Psaronieae.
This family name, first suggested by Unger, may be conveniently adopted
for the numerous species of petrified tree-fern stems characteristic
of the Lower Permian and Upper Carboniferous strata. In his monograph
_Über die Staarsteine_ published in 1854, Stenzel[1053] referred to
the Psaronieae as a special subdivision of the Filices most nearly
allied to the Polypodiaceae. There is now a consensus of opinion in
favour of including _Psaronius_ in the Marattiales, or at least of
regarding the genus as more closely allied to the Marattiaceae than to
any other family. While admitting that the balance of evidence is in
favour of this view, it is probably wiser to retain the distinctive
term Psaronieae on the ground that species of _Psaronius_ differ in
several respects from any recent ferns, and because of our comparative
ignorance in regard to the nature of the fructification.
_Psaronius._
This generic name was proposed by Cotta in his classic work _Die
Dendrolithen_[1054]. The stems so named, formerly included by
Sprengel[1055] in the genus _Endogenites_, had long been familiar as
petrified fossils. Most of the specimens described by the earlier
writers were obtained from Lower Permian rocks in the neighbourhood of
Chemnitz, Saxony. The mottled appearance presented by their polished
surfaces is said to have given rise to the appellation _Staarsteine_
(starling stones), a term expressing a resemblance, more or less
remote, to a starling’s breast. It has been suggested that this word
is a corruption of _Stern Steine_ or star stones[1056], a descriptive
term suggested by the stellate arrangement of the vascular strands in
transverse sections of the roots. Parkinson[1057], in his _Organic
Remains of a former World_, speaks of these stems as starry stones.
The history of our knowledge prior to 1854 is summarised by Stenzel.
At first compared with corals or the stems of sea-lilies, _Psaronii_
were recognised by Sprengel, who first used a lens in the examination
of the fossils, as fern stems most nearly allied to those of recent
Cyatheaceae. By other authors, e.g. Schlotheim and Sternberg, they
were referred to Palms, and by Brongniart considered to be the lower
portions of Lycopodiaceous (_Lepidodendron_) stems. Corda and many
subsequent authors selected the Marattiaceae as the most closely allied
family among existing plants.
_Psaronius_ is represented by specimens obtained from the Lower Permian
of Saxony and Upper Carboniferous rocks in Central France, also from
Bohemia, Brazil and North America. As yet a few fragments only have
been found in the English Coal-Measures. The genus was recognised by
Williamson[1058] who described the roots and a small piece of the
vascular tissue of a stem which he called _P. Renaulti_, and this
type has since been more fully described by Scott[1059]. The roots
of another species have been described by Butterworth[1060] as _P.
Cromptonensis_.
It was pointed out in the account of _Lepidodendron_ that several
generic names have been used for the same type of stem in different
states of preservation; in _Psaronius_ accidents of fossilisation have
been responsible for a similar confusion in nomenclature. The name
_Psaronius_ is applied to petrified specimens which, as a rule, lack
external features. Casts or impressions of Palaeozoic tree-fern stems
provided with leaf-scars are described as species of _Caulopteris_,
_Megaphyton_, and less commonly as _Ptychopteris_ (figs. 297–299).
The first name is applied to stems exhibiting spirally disposed
leaf-scars like those of recent tree-ferns; in _Megaphyton_ the scars
are distichously arranged, in two rows, while _Ptychopteris_ is applied
to decorticated stems. These terms are used for stems belonging to one
generic type and possessing the structure of Psaronius stems.
[Illustration: FIG. 295. _Psaronius_ stem with roots. (Much reduced.
After Grand’Eury.)]
The researches of Grand’Eury[1061] led to the discovery that certain
Psaronius stems bore fronds of the _Pecopteris_ type some of which
bore sori of the _Asterotheca_ or _Scolecopteris_ type. The same
author[1062] has also contributed many interesting facts, obtained by
an examination of the relation of Psaronius stems to the sediments
of French Coal-fields in which they occur, in regard to habitat
and manner of growth. The specimen represented in fig. 295 shows a
portion of a Psaronius stem, the upper part of which illustrates the
Caulopteris state of preservation, while the lower part is covered
by a mass of roots. It is probable, as Rudolph[1063] suggests, that
this rich development of roots, which gives to an old Psaronius stem
the appearance of an elongated cone, may have served an important
mechanical purpose analogous to the secondary thickening in a
Dicotyledon or a Conifer. A specimen of _Psaronius Cottai_ in the
Hofmuseum, Vienna, is cited in illustration of the enormous breadth
of the root-system: the radii of the stem proper and of the encasing
cylinder of roots bear the ratio 17 to 165. The comparatively frequent
occurrence of a lacunar cortex in the roots points to the growth of
the stems in swampy ground, a conclusion in harmony with the evidence
afforded by the anatomical features of many other Palaeozoic genera.
• • • • •
_Psaronius_ may be briefly defined as follows:—
Tree-fern stems, occasionally reaching a height of 50 feet
or more, closely resembling in habit recent tree ferns, but
exhibiting in the structure and arrangement of the vascular system
a close agreement with recent Marattiaceae. Leaves, in such cases
where a connexion between fronds and stems is known, large and
highly compound and of the _Pecopteris_ type, borne in more or
less crowded spirals (_Psaronius polystichi_), in four rows (_P.
tetrastichi_), or in two opposite rows (_P. distichi_). Leaves
deciduous, leaving a clearly defined oval scar containing the
impression of the leaf-trace in the form of an open =U=, or a
closed oval with a small inverted =V=-shaped band a short distance
below the upper end of the long axis of the oval (figs. 297, 298);
in _Megaphyton_ the alternate scars of the two opposite series
are larger and characterised by a different form of meristele.
The surface of the cortex below the leaf-scars occasionally shows
impressions of pits similar to the lenticel-like organs on recent
Tree-fern stems. The central region of the stem is occupied by a
complex system of concentrically disposed steles (dictyosteles),
which in transverse section present the appearance of flat or
curved bands varying in extent and in degree of curvature. The
vascular bands consist of xylem surrounded by a narrow zone of
phloem; the xylem is composed either exclusively of tracheae or
of tracheae and parenchyma; the protoxylem in the one instance in
which it has been clearly recognised is endarch[1064]. The steles
are embedded in parenchymatous tissue and in some species are
associated with mechanical tissue (e.g. _P. infarctus_, fig. 296,
A, B). The central or vascular region of the stem may be surrounded
externally by a cylinder of mechanical tissue interrupted by
outgoing leaf-traces and adventitious roots. The leaf-traces
arise as single bundles from an internal stelar band and pursue
an obliquely radial course towards the outside, eventually
anastomosing with peripheral cauline steles, which in some species
form with the leaf-traces the outermost zone of the vascular
region. The leaf-traces have the form of loops which pass into the
petioles as =V=-shaped meristeles or closed oval cylinders. As a
leaf-trace passes out compensating strands occupy the foliar gap.
The vascular region is surrounded by a parenchymatous cortex, which
in younger plants, or in the apical region of an older plant, forms
the surface of the stem to which the leaf-stalks are attached.
From the peripheral steles, or from the more external bands of
the vascular network, roots are given off which pass in a sinuous
vertical course through the cortex, appearing on the surface
between the leaf-bases. In older stems, after leaf-fall, the tissue
immediately external to the vascular region produces secondary
parenchyma with which the roots become intimately associated by
their outermost cells. As a result of the secondary cortical
development and the gradual increase in the number of roots
invading the cortical tissue from above, the stem is enclosed by a
cylinder of roots and associated parenchymatous tissue of secondary
origin. In still older portions of a stem the more external roots
are free from the stem-cortex and form a thick felted mantle, which
increases in thickness towards the base of the tree.
The roots (fig. 296, E) are polyarch, 5–10 groups of xylem
alternating with strands of phloem, and similar in structure to
those of recent species of _Marattia_ and _Angiopteris_; the
stele is enclosed by an inner cortex of compact or lacunar tissue
containing secretory sacs, and this is surrounded by a cylinder of
mechanical tissue. In one or two instances secondary xylem has been
observed wholly or partially enclosing the root-stele[1065].
[Illustration: FIG. 296.
A. _Psaronius infarctus_ (P, peripheral steles; L, leaf-traces).
B. _P. infarctus_, longitudinal tangential section through the
peripheral region of the stem.
C. _P. coalescens._
D. _P. musaeformis._
E. _P. asterolithus_ (root).
(A—C, E, after Zeiller; D, after Stenzel.)]
Our knowledge of the anatomy of _Psaronius_ is based largely on
the investigations of Stenzel considerably extended by Zeiller’s
more intensive studies and, more recently, by the later work of
Stenzel[1066] and that of Rudolph. A striking fact, which has led to
various suggestions, is that in a transverse section of a _Psaronius_
stem with its encasing cylinder of roots no signs of leaf-traces are
met with in the root-region. If the roots simply penetrated the cortex,
as in some recent species of _Lycopodium_ (fig. 125, A) or as in
_Angiopteris_, we should expect to find leaf-traces in the outer region
(root-cylinder) of Psaronius stems. An explanation of the absence of
leaf-traces which was suggested by Stenzel, is that the cortical zone
formed a comparatively narrow band in the young leaf-covered stem;
after leaf-fall it became the seat of active growth in its inner layers
and so produced a constantly widening zone of secondary parenchyma,
which pushed the superficial cortical tissue with the leaf-bases or
leaf-scars farther out until it was exfoliated. Farmer and Hill[1067]
find it difficult to accept this explanation; but, as Rudolph shows,
the radial arrangement of the cortical cells between the adventitious
roots and their elongation in a radial direction are arguments in
support of the secondary nature of the cortical zone.
In sections of the adventitious roots of _Psaronius Renaulti_ figured
by Williamson[1068], the spaces between the cylindrical roots
are partially occupied by cell-filaments which, at first sight,
suggest root-hairs; it may well be, as Rudolph suggests, that these
felted hairs represent the outermost and looser part of the growing
secondary cortex which gradually passes into the covering mass of free
extra-cortical roots.
As Stenzel[1069] has shown, slender stems of _Zygopteris_ (=
_Ankyropteris_) are occasionally met with growing through the web of
Psaronius roots.
_Psaronius infarctus_ Unger. Fig. 296, A, B.
This species, which Zeiller[1070] has investigated from sections of
Unger’s material, illustrates a type in which the vascular tissue is
very richly developed and forms crowded concentric series of curved
plates associated, in the more peripheral series, with bands of
mechanical tissue. The outermost part of the vascular region consists
of (i) a series of loops or variously curved bands of conducting
tissue representing leaf-traces at different stages in their outward
course, (ii) a series of similar vascular strands (peripheral steles
of Zeiller) confined to the stem (cauline) and from which roots are
given off, and (iii) bands of mechanical tissue associated with the
leaf-traces and peripheral steles. The peripheral steles (fig. 296, A,
B, p) form anastomoses with the leaf-traces and contribute to their
formation.
The form of some of the vascular bands in the section of _Psaronius
infarctus_ shown in fig. 296, A, illustrates the occasional
anastomosing of one dictyostele with another: the different degrees
of looping of other bands represent stages in the giving off of
leaf-traces which eventually pass out as =V=-shaped meristeles. Beyond
the leaf-traces and sclerenchymatous bands the section consists of
transverse sections of adventitious roots.
The surface-features of _Psaronius infarctus_ are probably represented,
as Zeiller points out, by the cast described by Lesquereux as
_Caulopteris peltigera_ (fig. 298, A).
[Illustration: FIG. 297. _Pecopteris Sterzeli_: a, pinnule. (After
Renault and Zeiller. ¹⁄₁₁ nat. size.)]
The Psaronius shown in fig. 297 is one of the few examples illustrating
the connexion between fronds and stem. The leaf (_Pecopteris Sterzeli_
Zeill. and Ren.[1071] is quadripinnate and is described as reaching a
length of at least 3 metres; the ultimate segments are entire or lobed.
The stem is characterised by elliptical scars, 6–8 cm. x 3·5–4 cm.,
with leaf-traces like those in _Caulopteris peltigera_. The fronds of
_Pecopteris Pluckeneti_, a Pteridosperm, bear a very close resemblance
to those of _P. Sterzeli_, which are as yet known only in a sterile
state.
• • • • •
_Psaronius brasiliensis_ Unger, a species founded by Unger on a
piece of silicified stem acquired by Martius in Brazil and now
in the Rio Museum, is a good example of a tetrastichous species.
Solms-Laubach[1072] has recently told the history of this type, which
is represented by sections, cut from the Rio stem, in several European
collections. A well-preserved section in the British Museum is figured
by Arber[1073] in his catalogue of the Glossopteris flora and by other
authors. Scott gives a concise description of the species in his
_Studies in Fossil Botany_[1074]. The roots of _P. brasiliensis_ are
stated by Pelourde[1075] to have a lacunar cortex.
_Psaronius musaeformis_ Corda[1076]. Fig. 296, D.
This species from the Lower Permian of Chemnitz and the Coal-Measures
of Bohemia affords an example of the distichous type in which the
leaves are borne in two rows. The vascular bands, as seen in a
section of the dictyosteles, occur in regular parallel series. The
stelar region is separated from the cylinder of encasing roots by a
sclerenchymatous sheath, broken at intervals where roots pass out from
the vascular region.
_Psaronius coalescens_[1077] (fig. 296, C) illustrates a somewhat
different arrangement of vascular tissue which approaches more
closely to the polycyclic structure characteristic of such recent
ferns as _Matonia_ and _Saccoloma_. A still closer resemblance to
the solenostelic type is seen in _Psaronius Renaulti_ from the Lower
Coal-Measures of England which Scott[1078] describes as characterised
by a single annular stele, interrupted only by the exit of leaf-traces.
As he points out, it is noteworthy that this species is distinguished
by the simplest form of stele met with in the genus; it is the oldest
species and may be regarded as the most primitive representative of
the genus _Psaronius_ so far discovered.
[Illustration: FIG. 298.
A. _Caulopteris peltigera_.
B. _Megaphyton insigne_.
(After Grand’Eury.) Much reduced.]
_Psaronius stems preserved as casts showing surface-features, or in a
decorticated state._
i. _Caulopteris_.
This generic name was instituted by Lindley and Hutton[1079] for
tree-fern stems from the English Coal-Measures showing circular or oval
scars arranged quincuncially. The vascular tissue of the petiole is
represented by a =U=-shaped impression on the scar, the ends of the =U=
being incurved, or by a closed oval ring with a wide-open and inverted
=V= near its upper end. The surface between the leaf-scars bears
the impression of adventitious roots. _Caulopteris_ is represented,
in the Upper Coal-Measures of England, by _C. anglica_[1080] Kidst.
The species _C. peltigera_ (fig. 298, A), originally described by
Brongniart as _Sigillaria_, illustrates the closed form of leaf-trace
and, as Zeiller suggests, it is the cast of a _Psaronius_ stem which
possessed a vascular system on the same plan as that of _P. infarctus_.
_C. Saportae_[1081] illustrates the open =U=-shaped type of petiole
stele.
_Caulopteris peltigera_ has scars measuring 6–9 by 4–6 cm.; it occurs
in the Commentry Coal-field of France in association with the fronds
known as _Pecopteris cyathea_, a species which Kidston regards as
identical with _P. arborescens_[1082].
ii. _Megaphyton_.
The first use of this name was by Artis[1083], who gave it to a long
flattened cast, _Megaphyton frondosum_, found in Carboniferous strata
in Yorkshire, characterised by two vertical rows of large scars and by
impressions of sinuous roots. Kidston records the genus from the Middle
and Upper Coal-Measures of Britain. A good example of this type of cast
is afforded by _M. McLayi_ Lesq.[1084] from the Coal-Measures of North
America, which has been recognised in European Carboniferous rocks.
The leaf-scars are rounded or oval, broader than high; the vascular
impression has the form of a closed ring (5–8 × 3–6 cm.), more or less
circular and with a tendency to a rectangular outline, characterised by
a deep inverted =U=-shaped sinus in the middle of the lower surface and
by a =W=-shaped impression of an internal strand (fig. 298, B)[1085].
iii. _Ptychopteris_.
This generic name, instituted by Corda[1086], is applied to
decorticated stems of _Psaronius_, the surface of which is that of the
vascular region on which the form of the leaf-scars is more or less
clearly defined. The scar-areas are limited by an impression of the
sclerenchymatous sheath enclosing the leaf-meristele, and internal
to this is the impression of the leaf-trace. In some specimens a
layer of coaly material which represents the carbonised cortex and
adventitious roots covers the _Ptychopteris_ cast. The _Ptychopteris_
cast represented in fig. 299 shows the decorticated surface of part of
a long stem on which the leaf-scars are arranged as in _Megaphyton_. An
example of _Ptychopteris_ is figured by Fontaine and White[1087] from
Virginia as _Caulopteris gigantea_.
[Illustration: FIG. 299. _Ptychopteris._ ⅙ nat. size. From the Middle
Coal-Measures of Lancashire. (The Manchester Museum.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 300. _Dicksonia antarctica_ (half of stem in
transverse section): _st_, stele; _s_, sclerenchyma.]
_Position of_ Psaronius.
A comparison of _Psaronius_ with the Marattiaceae and other recent
ferns leads to the conclusion that, on the whole, the evidence is in
favour of the view usually held, namely that this genus is more closely
related to the Marattiaceae than to any other recent ferns. It is,
however, important not to overlook the differences between _Psaronius_
and recent genera of Marattiaceae, or the resemblances between the
extinct genus and the Cyatheaceae. In habit _Psaronius_ agrees closely
with recent tree-ferns; in the vascular system and in the sequence
of events connected with the production of leaf-traces, there are
striking resemblances between _Psaronius_ and the Cyatheaceous fern
_Saccoloma adiantoides_ (= _Dicksonia Plumieri_ Hook.) as described
by Mettenius[1088]. The piece of stem of _Dicksonia antarctica_
represented in fig. 300 exhibits a fairly close agreement with species
of _Psaronius_, e.g. _P. infarctus_ (fig. 296, A, B). Moreover, the
peripheral steles, which Zeiller has shown are confined to the stem
and play an important part in the production of the roots and in the
anastomoses with leaf-traces, are not represented in any Marattiaceous
fern; on the other hand, they are comparable with the accessory strands
met with in stems of recent Cyatheaceous tree-ferns[1089] (cf. fig.
240). The complex system of concentric dictyosteles is a feature
more closely matched in _Angiopteris_ (Marattiaceae) than in any
Cyatheaceous genus, the chief difference being in the more band-like
form of the steles in _Psaronius_, though in a stem of _Angiopteris_
figured by Mettenius we see a close approach to the extinct type. The
position of the protoxylem has unfortunately not been clearly defined
in _Psaronius_ stems, but in _P. Renaulti_ it is stated by Scott[1090]
to be endarch, a position which some of the protoxylem strands occupy
in _Angiopteris_[1091]. The occurrence of large sieve-tubes described
by Scott in _P. Renaultii_ is another feature shared by recent
Marattiaceae. In many of the continental species of _Psaronius_ the
phloem has not been preserved, and our knowledge of this tissue is
comparatively meagre. In the Marattiaceae the roots arise mainly from
the inner portions of the stele, while in _Psaronius_ they are usually
formed from the external vascular bands. The formation of secondary
cortical tissue is a peculiarity of _Psaronius_; on the other hand, if
Butterworth[1092] is correct in referring to that genus the roots with
secondary xylem, which he describes as _P. Cromptonensis_, a comparison
may be made with the occurrence of secondary tracheae in the stem
steles of _Angiopteris_[1093].
The absence of mechanical tissue in the stem of _Angiopteris_ is
in contrast with its occurrence in the fossil stems and in recent
tree-ferns; but this is a character of secondary importance and one
which can be readily explained by the difference in habit between
_Angiopteris_ and _Psaronius_.
The roots of _Psaronius_, more especially as regards the stelar
structure, are in close agreement with those of Marattiaceae.
The reference to Marattiaceae of the great majority of fertile
fern-like fronds from Permian and Carboniferous rocks constituted a
strong _a priori_ argument in favour of including _Psaronius_ stems
in the same family, especially when it was known that leaves with
Marattiaceous synangia were borne by species of this genus. It is,
however, well to remember the change in our views as to the dominance
of Marattiaceae in Palaeozoic floras consequent on the discovery of
the Pteridosperms. The association of fronds bearing _Asterotheca_ and
_Scolecopteris_ types of fructification with _Psaronius_ stems recorded
by Grand’Eury[1094] is a point in favour of the Marattiaceous affinity
of this extinct genus, but it is not impossible that _Psaronius_ stems
bore fronds which produced Pteridosperm organs of reproduction. In
this connexion the specimen represented in fig. 297 is of interest,
as the fronds (_Pecopteris Sterzeli_) borne on the _Psaronius_ stems
are hardly distinguishable from the seed-bearing leaves known as
_Pecopteris Pluckeneti_.
The position of _Psaronius_ may be best expressed by assigning it
to a separate family, the Psaronieae, as advocated by Stenzel, and
by regarding it as one of the many instances of a generalised type
which in the sum of its characters approaches most nearly to the
Marattiaceae.