Much of the glamour of the potter's art is associated with the wheel.
Poets have sung its praise and artists have delighted in its rhythmic
motion, but alas! the wheel as a commercial method of manufacture is
doomed to extinction. It cannot compete with the precision and speed of
machinery. It devolves, therefore, upon the artist potter to maintain
the wheel in its rightful place as, _par excellence_, the potter's tool.
No clay worker's studio should be without a wheel, but the particular
form of wheel depends upon the nature of the circumstances under which
it is to be employed.
The simplest wheel is that used by the Chinese. A circular plate with a
heavy rim is set upon a spindle so that it will revolve freely and run
steadily. As the workman sits or kneels upon the floor the surface of
the wheel is about at the floor level. Around the periphery and upon the
upper surface four holes are sunk and the workman, inserting a short
stick into one of these, gives the wheel a rapid motion. Then while it
is revolving by its own momentum the clay is centered and shaped. As the
motion is lost the stick is again inserted and the wheel spun. This
method, of course, involves much skill on the part of the workman.
In the next form, one which is only adapted, however, for crude
experimental work, the wheel is set upon the frame of a sewing machine
and operated by the treadle. A beginning may be made upon such a wheel
but the operator will soon wish for something better.
A common factory form and one which is well adapted for studio work is
the kick wheel. The wheel head is set at the top of a spindle and in the
upright shaft there is a crank to which is attached a horizontal moving
treadle. This is worked continuously by the left foot, the weight of the
body being supported by the right. The action is strenuous and scarcely
fitted for persons of other than robust physique but it can be used
successfully after practice. This wheel is made by the manufacturers of
potter's machinery.
Another form of the kick wheel is used in Europe and is, in fact, the
original wheel used by the French and German potters in the seventeenth
century. The head is set on a spindle as usual but instead of the crank
there is a large heavy disc on the bottom of the shaft and revolving in
a horizontal plane. This is within reach of the foot and the operator,
being seated, imparts a rapid motion by pushing, usually with the ball
of the right toe. The momentum is kept up by the weight of the disc and
there is a great advantage in that the foot need not be in continuous
motion. On the other hand it is difficult to acquire sufficient speed
and power for the work.
There are several forms of machine wheels which are entirely
satisfactory but which need the application of power. If a gas engine or
a water motor or electric current be available, every effort should be
made to obtain a wheel of this description. The prime motion is imparted
to a short horizontal shaft which moves at a constant speed. Then the
operator, seated in comfort, regulates the speed of the wheel itself by
pressure upon a treadle. No action is required but a simple pressure,
light for a slow speed and heavy for rapidity. Where the electric
current is available, nothing could be better. Self-contained
motor-driven wheels are available but are rather expensive.
One more plan may be mentioned in which the wheel is simply a vertical
lathe with a belt and handle to be turned by an assistant. This may be
convenient for some but it is not always possible to secure help at the
moment when the wheel is to be used. Moreover the cost of labor would
soon pay for a mechanical wheel.[G]
[G] Information as to the usual types of wheel may be obtained from The
Crossley Manufacturing Company, Trenton, N. J.; The Patterson
Foundry and Machine Company, East Liverpool, Ohio; a wheel operated
like a sewing machine is sold by the Lewis Institute, Chicago.
Whatever type of wheel is selected it should be arranged with a head
which can be removed. There are two methods of constructing this; the
head may be screwed on to the spindle, or the latter may terminate in a
cone-shaped plug upon which the wheel head is made to fit as in the
illustration (Fig. 14). The latter plan is to be preferred as the head
can be removed more quickly and is not so likely to work loose. Several
heads for the wheel can then be provided, one for regular work, one for
making plates, one for finishing and so forth.
The regular operation performed upon the wheel is termed either throwing
or turning according to the industry in which it is employed, but in
this description the word "throwing" will be used because the subsequent
operation in which tools are employed is best described as turning.
The best head for the wheel to be used in throwing is made of hard wood
or brass because the ball of clay can be easily centered upon a smooth
surface. This, however, involves that the work shall be cut off with a
wire and removed while soft. This is commonly done by professionals but
is beyond the skill of the beginner. It is best, therefore, to use a
head like that illustrated for plate making and to have a number of
specially shaped plaster bats to fit the recess (Fig. 17). Then when the
piece is formed, the bat with its burden can be set aside for the work
to harden.
[Illustration: Fig. 17. Wheel head with detached bat.]
Throwing is not an easy operation to describe but the following
instructions in the form of lessons will, with a large amount of
practice, enable the student to become fairly expert. Every opportunity
should be taken to watch a good potter at work. There are a thousand and
one little tricks in the position of the arms, hands, thumbs and fingers
which are impossible to describe but which can easily be copied. If a
kick wheel be used some time must be given to practicing the motion
without using clay. The action of the foot must become subconscious or
automatic like the pedaling of a bicycle so that simply to will a change
of speed is to accomplish it.
[Illustration: Fig. 18. The progress of a clay ball on the wheel.]
_Lesson I._ Take the bat about to be used, plunge it in clean water and
soak it nearly, but not quite, to saturation. If the bat remain wet one
minute after being taken from the water, it has soaked too long and must
be dried off a little. The effect of a wet bat is that the clay slips
and cannot be held in one place. The proper dampness is secured when the
clay ball can be pushed along the surface of the bat but does not slip
easily. This condition is important and should be secured by experiment,
because if not right, good work will be impossible.
[Illustration: PLATE I. THROWING.--LESSON II, 1.]
[Illustration: PLATE II. THROWING.--LESSON II, 2.]
_Lesson II._ Place a small basin of water close at hand. Take a ball of
clay about three inches in diameter. Set it on the center of the wheel
as nearly as can be judged. Now spin the wheel at a fairly rapid rate.
Brace the left elbow against the side and, wetting the hand, press the
ball of the thumb and the lower part of the palm against the clay. The
left forearm being kept rigid, the clay as it revolves will be forced
into the center of the wheel. Use the right hand to sprinkle water on
the clay that proper lubrication may be maintained. With the fingers of
the right hand pull the clay towards you, at the same time pressing
inward with left hand and so squeezing the clay. As the hands come
together the clay will rise in a cone. Do not pull it upwards but let it
rise as it is squeezed. Now bring the hands over the top and with the
thumbs together press down again. Lumps and irregularities will be felt
in the clay and the operations of spinning up and pressing down must be
continued until these disappear. Repeat the exercise of centering with a
fresh ball of clay until it can be accomplished with ease and rapidity.
The clay so used is not wasted. The superfluous water may be dried off
upon a plaster bat and the clay wedged up for use again.
[Illustration: PLATE III. THROWING.--LESSON II, 3.]
This wedging or waging of clay--the word has descended from the old
English potters--is important. A strong table should be built of which
the top, measuring about 30 by 20 inches, is made of two-inch plank. A
raised edge two inches high is fastened firmly by being nailed to the
sides; the trough thus formed is then filled with plaster and allowed to
harden. An upright post is fastened in the center of one side and from
the top of this a fine brass wire is stretched to the other side of the
table, thus making a diagonal. The worker stands at the side of the
table opposite the post. The ball of clay is taken in both hands and cut
in two against the wire, then the pieces are slapped smartly upon the
plaster, one on top of the other. The whole lump is then lifted, cut in
two and slapped down as before. The lump of clay is thus formed into
layers, the irregularities in hardness are corrected and the clay made
smooth. A little practice will make the work quite easy but it will
often be found necessary to cut and beat the clay fifteen or twenty
times before a good texture is secured. If the plaster table be dry the
clay will be stiffened rapidly but the plaster may be made wet to
prevent this if it should not be necessary. A clay may also be softened
in this way by sprinkling it with water as the wedging goes on.
[Illustration: PLATE IV. THROWING.--LESSON III, 1.]
[Illustration: PLATE V. THROWING.--LESSON III, 2.]
_Lesson III._ Center the ball as in Lesson II and moisten both hands and
the clay. Grasping the clay lightly but with sufficient force, press the
right thumb downwards and towards the palm and a cup-shaped hollow is
formed in the clay. Raise the right hand slowly, still keeping a light
pressure upon the clay with the thumb. The clay wall will rise with the
hand. Now insert the two first fingers of the left hand into the hollow
and hold them against the right-hand wall. Slacken the speed of the
wheel a little. Bend the forefinger of the right hand and press the
second joint and the knuckle against the outer wall so as to oppose the
fingers which are inside. Press the thumbs together to steady the hands
and raise both hands upwards together. The fingers inside and outside
the clay should be kept at a definite distance apart so that as the
hands rise, the clay is brought to a uniform thickness. The hands are
brought steadily to the full height to which the clay will go and thus a
cylinder is formed.
Repeat this lesson three or four times with fresh clay.
[Illustration: PLATE VI. THROWING.--LESSON IV, 1.]
[Illustration: PLATE VII. THROWING.--LESSON IV, 2.]
_Lesson IV._ Keep the hands wet. Shape the clay cylinder as directed in
the previous exercise. Now repeat the action of the fingers inside and
outside and, beginning at the bottom, take a closer grip of the clay and
draw up the walls as before. The cylinder is now taller and the walls
thinner. Do this again and again taking a little closer grip each time
until the cylinder is as tall and as thin as the clay will bear. The
walls will probably spread as the work proceeds and the hands must then
be used outside. Grasp the clay with both hands and squeeze it slightly;
at the same time raise the hands upwards. This will reduce the diameter
of the cylinder and thicken the walls. The operation of the fingers can
then be repeated until the full height is reached. There is, of course,
a limit to the height of the cylinder which can be made from a given
lump of clay and it is best to begin on a small scale. A ball of clay
which can be easily grasped with the hands is the proper size with which
to learn. A very small ball is nearly as hard to work as a large one.
Repeat this lesson until a tall cylinder can be made with ease and
certainty.
[Illustration: PLATE VIII. THROWING.--LESSON V.]
_Lesson V._ Keep the hands wet. Spin up a cylinder with thick walls as
in Lesson III. With the fingers of the one hand inside and those of the
other hand outside, open the cylinder gradually. Keep the wheel at a
slow speed. If the edge runs unevenly, use both hands outside to steady
it, then work outwards again until a shallow bowl is formed.
[Illustration: PLATE IX. THROWING.--LESSON VI, 1.]
_Lesson VI._ Keep the hands wet. Spin up a cylinder of medium height as
in Lesson IV. With the fingers of the right hand outside press inwards
at the base of the cylinder close to the bat and with the fingers of the
left hand inside, press outwards at a slightly higher level. This will
reduce the diameter at the bottom and increase it in the middle, making
a cup shape. Now raise the right hand and gently draw the top inwards.
With the left hand inside press the upper edge outward and with the
fingers of the right hand shape the upper part into the form of a jar or
flower pot.
[Illustration: PLATE X. THROWING.--LESSON VI, 2.]
[Illustration: PLATE XI. THROWING.--LESSON VII.]
_Lesson VII._ Keep the hands wet; proceed as in Lesson VI. Instead of
making the top flange outwards, draw it gradually inwards into a globe
form. Work the clay carefully upwards and inwards until the opening at
the top is almost closed. Several attempts will probably have to be made
before this result can be secured.
[Illustration: PLATE XII. THROWING.--LESSON VIII, 1.]
_Lesson VIII._ Keep the hands wet. Spin up a globe shape with a narrow
base as in Lesson VI but carry a good share of the clay to the top so
that the upper edge of the globe is quite thick. Insert two fingers of
the left hand and with the fingers of the right hand outside work the
upper edge of the globe into a tall neck. The action is the same as in
the shaping of a cylinder except that the diameter is smaller. A good
deal of practice will be necessary in order to keep the neck thin and to
raise it to any appreciable height, but perseverance will accomplish it.
[Illustration: PLATE XIII. THROWING.--LESSON VIII, 2.]
These lessons if carried out conscientiously will enable the operator to
produce almost any form in so far as the manipulation of the clay is
concerned but the work up to this point is drill only. It is not
intended that the pieces should be preserved. The next point is to
insist that the clay obey the potter in the shaping of a form.
A simple drawing of a jar should be made exact to the size proposed. Two
or three pairs of calipers are provided and with them the diameter of
each part of the drawing is taken. Of course a single pair could be made
to serve, but it is very inconvenient to change measurements while
working. A piece of wood also is cut to the height of the proposed
piece. The throwing is begun as usual by making a cylinder. This should
be higher than the drawing for the clay sinks in the shaping. First the
bottom is pressed into the proper size (Lesson VI). Then the body is
enlarged to the required measure and, lastly the diameter of the top is
taken and the height brought to the determined point. If too high the
superfluous clay may be cut off with a pointed knife, the edge being
carefully rounded afterwards.
It is only by checking up one's work in some such way as this that real
power can be acquired. The skilled worker can think in the clay and
create forms at will upon the moving wheel, but for the beginner to
attempt this is like an endeavor to paint pictures before one has
learned to draw. Shape after shape should be designed, drawn to scale
and thrown to measure; in fact, for elaborate pieces no other course is
possible.