THE QUARREL WITH THE MOTHER COUNTRY
The French and Indian War gave the colonists valuable training as
soldiers, freed them from the danger of attack by their French neighbors,
and so made them less dependent on Great Britain for protection. But the
mother country took no account of this, and at once began to do things
which in ten years' time drove the colonies into rebellion.
CAUSES OF THE QUARREL.--We are often told that taxation without
representation was the cause of the Revolution. It was indeed one cause,
and a very important one, but not the only one by any means. The causes of
the Revolution, as stated in the Declaration of Independence, were many,
and arose chiefly from an attempt of the mother country to (1) enforce the
laws concerning trade, (2) quarter royal troops in the colonies, [1] and
(3) support the troops by taxes imposed without consent of the colonies.
THE TRADE LAWS were enacted by Parliament between 1650 and 1764 for the
purpose of giving Great Britain a monopoly of colonial trade. By their
provisions--
1. No goods were to be carried from any port in Europe to America unless
first landed in England.
2. Many articles of colonial production, as tobacco, cotton, silk, indigo,
furs, rice, sugar, could not be sent to any country save England; but
lumber, salt fish, and provisions could be sent also to France, Spain, or
other foreign countries.
3. To help English wool manufacture, the colonists were forbidden to send
their woolen goods or hats to any country whatever, or even from colony to
colony.
4. To help English iron manufacture, the colonists were forbidden to make
steel.
5. To help the British West Indies, a heavy duty was laid (in 1733) on
sugar or molasses imported from any other than a British possession.
SMUGGLING.--Had these laws been rigidly enforced they would have been
severe indeed, but they could not be rigidly enforced. They were openly
violated, and smuggling became so common in every colony [2] that the cost
of collecting the revenue was much more than the amount gathered.
This smuggling the British government now determined to end. Accordingly,
in 1764, the colonies were ordered to stop all unlawful trade, naval
vessels were stationed off the coast to seize smugglers, and new courts,
called vice-admiralty courts, were set up in which smugglers when caught
were to be tried without a jury. [3]
A STANDING ARMY.--It was further proposed to send over ten thousand
regular soldiers to defend the colonies against the Indians and against
any attack that might be made by France or Spain. The colonists objected
to the troops on the ground that they had not asked for soldiers and did
not need any.
[Illustration: BRITISH SOLDIER.]
THE STAMP ACT.--As the cost of keeping the troops would be very great, it
was decided to raise part of the money needed by a stamp tax which
Parliament enacted in 1765. The Stamp Act applied not only to the thirteen
colonies, but also to Canada, Florida, and the West Indies, and was to
take effect on and after November 1, 1765. [4]
1. Every piece of vellum or paper on which was written any legal document
for use in any court was to be charged with a stamp duty of from three
pence to ten pounds.
2. Many kinds of documents not used in court, and newspapers, almanacs,
etc., were to be written or printed only on stamped paper made in England
and sold at prices fixed by law.
The money raised by the stamp tax was not to be taken to Great Britain,
but was to be spent in the colonies in the purchase of food and supplies
for the troops.
THE COLONIES DENY THE RIGHT OF PARLIAMENT TO TAX THEM.--But the colonists
cared not for what use the money was intended. "No taxation without
representation," was their cry. They cast no votes for a member of
Parliament; therefore, they said, they were not represented in Parliament.
Not being represented, they could not be taxed by Parliament, because
taxes could lawfully be laid on them only by their chosen representatives.
[5]
In the opinion of the British people the colonists were represented in
Parliament. British subjects in America, it was held, were just as much
represented in the House of Commons as were the people of Manchester or
Birmingham, neither of which sent a member to the House. Each member of
the House represented not merely the few men who elected him, but all the
subjects of the British crown everywhere. [6]
THE COLONIES RESIST.--Resistance to the Stamp Act began in Virginia, where
the House of Burgesses passed a set of resolutions written by Patrick
Henry. [7] In substance they declared that the colonists were British
subjects and were not bound to obey any law taxing them without the
consent of their own legislatures.
[Illustration: PATRICK HENRY ADDRESSING THE VIRGINIA ASSEMBLY. From an old
print.]
Massachusetts came next with a call for a congress of delegates from the
colonies, to meet at New York in October.
THE STAMP ACT CONGRESS, 1765.--Nine of the colonies sent delegates, and
after a session of twenty days the representatives of six signed a
declaration of rights and grievances.
The declaration of rights set forth that a British subject could not be
taxed unless he was represented in the legislature that imposed the tax;
that Americans were not represented in Parliament; and that therefore the
stamp tax was an attack on the rights of Englishmen and the liberty of
self-government. The grievances complained of were trial without jury,
restrictions on trade, taxation without representation, and especially the
stamp tax.
THE STAMP DISTRIBUTERS.--In August, 1765, the names of the men in America
chosen to be the distributers or sellers of the stamps and stamped paper
were made public, and then the people began to act. Demands were made that
the distributers should resign. When they refused, the people rose and by
force compelled them to resign, and riots occurred in the chief seaboard
towns from New Hampshire to Maryland. At Boston the people broke into the
house of the lieutenant governor and destroyed his fine library and
papers.
[Illustration: THE PENNSYLVANIA JOURNAL AND WEEKLY ADVERTISER]
On November 1, 1765, the Stamp Act went into force, but not a stamp or a
piece of stamped paper could be had in any of the thirteen colonies. Some
of the newspapers ceased to be printed, the last issues appearing with
black borders, death's heads, and obituary notices. But soon all were
regularly issued without stamps, and even the courts disregarded the law.
[8]
[Illustration: LANTERN USED AT CELEBRATION OF THE REPEAL OF THE STAMP ACT.
In the Old Statehouse, Boston.]
THE STAMP ACT REPEALED, 1766.--Meantime the merchants had been signing
agreements not to import, and the people not to buy, any British goods for
some months to come. American trade with the mother country was thus cut
off, thousands of workmen in Great Britain were thrown out of employment,
and Parliament was beset with petitions from British merchants praying for
a repeal of the stamp tax. To enforce the act without bloodshed was
impossible. In March, 1766, therefore, Parliament repealed the Stamp Act.
[9] But at the same time it enacted another, known as the Declaratory Act,
in which it declared that it had power to "legislate for the colonies in
all cases whatsoever."
THE TOWNSHEND ACTS, 1767.--In their joy over the repeal of the Stamp Act,
the colonists gave no heed to the Declaratory Act. But the very next year
Charles Townshend, then minister of finance, persuaded Parliament to pass
several laws since known as the Townshend Acts. One of these forbade the
legislature of New York to pass any more laws until it had made provision
for the royal troops quartered in New York city. Another laid taxes on all
paints, paper, tea, and certain other articles imported into the colonies.
[10]
THE COLONIES AGAIN RESIST.--None of the new taxes were heavy, but again
the case was one of taxation without representation, so the legislature of
Massachusetts sent a letter to the other colonial legislatures asking them
to unite and consult for the protection of their rights. This letter gave
so great offense to the mother country that Massachusetts was ordered to
rescind her act, and the governors of the other colonies to see that no
notice was taken of it. [11] And now the royal troops for the defense of
the colonies began to arrive. But Massachusetts, North Carolina, and South
Carolina refused to find them quarters, and for such refusal the
legislature of North Carolina was dissolved.
[Illustration: BOSTON MASSACRE MONUMENT. In Boston Common.]
THE BOSTON MASSACRE.--At Boston the troops were received with every mark
of hatred and disgust, and for three years were subjected to every sort of
insult and indignity, which they repaid in kind. The troops led riotous
lives, raced horses on Sunday on the Common, played "Yankee Doodle" before
the church doors, and more than once exchanged blows with the citizens. In
one encounter the troops fired on the crowd, killing five and wounding
six. This was the famous "Boston Massacre," and produced over all the land
a deep impression. [12]
TOWNSHEND ACTS REPEALED, 1770.--Once more the resistance of the colonies--
chiefly through refusing to buy British goods--was successful, and
Parliament took off all the Townshend taxes except that on tea. This
import tax of three pence a pound on tea was retained in order that the
right of Parliament to tax the colonies might be asserted. But the
colonists stood firm; they refused to buy tea shipped from Great Britain,
but smuggled it from Holland. [13]
TEA TAX JUGGLE.--By 1773 the refusal to buy tea from the mother country
was severely felt by the East India Company, which had brought far more
tea to Great Britain than it could dispose of. Parliament then removed the
export duty of twelve pence a pound which had formerly been paid in Great
Britain on all tea shipped to the colonies. Thus after paying the three-
pence tax at the American customhouses, the tea could be sold nine pence a
pound cheaper than before.
THE TEA NOT ALLOWED TO BE SOLD.--The East India Company now quickly
selected agents in the chief seaports of the colonies, and sent shiploads
of tea consigned to them for sale. [14] But the colonists were tempted by
cheap tea; they were determined that Parliament would not tax them. They
therefore forced the agents to resign their commissions, and when the tea
ships arrived, took possession of them. At Philadelphia the ships were
sent back to London. At Charleston the tea was landed and stored for three
years and then seized and sold by the state of South Carolina. At
Annapolis the people forced the owner of a tea ship to go on board and set
fire to his ship; vessel and cargo were thus consumed. At Boston the
people wished the tea sent back to London, and when the authorities
refused to allow this, a party of men disguised as Indians boarded the
ships and threw the tea into the water. [15]
[Illustration: THROWING THE TEA OVERBOARD, BOSTON.]
THE INTOLERABLE ACTS.--Parliament now determined to punish the colonies,
and for this purpose enacted five laws called by the colonists the
Intolerable Acts:--
1. The port of Boston was shut to trade and commerce till the colony
should pay for the tea destroyed.
2. The charter of Massachusetts was altered.
3. Persons who were accused of murder done in executing the laws might be
taken for trial to another colony or to Great Britain.
4. The quartering of troops on the people was authorized.
5. The boundaries of the province of Quebec were extended to the Ohio and
Mississippi rivers. As Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Virginia claimed
parts of this territory, they regarded the Quebec Act as another act of
tyranny. [16]
THE FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS.--Because of the passage of these laws, a
Congress suggested by Virginia and called by Massachusetts met in
Carpenter's Hall in Philadelphia in September, 1774, and issued a
declaration of rights and grievances, a petition to the king, and
addresses to the people of Great Britain, to the people of Canada, and to
the people of the colonies. It also called a second Congress to meet on
May 10, 1775, and take action on the result of the petition to the king.
SUMMARY
1. After the French and Indian War Great Britain determined to enforce the
laws of trade.
2. It also decided that the colonies should bear a part of the cost of
their defense, and for this purpose a stamp tax was levied.
3. The right of Parliament to levy such a tax was denied by the colonists
on the ground that they were not represented in Parliament.
4. The attempt to enforce the tax led to resistance, and a congress of the
colonies (1765) issued a declaration of rights and grievances.
5. The tax was repealed in 1766, but Parliament at the same time asserted
its right to tax.
6. The Townshend Acts (1767) tried to raise a revenue by import duties on
goods brought into the colonies. At the same time the arrival of the
troops for defense of the colonies caused new trouble; in Boston the
people and the troops came to blows (1770).
7. The refusal of the colonists to buy the taxed articles led to the
repeal of all the taxes except that on tea (1770).
8. The colonists still refused to buy taxed tea, whereupon Parliament
enabled the East India Company to send over tea for sale at a lower price
than before.
9. The tea was not allowed to be sold. In Boston it was destroyed.
10. As a punishment Parliament enacted the five Intolerable Acts.
11. The First Continental Congress (1774) thereupon petitioned for
redress, and called a second Congress to meet the next year.
FOOTNOTES
[1] That is, compel the colonists to furnish quarters--rooms or houses--
for the troops to live in. Read Parkman's _Montcalm and Wolfe_, Vol. I,
pp. 439-440.
[2] In order to detect and seize smugglers the crown had resorted to
"writs of assistance." The law required that every ship bringing goods to
America should come to some established port and that her cargo should be
reported at the customhouse. Instead, the smugglers would secretly land
goods elsewhere. If a customs officer suspected this, he could go to court
and ask for a search warrant, stating the goods for which he was to seek
and the place to be searched. But this would give the smugglers warning
and they could remove the goods. What the officers wanted was a general
warrant good for any goods in any place. This writ of assistance, as it
was called, was common in England, and was issued in the colonies about
1754. In 1760 King George II died, and all writs issued in his name
expired. In 1761, therefore, application was made to the Superior Court of
Massachusetts for a new writ of assistance to run in the name of King
George III. Sixty merchants opposed the issue, and James Otis and
Oxenbridge Thacher appeared for the merchants. The speech of Otis was a
famous plea, sometimes called the beginning of colonial resistance; but
the court granted the writ.
[3] These acts are complained of in the Declaration of Independence. The
king is blamed "For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world,"
that is, enforcing the trade laws; again, "He has erected a multitude of
new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people,"
that is to say, the vice-admiralty judges and naval officers sworn to act
as customhouse officers and seize smugglers. In doing this duty these
officers did "harass our people."
[4] While the Stamp Act was under debate in Parliament, Colonel Barré, who
fought under Wolfe at Louisburg, opposed it. A member had spoken of the
colonists as "children planted by our care, nourished by our indulgence,
and protected by our arms." "They planted by your care!" said Barré. "No,
your oppression planted them in America. Nourished by your indulgence!
They grew up by your neglect of them. They protected by your arms! These
Sons of Liberty have nobly taken up arms in your defense." The words "Sons
of Liberty" were at once seized on, and used in our country to designate
the opponents of the stamp tax. Read "The Stamp Act" in Hawthorne's
_Grandfather's Chair_.
[5] The colonists did not deny the right of Parliament to regulate the
trade of the whole British Empire, and to lay "external taxes"--customs
duties--for the purpose of regulating trade. But this stamp tax was an
"internal tax" for the purpose of raising revenue.
[6] Parliament was divided then, as now, into two houses--the Lords,
consisting of nobles and clergy, and the Commons, consisting then of two
members elected by each county and two elected by each of certain towns.
Some change was made in the list of towns thus represented in Parliament
before the sixteenth century, but no change had been made since, though
many of them had lost all or most of their population. Thus Old Sarum had
become a green mound; its population had all drifted away to Salisbury. A
member of the Commons, so the story runs, once said: "I am the member from
Ludgesshall. I am also the population of Ludgesshall. When the sheriff's
writ comes, I announce the election, attend the poll, deposit my vote for
myself, sign the return, and here I am." When a town disappeared, the
landowner of the soil on which it once stood appointed the two members.
Such towns were called "rotten boroughs," "pocket boroughs," "nomination
boroughs."
[7] Patrick Henry was born in Virginia in 1736. As a youth he was dull and
indolent and gave no sign of coming greatness. After two failures as a
storekeeper and one as a farmer he turned in desperation to law, read a
few books, and with difficulty passed the examination necessary for
admittance to the bar. Henry had now found his true vocation. Business
came to him, and one day in 1763 he argued the weak (but popular) side of
a case with such eloquence that he carried court and jury with him, and it
is said was carried out of the courthouse on the shoulders of the people.
He was now famous, and in 1765 was elected to the Virginia House of
Burgesses to represent the county in which he had lived, just in time to
take part in the proceedings on the Stamp Act. His part was to move the
resolutions and support them in a fiery and eloquent speech, of which one
passage has been preserved. Recalling the fate of tyrants of other times,
he exclaimed, "Caesar had his Brutus, Charles the First his Cromwell, and
George the Third--." "Treason! treason!" shouted the Speaker. "Treason!
treason!" shouted the members. To which Henry answered, "and George the
Third may profit by their example. If this be treason, make the most of
it."
[8] In Canada and the West Indies the stamp tax was not resisted, and
there stamps were used.
[9] When Parliament was considering the repeal, Benjamin Franklin, then in
London as agent for Pennsylvania and other colonies, was called before a
committee and examined as to the state of colonial affairs; read his
answers in Hart's _American History told by Contemporaries_, Vol. II,
pp. 407-411. Pitt in a great speech declared, "The kingdom has no right to
lay a tax on the colonies, because they are unrepresented in Parliament. I
rejoice that America has resisted." Edmund Burke, one of the greatest of
Irish orators, took the same view.
[10] In the Declaration of Independence the king is charged with giving
his assent to acts of Parliament "For suspending our own legislatures,"
and "For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us," and "For
imposing taxes on us without our consent."
[11] For refusing to obey, the legislature of Massachusetts was dissolved,
as were the assemblies of Maryland and Georgia for having approved it, and
that of New York for refusing supplies to the royal troops, and that of
Virginia for complaining of the treatment of New York. Read Fiske's
_American Revolution_, Vol. I, pp. 28-36, 39-52.
[12] The two regiments of British troops in Boston were now removed, on
demand of the people, to a fort in the harbor. The soldiers who fired the
shots were tried for murder and acquitted, save two who received light
sentences.
[13] One of the vessels sent to stop smuggling was the schooner _Gaspee_.
Having run aground in Narragansett Bay (June, 1772), she was boarded by a
party of men in eight boats and burned. The Virginia legislature appointed
a "committee of correspondence," to find out the facts regarding the
destruction of the _Gaspee_ and "to maintain a correspondence with our
sister colonies." This plan of a committee to inform the other colonies
what was happening in Virginia, and obtain from them accurate information
as to what they were doing, was at once taken up by Massachusetts and
other colonies, each of which appointed a similar committee. Such
committees afterward proved to be the means of revolutionary organization.
Read Fiske's _American Revolution_, Vol. I, pp. 76-80.
[14] Parliament had given the company permission to do this. The company
had long possessed the monopoly of trade with the East Indies, and the
sole right to bring tea from China to Great Britain. Before 1773, however,
it was obliged to sell the tea in Great Britain, and the business of
exporting tea to the colonies had been carried on by merchants who bought
from the company.
[15] Read "The Tea Party" in Hawthorne's _Grandfather's Chair_.
[16] All the Intolerable Acts are referred to in the Declaration of
Independence. See if you can find the references.