschichte, Leipsic, 1868-1890, 8 vols.; English
translation by the author, The History of Rome, London, 1871-1882, 5
vols.; Rome: to its Capture by the Gauls, London, 1878.
_Wilhelm Ihne_, German philologist and classical historian,
was born February 2nd, 1821, at Fürth. He spent several years
in England as a teacher and has, since 1863, been professor at
Heidelberg. Ihne’s history deals with the early period of Rome
up to the time when Augustus became sole ruler. It is addressed
to a general audience, and consequently the author attempts to
establish his position in a generally comprehensible manner. He
succeeds better in his undertaking when he reaches the ground
of more reliable tradition where he is not obliged to clothe
difficult critical analysis in popular garb. The author takes a
wholly unprejudiced stand, examining all evidence, separating
fact from conjecture, and leaving the reader to form his own
judgment. The work is marked by sound common sense.
=Ihne=, W. R., Society in Rome under the Cæsars, London, 1888. (A good
popular account of the daily life of the period.)
* * * * *
=Jacobi=, R., Die Quellen der Langobardengeschichte des Paulus
Diaconus, Halle, 1877; =Jaffé=, Philip, Geschichte des deutschen
Reiches unter Lothar dem Sachsen, Berlin, 1843; (see also classical
section).--=Jäger=, O., Geschichte der Römer, Gütersloh, 1861.--=Jahn=,
A., Die Geschichte der Burgundionen, und Burgundiens, 1874, 2
vols.--=Jay=, B., Synopsis of Roman History, London, 1894.--=Jonson=,
Ben, Tragedy of Catiline, London, 1611.--=Jordan=, H., Topographie der
Stadt Rom im Altertum, Berlin, 1871, 1878, 1885, 2 vols.--=Jung=, J.,
Geographie und politische Geschichte des klassischen Altertums, in
Ivan Müller’s Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, vol. 3,
Nördlingen 1889.
* * * * *
=Kärst=, F., Kritische Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des zweiten
Samniten-krieges, in Neues Jahrbuch für Philologie, Luppe, vol.
13.--=Kaufmann=, G. H., Deutsche Geschichte bis auf Karl den Grossen,
Leipsic, 1880-1881, 2 vols.--=Keightley=, Thomas, The History of Rome to
the End of the Republic, London, 1842.--=Kiepert=, H., Handbuch der alten
Geographie, Berlin, 1878.--=Kingsley=, Charles, The Roman and the Teuton,
London, 1875; 1889.--=Klein=, J., Die Verwaltungsbeamten der Provinzen
des römischen Reiches, Berlin, 1878.--=Köpke=, Der Anfang des Königthums
bei den Gothen, Berlin, 1854.--=Kornemann=, E., Zur Stadtentstehung
in den ehemals keltischen und germanischen Gebieten des Römerreiches,
Giessen, 1898.--=Körte=, G., Ein Wandgemälde von Vulci als Dokument
der römischen Königsgeschichte.--=Kraschenimkow=, M., Die Augustalen
und das Sacral-magisterium, St. Petersburg, 1895.--=Krumbacher=, K.,
Byzantinische Zeitschrift, Leipsic, 1892 (in collaboration with A.
Ehrhard and H. Gerzer); Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur, in
I. Müller’s Handbuch der klassischen Alterthumswissenschaften, vol. 9,
Munich, 1897.--=Kuhn=, E., Verfassung der Städte des römischen Reiches,
Leipsic, 1864.
* * * * *
=La Barte=, J., History of the Arts of the Middle Ages, London,
1855.--=Lanciani=, Rodolfo, Le Acque e gli acquedotti di Roma antica,
Rome, 1880; Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries, London,
1889; Pagan and Christian Rome, London and Boston, 1892; Forma urbis
Romæ, Milan and New York, 1893-1901; A Manual of Roman Antiquities,
London, 1894; New Tales of Old Rome, Boston, 1901.--=Lange=, L., Römische
Alterthümer, Berlin, 1876-1879, 2 vols.--=Lau=, G. J. T., Gregor I
der Grosse, nach seinem Leben und seiner Lehre geschildert, Leipsic,
1845.--=Laurent=, F., Études sur l’histoire de l’humanité, Paris,
1880.--=Lavisse=, E. (in collaboration with Alfred Rambaud), Histoire
générale du IVᵐᵉ siècle à nos jours, Paris, 1893, etc., 8 vols. in
progress.--=Le Beau=, Charles, Histoire du Bas-Empire depuis Constantin,
Paris, 1757-1779, 22 vols.--=Lecky=, W. E. H., History of European Morals
from Augustus to Charlemagne, London, 1870.--=Lecointe=, Charles, Annales
ecclésiastiques de la France, Paris, 1665-1680, 8 vols.--=Lehmann=, C.
F., Beiträge zur alten Geschichte, 1902.--=Leighton=, R. F., A History of
Rome, New York, 1880.--=Lemonnier=, H., Étude historique sur la condition
privée des Affranchis, Paris, 1887.--=Lenormant=, F., La grande Grèce,
Paris, 1881-1884, 3 vols.; (a biographical notice of this writer is given
in vol. I, p. 588).--=Lewis=, George Cornewall, An Inquiry into the
Credibility of the Early Roman History, London, 1855, 2 vols.
_George Cornewall Lewis_, a statesman and man of letters,
was born in London, April 21, 1806. Educated at Eton and
Oxford, he was called to the bar in 1831. Although almost
constantly engaged in public life, he devoted much attention
to literature, writing numerous essays and contributions to
reviews, besides publishing several translations from the
German. All of his writings are distinguished for clear, sober,
and original thought. He died in April, 1863. In his inquiry
into the credibility of early Roman history Lewis submits early
Roman history to the same tests that are applied in determining
credibility in judicial investigation. In applying these tests
to Niebuhr’s positions he decides that many of them are based
on insufficient foundations, and comes to the conclusion that
all efforts to clear up early Roman history are thrown away
since there is no contemporary evidence.
=Lézardière=, Marie Pauline de, Théorie des lois politiques de la
monarchie française, Paris, 1844, 4 vols.--=Liddell=, H. G., A History of
Rome from the earliest Times to the Establishment of the Empire, London
and New York, 1865.
_Henry George Liddell_ was born at Binchester, February 6th,
1811. Educated at Oxford, he became a college tutor and in
1846 was made head-master of Westminster School. In 1834, he
began, in collaboration with Robert Scott, the preparation of
the _Greek-English Lexicon_, which was his life-work. In 1855
he was appointed dean of Christ Church, Oxford, which position
he retained until 1891. Liddell’s history is a most valuable
work, being as Mr. Adams says of it, “a storehouse of accurate
information.”
=Liebenau=, W., Städteverwaltung im römischen Kaiserreich, Leipsic,
1900.--=Lilly=, W. S., Ancient Religion and Modern Thought, London,
1884.--=Lindner=, Theodor, Die sogenannten Schenkungen Pippins, Karls des
Grossen und Ottos I, Stuttgart, 1896.--=Lippert=, Julius, Die Religionen
der europäischen Kulturvölker, Berlin, 1881.--=Lockhart=, J. G.,
Velerius, a Roman Story, Edinburgh, 1821.--=Long=, G., The Decline of the
Roman Republic, London, 1864-1874, 5 vols. This book covers the period
from the destruction of Carthage to the death of Julius Cæsar.--=Lorenz=,
F., Karls des Grossen Privat- und Hofleben, in Von Raumer’s Historisches
Taschenbuch, Leipsic, 1832.
* * * * *
=Macaulay=, T. B., Lays of Ancient Rome, London, 1812.--=Macdermot=,
T. B., Outline of Roman History, Dublin, 1892.--=Mackenzie=, Lord,
Studies of the Roman Law, with Comparative Views of the Laws of France,
England, and Scotland, 5th edition, edited by John Kirkpatrick,
London, 1880.--=Maclear=, G. F., Apostles of Mediæval Europe, London,
1868.--=Madvig=, J. N., Die Verfassung und Verwaltung des römischen
Staats, Leipsic, 1881-1882, 2 vols.--=Mahaffy=, J. P., The Greek World
under Roman Sway, London, 1890.--=Mahon=, Philip Henry Stanhope,
Life of Belisarius, London, 1848.--=Manso=, J. K. F., Geschichte des
ostgothischen Reiches in Italien, Breslau, 1824.--=Marioni=, G., I
Papiri Diplomatici, Rome, 1805 (a collection of documents, papal bulls,
legal documents of transactions between Byzantine merchants, officials,
clergy, etc.).--=Marlot=, E., Précis des institutions politiques de Rome,
Paris, 1886.--=Marquardt=, K. J., vols. 3 to 5 of Becker’s Handbuch der
römischen Altertümer, Leipsic, 1849-1868; second edition of complete
work (in collaboration with Th. Mommsen), Leipsic, 1881-1886, 7 vols.;
Römische Staatsverwaltung, forming vols. 4 to 6 of Handbuch der römischen
Altertümer, Leipsic, 1873-1878; 1881-1885; Privatleben der Römer,
forming vol. 7 of Handbuch der römischen Altertümer, Leipsic, 1879-1882;
2nd edition, 1886.--=Marrast=, A., Esquisses Byzantines, Paris,
1874.--=Martens=, W., Politische Geschichte des Langobardenreiches unter
König Luitbrand, Heidelberg, 1880.--=Martin=, H., Histoire de France,
Paris, 1838-1853; 1855-1860, 18 vols.--=Marx=, F., Die Beziehungen der
klassischen Völker des Altertums zu dem keltisch-germanischen Norden,
Beilage der Allgemeinen Zeitung, 1897, No. 162, 163.--=Mascov=, J. J.,
Geschichte der Deutschen bis zum Abgang der merovingischen Könige,
Leipsic, 1726-1737, 2 vols.--=Masom=, W. F., The Struggle for Empire,
287-202 B.C., London, 1894 (in collaboration with F. G. Plaistowe);
Synopsis of Roman History, London, 1891.--=Mason=, A. J., The Persecution
of Diocletian, Cambridge, 1876.--=Mayor=, J. E. B., Bibliographie Clue to
Latin Literature, London, 1875.--=Meitzen=, A., Siedelung und Agrarwesen
der Westgermanen und Ostgermanen, der Kelten, Römer, Finnen und Slaven,
Berlin, 1895, 3 vols.--=Meltzer=, O., Geschichte der Karthager, Berlin, 2
vols.--=Menzel=, W., Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung von der ältesten
bis auf die neueste Zeit, Leipsic, 1875, 2nd edition, 3 vols.; English
translation by Horrocks, History of Germany from the Earliest Period to
the Present Time, London, 1848, 3 vols.--=Merivale=, Charles, A History
of the Romans under the Empire, London, 1850-1862, 7 vols.; The Fall of
the Roman Republic, London, 1853; A General History of Rome, London,
1875; The Roman Triumvirates, London, 1876.
_Charles Merivale_ was born March 8th, 1808, and educated at
Harrow, Haileybury, and Cambridge. In 1833 he was elected
fellow of St. Johns. In addition to gaining distinction as a
student he was prominent in athletic sports, rowing in the
first inter-university boat-race in 1829. He was ordained in
1833, appointed chaplain to the speaker of the House of Commons
in 1863, and in 1869 became dean of Ely. He died December 27th,
1893. Merivale’s _History of the Romans under the Empire_ did
much to foster the study of Roman history during the empire.
Beginning with Sulla’s death, it follows the intellectual and
social life of the period, up to the death of Marcus Aurelius,
with a certain degree of completeness, although the author does
not touch any of the deeper problems in connection with the
history of the imperial period.
=Meyer=, Edward, Geschichte des Alterthums, Stuttgart, 1884-1893, 2
vols.; Untersuchungen über die Schlacht im Teutoburger Walde, Berlin,
1895; Über den Ursprung des Tribunats, in Hermes, vol. 30, 1895. A
biographical notice of this author appears in vol. I, p. 302. The second
volume of Meyer’s history, which is the last that has appeared, brings
us down to the Persian wars. In keeping with its general character it
gives a survey of the whole Occident, including the beginnings of Italian
history and the establishment of Etruscan power in Italy. But while
dealing with Italy as a whole, new light is thrown upon the history of
Rome in particular, as upon Etruscan dominion in Latium, the character
of patrician rule, the system of land ownership, etc. The oldest Italic
and Etruscan civilisation is also well portrayed. =Meyer=, K., Sprache
und Sprachdenkmäler der Langobarden, Paderborn, 1877.--=Michaud=, J.
F., L’histoire des croisades, Paris, 1841, 6 vols.; English translation
by W. Robson, London, 1852, 3 vols.--=Michelet=, J., Histoire romaine,
Paris, 1831, 2 vols.; English translation by W. Hazlitt, History of the
Roman Republic, London, 1847.--=Middleton=, J. H., Ancient Rome in 1888,
London, 1888; Article on Rome in the Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth
Edition; The Remains of Ancient Rome, London, 1892, 2 vols.--=Milman=, H.
H., History of Christianity from the Birth of Christ to the Abolition of
Paganism, London, 1867.--=Mispoulet=, Y. B., Les institutions politiques
des romains, Paris, 1882-1883, 2 vols.--=Mommsen=, Theodor, Corpus
inscriptionum neapolitanarum, Leipsic, 1851; Römische Geschichte, Berlin,
1853-1856, 3 vols.; 8th edition, 1888, 5 vols.; Die Rechtsfrage zwischen
Cæsar und dem Senat, Breslau, 1857; Die römische Chronologie bis auf
Cæsar, Berlin, 1858-1859; Geschichte des römischen Münzwesens, Breslau,
1860; Verzeichniss der römischen Provinzen um 297, Berlin, 1862; Römische
Forschungen, Berlin, 1865-1879, 2 vols.; translated into English by W. P.
Dickson, History of Rome to Time of Augustus, London, 1868-1875, 4 vols.;
Römisches Staatsrecht, Leipsic, 1871-1888, 3 vols. (in collaboration
with K. J. Marquardt); the second edition of the Handbuch der römischen
Altertümer, Leipsic, 1881-1886, 7 vols.; translated into English by W. P.
Dickson, The Roman Provinces, London, 1887, 2 vols.; History of the Roman
Republic (abridged by C. Bryans and F. J. P. Hendrick), London, 1888;
Abriss des römischen Staatsrechts, Leipsic, 1893.
_Theodor Mommsen_, German historian and epigraphist, was of
Danish origin, and was born at Garding in Schleswig, November
30th, 1817. Educated at Altona and Kiel, he spent the years
from 1844 to 1847 in archæological exploration in Rome.
Appointed in 1848 a professor at Leipsic, he lost his position
by participating in the stirring politics of that year. In 1852
he became professor at Zurich and in 1858 at the university of
Berlin. In 1874 he was made perpetual secretary of the Academy
of Sciences at Berlin. From 1873 to 1882 he was a member of
the Chamber of Deputies of Prussia. He declined an election to
the Reichstag in 1881, protesting against the policy of Prince
Bismarck, and particularly against the progress of socialism in
the state. This criticism having roused the ire of the prince,
Mommsen was, in 1882, prosecuted for defamation. The case
gained great celebrity. Acquitted upon the first trial, the
judgment was reversed upon appeal, and upon a second trial, in
which he defended himself, he was again victorious.
Professor Mommsen’s work marks an important epoch in the field
of Roman history. His history of Rome appeared first in 1854,
in a series of volumes intended for a more general public,
so that only results of his investigation were given. There
is a marked departure in Mommsen’s style from the reserve of
the classical historians. He by no means regards the events
he describes in the light of an outsider, but takes sides for
or against different parties and leading characters. He has a
special antipathy, for example, against the Etruscans, also
against Cicero. It is this personal element, perhaps, which
seems to make the whole work live. Persons and things are
introduced with the utmost vividness. The different characters,
men like Gracchus, Sulla, and Cæsar seem to be actually living,
breathing persons, and no mere words on a page. But not alone
was the style new--wholly new material was brought forward,
making a new chapter of Italic history, based on a study of the
country itself, on the monuments of old time, especially on
finds in tombs in Italy. Above everything else the different
aspects of the national development--the economic, artistic,
and literary--are brought together with a master hand. The book
at once aroused new interest in classical study throughout the
country. Also to special departments Mommsen has contributed
invaluable productions--epigraphy, numismatics, above all the
constitutional law of the Romans, all have received the stamp
of his genius.
=Montalembert=, C. F. de T., Les moines d’Occident, Paris, 1860-1867, 7
vols.; English translation, The Monks of the West from S. Benedict to S.
Bernard, Edinburgh and London, 1860-1870, 7 vols.--=Monticolo=, G., I
Manuscritti e le fonti della Cronica del Diacono Giovanni, Rome, 1889;
Cronache Veneziani Antichissime, Rome, 1890; Le Spedizioni di Luitprando
nell’ Escarto e la Lettera di Gregorio III al Doge Orso, in Archivio
della Società Romana di Storia Patria, 1892.--=Monumenta Germaniæ
Historica=, Hanover, 1826; in progress.
Accurate texts of all the more important historical writers on
Germany down to the year 1500, also laws, archives, and letters
within this period. Edited by Pertz from 1826-1874, during
which period 24 volumes were published. Since 1874 it has been
continued by Waitz, Wattenbach, Dümmler, and others.
=Müller=, C., Fragmenta Historicorum Græcorum, Paris, 1841-1870, 5
vols.; new edition, 1883.--=Müller=, I. von, Handbuch der klassischen
Altertumswissenschaft, Nördlingen, 1885, in progress, 9 vols. (part 4
to vol. V appeared in 1902).--=Müller=, D., Geschichte des deutschen
Volkes, Berlin, 1900.--=Müller=, F., Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft,
Vienna, 1876-1888, 3 vols.--=Müller=, K. O., Etrusker, Breslau, 1828,
2 vols.; edited by W. Deecke, Stuttgart, 1877.--=Munk=, E., Geschichte
der römischen Litteratur, London, 1858-1861, 3 vols.--=Muratori=, L. A.,
Rerum italicarum scriptores præcipui ab anno 500 ad annum 1500, Milan,
1723-1751, 29 vols.
_Muratori_ was born at Vignola in Modena in 1672. He was
educated for the church but in the year 1700 was appointed
librarian for the duke of Modena. Muratori was one of the most
distinguished savants of the eighteenth century.
=Murphy=, A., English translation of Tacitus, London, 1793.--=Murray=, A.
S., Terra-cotta Sarcophagi, Greek and Etruscan, London, 1898.
* * * * *
=Napoleon III=, Histoire de Jules César, Paris, 1865-1866, 2 vols.;
English translation, History of Julius Cæsar, London, 1865, 2 vols.
In this work the author declared that it was written to prove
that when Providence raises up such men as Cæsar, Charlemagne,
and Napoleon, it is to trace out to people the path they ought
to follow; in effect it was an apology for the Napoleonic
absolutism.
=Naudet=, J., Histoire de la monarchie des Goths en Italie, Paris,
1810.--=Neumann=, C., Weltstellung des byzantinischen Reiches,
Heidelberg, 1894; Die Grundherrschaft der römischen Republik,
Strassburg, 1900.--=Niccolini=, G., Fasti tribunorum plebis ab anno
269 ad annum 731, Studi storici, 1895.--=Nichols=, F. M., The Marvels
of Rome, London, 1889 (an English translation from the Latin of the
twelfth century guide-book).--=Niebuhr=, B. G., Römische Geschichte,
Berlin, 1811-1832, 3 vols.; new edition, 1873; English translation by
W. Smith, L. Schmitz, J. C. Hare, and C. Thirlwall, The History of
Rome, London, 1859, 3 vols.; Lectures on the History of Rome from the
First Punic War to the death of Constantine, edited by L. Schmitz from
Niebuhr’s lectures, London, 1844, 2 vols.; Vorträge über die römische
Geschichte, edited by Isler, Berlin, 1846-1848, 3 vols.; Vorträge über
alte Geschichte, edited by M. Niebuhr, Berlin, 1847-1851, 3 vols.;
English translation by L. Schmitz, Lectures on Ancient History, London,
1852; Vorträge über römische Altertümer, edited by Isler, Berlin, 1858;
contributions to the Geschichte der Stadt Rom, compiled by Bunsen,
Platner, and others, Stuttgart, 1830-1843, 3 vols.; Corpus Scriptorus
Historiæ Byzantiæ, see Byzantine History.
_Berthold G. Niebuhr_ was born at Copenhagen, August 27th,
1776. In his early life he was secretary to the minister of
finance of Denmark, and afterwards director of the Bank. In
1806 he removed to Berlin, where he was councillor of state
in 1808, and upon the foundation of the University of Berlin
in 1810 was named as professor of history. From 1816 to 1824
he resided in Rome as ambassador of Prussia, profiting by
his sojourn in the opportunity to make important researches
in Roman history and philology. On his return he accepted a
professorship at the University of Bonn, where he remained
until his death, January 2nd, 1831. The critical methods of
Niebuhr began a new era in the whole science of history; or,
as Macaulay says, in the “history of European intelligence.”
His Roman history appeared first in 1811, being made up
primarily from lectures delivered at the University of Berlin
during the winter of the same year. Various causes worked
together to make Niebuhr’s achievement possible, his broad
scholarship, his experience in political, judicial, economic,
and even military questions--his acquaintance with Rome, its
land and its people, his knowledge of persons gained through
his travels and diplomatic positions, and above all his rare
gift of combination and his comprehensive outlook. Niebuhr’s
work stands for all time as an example of true historical
criticism; his object can best be made plain in his own words:
“We must strive to single out fable and falsification, and
train our glance to recognise the outlines of truth freed from
every gloss. The identification of fable and the refutation of
deceit may be enough for the critic; he desires only to expose
misleading accounts. The historian needs something positive;
he must at least discover the connection of facts with some
probability and discover a more probable narrative in place of
that which is sacrificed to his convictions.”
=Niese=, B., Grundriss der römischen Geschichte nebst Quellenkunde, 1896,
2nd edition; De annalibus Romanis, 2 programme, Marburg.--=Nisard=, D.,
Les quatre grands historiens latins, Paris, 1874.--=Nitzsch=, K. W., Die
römische Annalistik, von ihren ersten Aufängen bis zu Valerius Antias,
Berlin, 1873; Die Geschichte der römischen Republik, edited by Thouret,
Berlin, 1884-1885, 2 vols.
* * * * *
=Oberhammer=, E., Bericht über Landes- und Völkerkunde.--=Œlsner=,
Zur Chronologie der italienischen Ereignisse, in his Jahrbücher des
fränkischen Reiches unter König Pippin, Leipsic, 1871.--=Oman=, C. W. C.,
The Byzantine Empire (Story of the Nations), London, 1892; A History of
Europe from 476-918, London, 1893.--=Ozanam=, A. F., La Civilisation au
Vᵐᵉ siècle, Paris, 1855; English translation, History of Civilisation in
the Fifth Century, London and Philadelphia, 1867, 2 vols.
* * * * *
=Pabst=, H., Geschichte des Langobardenherzogtums, in Forschungen
zur deutschen Geschichte, 1862, 2 vols.--=Pagi=, Antoine, Critica
historico-chronologica, Geneva, 1689-1705, 4 vols.--=Pais=, Ettore,
Storia di Roma, forming Part II of his Storia d’Italia dei tempi
più antichi, Turin, 1894-1899.--=Pallmann=, R., Geschichte der
Völkerwanderung, Berlin, 1863-1864, 2 vols.
_R. Pallmann_, German geographer, historian, and publicist,
born at Spremberg, June 14th, 1835. In his _Völkerwanderung_
he attempts to prove that the migration of the nations who
destroyed the Roman Empire was much less than has been
supposed, and makes a very careful examination of the ancient
authorities.
=Papencerdt=, J., Geschichte der Stadt Rom, Paderborn,
1857.--=Papencordt=, Felix, Geschichte der Vandalen, Paderborn,
1837.--=Parker=, J. H., The Archeology of Rome, Oxford, 1874-1880, 16
vols.--=Paucker=, C., De Latinitate Scritorum Historiæ Augustæ malemata,
Dorpat, 1870.--=Pelham=, H. F., Outlines of Roman History, London, 1893,
1895, 1903.--=Perrin=, R., Marche d’Annibal des Pyrenées au Po, Metz,
1887.--=Perry=, Walter C., The Franks from their First Appearance in
History to the Death of King Pepin, London, 1857.--=Person=, E., Essai
sur l’administration des provinces romaines sous la république, Paris,
1878.--=Pertz=, Georg Heinrich, Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Hanover,
1826-1874, 24 vols.--=Peter=, Carl Ludwig, Geschichte Roms, Halle, 1853,
3 vols., 4th edition 1881; Zur Kritik der Quellen der älteren römischen
Geschichte, Halle, 1879.--=Peter=, Hermann, Historia Critica Scriptorum
Historiæ Augustæ, Leipsic, 1860; Exercitationes Criticæ in Scriptores
Historiæ Augustæ, Posen, 1863; Die Quellen Plutarchs in den Biographien
der Römer, Halle, 1865; Die Geschichtliche Litteratur über die römische
Kaiserzeit bis Theodosius, 2 vols.--=Peyre=, R., L’empire romain,
Paris, 1894.--=Pierron=, A., Histoire de la littérature romaine, Paris,
1857.--=Plew=, J., Marius Maximus als Quelle der Scriptores Historiæ
Augustæ, Strassburg, 1878.--=Pohlmann=, R., Die Anhänge der Socialismus
in Europa.--=Pollard=, A., Historische Zeitschrift, 1879-1880; Stories
from Roman History London, 1892.--=Potthast=, Aug., Bibliotheca historica
Medii Ævi, 375-1500 A.D., Berlin, 1868.--=Pressensé=, E. de, Histoire
des trois premiers siècles de l’Église chrétienne, Paris, 1887-1889, 3
vols.; English translation by A. Harewood Hohnden, The Early Years of
Christianity, London and New York, 1879, 4 vols.--=Prévost-Paradol=, L.
A., Essai, sur l’histoire universelle, Paris, 1890, 2 vols.
* * * * *
=Quicheret=, J., Mélanges d’archéologie et d’histoire, Paris, 1885, 2
vols.--=Quidde=, F., Caligula, Leipsic, 1894.
* * * * *
=Rambaud=, Alfred Nicolas (in collaboration with Ernest Lavisse),
Histoire Générale du IVᵐᵉ siècle à nos jours, Paris, 1893, 8 vols. in
progress.--=Ranke=, Leopold von, Weltgeschichte, Leipsic, 1880-1888, 9
vols. (vols. 7-9 edited by Dove, Wiedemann, and Winter); 2nd edition
1896, 4 vols.--=Rawlinson=, George, The Seventh Great Oriental
Monarchy, London, 1876. Gives history of the wars between Persia and
the empire. (A biographical notice of this author is given in vol. I,
p. 571.)--=Reinhardt=, S., Der Perserkrieg des Kaisers Julian, Gotha,
1892.--=Renan=, Joseph Ernest, Histoire des origines de Christianisme,
Paris, 1887. (A biographical notice of this writer has been given
in vol. II, p. 235.)--=Reumont=, A. U., Geschichte der Stadt Rom,
Berlin, 1867-1870, 3 vols.--=Reville=, J., La Religion à Rome sous
les Sévères, Paris, 1886.--=Richter=, Gustav, Annalen der deutschen
Geschichte im Mittelalter, Halle, 1873.--=Robinson=, W. S., First
History of Rome, London, 1890.--=Rodocanachi=, E., Les corporations
ouvrières à Rome depuis la chute de l’empire romaine, Paris, 1894,
2 vols.--=Rollin=, Charles, L’histoire romaine, Paris, 1738-1741, 5
vols.--=Rösler=, E., Robert, Romanische Studien, Untersuchungen zur alten
Geschichte Romaniens, Leipsic, 1871.--=Roth=, Paul von, Geschichte des
Beneficialwesen, Erlangen, 1850.
* * * * *
=Sartorius=, Georg, Versuch über die Regierung der Ostrogothen während
ihrer Herrschaft in Italien, Hamburg, 1811.--=Saulcy=, F. J., Essai de
classification des suites monétaires byzantines, Paris, 1836.--=Savigny=,
Friedr. Karl von, Geschichte des römischen Rechts im Mittelalter,
Heidelberg, 1834-1851, 7 vols.--=Sayous=, Pierre Andrée, Les origines
et l’épopée païenne de l’histoire des Hongrois, Paris, 1874; Histoire
générale des Hongrois, Paris, 1877, 2 vols.--=Schäfer=, Arnold, Abriss
der Quellenkunde der griechischen und römischen Geschichte, Leipsic,
vol. I, 4th edition, 1889; vol. II, 2nd edition, 1885.--=Schenk=, K.,
in Byzantische Zeitschrift, Leipsic, 1896.--=Schiller=, Johann Heinrich
Karl Friedrich Hermann, Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit bis auf
Theodosius den Grossen, Gotha, 1886-1888, 2 vols. (in collaboration with
M. Voigt), Die römischen Staats-, Kriegs- und Privataltertümer, in I.
Müller’s Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaften, Nördlingen,
1887.--=Schlegel=, K. W. F. von, Lectures on the History of Literature,
New York, 1841.--=Schlosser=, F. C., Geschichte der bilderstürmenden
Kaiser des Oströmischen Reichs, Frankfort, 1812; Weltgeschichte für
das deutsche Volk, Oberhausen and Leipsic, 1874-1875, 19 vols. (A
biographical notice of this writer has been given in vol. IV, page
637.)--=Schmidt=, Ludwig, Zur Geschichte der Langobarden, Dresden,
1885.--=Schmidt=, O. E., in Spanier’s Illustrierte Weltgeschichte, vol.
II, von Alexander dem Grossen bis zu Beginn der Volkswanderung, 3rd
edition.--=Schmitz=, Leonard, A History of Rome from the Earliest Times
to the Death of Commodus, London, n.d.--=Schmitz=, M., Quellenkunde
der römischen Geschichte bis auf Paulus Diaconus, Gütersloh,
1881.--=Schneidewin=, M., Die antike Humanität.--=Schoener=, R., Rome,
London, 1898.--=Schön=, G., Das capitolinische Verzeichniss der römischen
Triumphe.--=Schroder=, W., De primordiis Artis Historici apud Græcos
et Romanos, Jena, 1868.--=Schubert=, Hans von, Die Unterwerfung der
Alamannen unter die Franken, Strassburg, 1884.--=Schuckburgh=, E. S.,
History of Rome to the Battle of Actium, London, 1894.--=Schwartz=, E.,
Die Berichte über die catilinarische Verschwörung, Hermes, vol. 32, p.
554.--=Schwegler=, Albert, Römische Geschichte, Tübingen, 1853-1858, 3
vols.
_Albert Schwegler_, German historian and theologian (1819-1857)
was greatly influenced by the great changes which took place
in Germany in the middle of the nineteenth century and the
bitterness caused by the disappointment of patriotic hopes, had
an effect on his writing, although this is not so noticeable
in Schwegler’s reserved style, which addresses itself more
to scholars, as in Mommsen’s, who speaks to wider circles.
Schwegler’s history extends only to the Licinian Rogations,
and the author did not live even to see the third volume
published. His object was to lay bare critical investigation
in the widest range and he has admirably succeeded, conducting
the reader through the mazes of fable and tradition as well
as through the conflicting statement of modern writers, with
a wonderful security of touch. At the same time he weaves
together the authenticated results into a comprehensive picture
of the whole and describes developments with keen political
discernment. In one important point only does he differ from
Niebuhr, refusing to admit that the history of ancient Rome is
a product of folk ballads, holding rather that it originated in
the class of aetiologic fables which were so richly developed
among the ancients. This work was cast into the shade soon
after its appearance by Mommsen’s brilliant achievements.
=Seeck=, O., Die Schätzungsordnung Diocletians; Gedichte des Untergangs
der antiken Welt, Berlin, 1897, 2nd edition.--=Seeley=, J. R., Roman
Imperialism, in his Lectures and Essays, London, 1870.--=Seignobos=,
C., Histoire narrative et descriptive du peuple romain, Paris,
1894.--=Sellar=, W. Y., The Roman Poets of the Republic, Oxford,
1881, 1889; The Roman Poets of the Augustan Age, Oxford, 1883, 1892,
1897.--=Sergeant=, L., The Franks (Stories of the Nations), London,
1888.--=Seyffert=, O., Lexicon der klassischen Alterthumskunde, Leipsic,
1882; Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, edited by Henry Nettleship and
J. E. Sandys, London, 1901.--=Sheppard=, J. Y., The Fall of Rome, and the
Rise of New Nationalities, London, 1874. (The author is opposed to the
views of Gibbon, but bases his work on original authorities.)--=Shumway=,
E. S., A Day in Ancient Rome, Boston, 1885.--=Sime=, J., article on
Germany in the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica.--=Smith=,
R. Bosworth, Carthage and the Carthaginians, London, 1879; Rome and
Carthage, London, 1881.--=Smith=, W., Dictionary of Greek and Roman
Biography and Mythology, London, 1864-1866, 3 vols.; Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Geography, London, 1866-1867, 2 vols.; Dictionary
of Greek and Roman Antiquities, London, 1869; A Concise Dictionary
of Greek and Roman Antiquities, edited by F. Warre Cornish, London,
1898.--=Sohm=, R., Die altdeutsche Reichs- und Gerichtsverfassung,
Weimar, 1871.--=Soltau=, W. J., Über Entstehung und Zusammensetzung der
altrömischen Volksversammlungen, Berlin, 1880; Römische Chronologie,
1889; Zur Geschichte der römischen Annalistik, in Nord und Süd, 20th year
(1896); Livius’ Geschichtswerk, seine Quellen und seine Komposition,
1877.--=Stamford=, T. V., Das Schlachtfeld im Teutoburger Walde, Cassel,
1892.--=Stoll=, H. W., Die Helden Roms in Krieg und Frieden, Leipsic,
1866; Geschichte der Römer bis zum Untergang der Republik, Hanover,
1869, 2 vols.--=Stolzenberg-Luttmersen=, von, Die Spuren der Langobarden
vom Nordmeer bis zur Donau, Hanover, 1889.--=Stritter=, J. G., Memoriæ
populorum olim ad Danubium, Pontum Euxinum, Paludem Mæotidem, Causasum,
etc., incolentium, ex scriptoribus Byzantinis erutæ ac digestæ,
1771-1779.--=Stuckelberg=, E. A., Die Thronfolge von Augustus bis
Konstantin.
* * * * *
=Taine=, H. A., Essai sur Tite-Live, Paris, 1856.--=Taylor=, T. M.,
Constitutional and Political History of Rome, from the earliest times
to the reign of Domitian, London, 1899.--=Teuffel=, W. S., Geschichte
der römischen Litteratur, Leipsic, 1868-1870, 5 vols.; English
translation by W. Wagner, History of Roman Literature, London, 1873, 2
vols.--=Thalheimer=, M. E., Mediæval and Modern History, Cincinnati,
1872.--=Thiancourt=, C., Les causes et l’origine de la seconde guerre
punique, Paris, 1890.--=Thierry=, Amedée, Histoire de la Gaule sous
l’administration romaine, Paris, 1840, 3 vols.; Histoire d’Attila,
Paris, 1856; Récits de l’histoire romaine au cinquième siècle, Paris,
1860; Tableau de l’empire romain depuis la fondation jusqu’à la fin du
gouvernement, Paris, 1860; Trois ministres des fils de Théodose, Rufin,
Eutrope, Stilicon, Paris, 1865.
_Amedée Thierry’s_ works on the ancient history of Gaul are of
the greatest importance. The relations of Gaul to Rome and the
mutual influences of civilisation and barbarism have perhaps
nowhere else been so well described.
=Thierry=, Augustin, Récit des temps Mérovingiens, Paris,
1847.--=Thomas=, E., Rome et l’empire aux deux premiers siècles de
notre ère.--=Thue=, Römische Geschichte.--=Tieffenbach=, R., Über die
Örtlichkeit der Varusschlacht, Berlin, 1891.--=Tillemont=, S., le
Nain de, Histoire des empereurs et des autres princes qui ont régné
pendant les six premiers siècles de l’Église, Paris, 1691-1738, 6
vols.--=Tiraboschi=, J., Storia della letteratura italiana, Modena,
1772-1781, 13 vols.; English translation, Literary History of Italy,
Edinburgh, 1835.--=Trollope=, Anthony, The Life of Cicero, London and New
York, 1880-1881, 2 vols. (Trollope defends Cicero against the opinions
of Froude, Merivale, and Mommsen.)--=Tromsdorff=, P., Quæstiones duæ ad
historiam legionum Romanorum spectantes, dissertation, Leipsic.--=Troya=,
C., Codice Diplomatico-Longobardo, Naples, 1852-1855.--=Tyrrell=, R. Y.,
Cicero in his Letters, London, 1891.
* * * * *
=Ulrici=, H., Characteristik der alten Historiographie, Berlin, 1833.
* * * * *
=Vendettini=, Del Senato Romano, Rome, 1782.--=Villehardouin=, Geoffrey
de, Histoire de la conquête de Constantinople, Paris, 1657; new edition,
1838.
* * * * *
=Wachsmuth=, Curt., Einleitung in das Studium der alten Geschichte,
Leipsic, 1895 (an almost indispensable work for the bibliography of
ancient history).--=Waitz=, Georg, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte,
Kiel, 1843-1878, 8 vols.--=Wallon=, H. A., Histoire de l’esclavage dans
l’antiquité, Paris, 1848, 3 vols.--=Waltzing=, F. P., Étude historique
sur les corporations professionnelles chez les Romains.--=Wattenbach=,
Wilhelm, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter, bis zur Mitte des
15. Jahrhundert, Berlin, 1858, 6th edition, 1893-1894.--=Weber=, Georg,
Allgemeine Weltgeschichte, Leipsic, 1857-1880, 15 vols.--=Weise=, Julius,
Die älteste Geschichte der Langobarden, Jena, 1877; Italien und die
Langobardenherrscher von 568 bis 628, Halle, 1887.--=Westrum=, A., Die
Langobarden und ihre Herzöge, Celle, 1886.--=Wiegandt=, L., Julius Cæsar
und der tribunische Gewalt, Dresden, 1890.--=Wietersheim=, Eduard von,
Geschichte der Völkerwanderung, Leipsic, 1880-1881, 2 vols.--=Wilhelm=,
P., Le droit public romain, Louvain, 1883.--=Williams=, H. S., The
History of the Art of Writing, New York and London, 1903.--=Wirth=,
Johann G. A., Geschichte der deutschen Staaten, Stuttgart, 1843-1845, 4
vols.--=Wolfsgruber=, C., Gregor der Grosse, Saulgau, 1890.--=Wrightson=,
R. H., The Sancta Republica Romana, London, 1890.
* * * * *
=Zachariæ von Lingenthal=, Karl Salomo, L. Cornelius Sulla, genannt
der Glückliche als Ordner des römischen Freystaates, Heidelberg,
1834.--=Zeuss=, Johann Kaspar, Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstämme,
Munich, 1837.--=Zielinski=, Th., Cicero im Wandel der Jahrhunderte,
Leipsic.
[Illustration]
[Illustration: MAP OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
BORMAY & CO.]