AMERICA AND THE PHILIPPINES.
Beginning of a New Era.--With the passing of the Spanish sovereignty
to the Americans, a new era began in the Philippines. Already the
old Spanish rule seems so far removed that we can begin to think of
it without feeling and study it without prejudice.
Development of the United States of America.--The American nation is
the type of the New World. Beginning in a group of colonies, planted
half a century later than the settlement of the Philippines, it has
had a development unparalleled in the history of states. Although
peopled by emigrants from Europe, who rigidly preserved both their
purity of race and pride of ancestry, the American colonists, at the
end of a century, were far separated in spirit and institutions from
the Old World.
Struggle with the wilderness and with the savage produced among them
a society more democratic and more independent than Europe had ever
known; while their profound religious convictions saved the colonists
from barbarism and intellectual decline. It can truthfully be held,
that in 1775, at the outbreak of the American Revolution, the colonists
had abler men and greater political ability than the mother-country of
England. It was these men who, at the close of the Revolution, framed
the American Constitution, the greatest achievement in the history of
public law. This nation, endowed at its commencement with so precious
an inheritance of political genius, felt its civil superiority to the
illiberal or ineffective governments of Europe, and this feeling has
produced in Americans a supreme and traditional confidence in their own
forms of government and democratic standards of life. Certainly their
history contains much to justify the choice of their institutions.
A hundred and twenty-five years ago, these colonies were a small nation
of 2,500,000 people, occupying no more than the Atlantic coast of
the continent. Great mountain chains divided them from the interior,
which was overrun by the fiercest and most warlike type of man that
the races have produced--the American Indian. With an energy which
has shown no diminishing from generation to generation, the American
broke through these mountain chains, subdued the wilderness, conquered
the Indian tribes, and in the space of three generations was master
of the continent of North America.
Even while engaged in the War for Independence, the American
frontiersman crossed the Appalachians and secured Kentucky and the
Northwest Territory, and with them the richest and most productive
regions of the Temperate Zone,--the Mississippi Valley. In 1803, the
great empire of Louisiana, falling from the hand of France, was added
to the American nation. In 1818, Florida was ceded by Spain, and in
1857, as a result of war with Mexico, came the Greater West and the
Pacific seaboard. This vast dominion, nearly three thousand miles in
width from east to west, has been peopled by natural increase and by
immigration from Europe, until, at the end of the nineteenth century,
the American nation numbered seventy-four million souls.
This development has taken place without fundamental change in the
constitution or form of government, without loss of individual liberty,
and constantly increasing national prosperity. Moreover, the States
have survived the Civil War, the most bloody and persistently fought
war of all modern centuries--a war in which a million soldiers fell,
and to sustain which three and a half billion dollars in gold were
expended out of the national treasury. This war accomplished the
abolition of negro slavery, the greatest economic revolution ever
effected by a single blow.
Such in brief is the history of the American nation, so gifted with
political intelligence, so driven by sleepless energy, so proud of
its achievements, and inwardly so contemptuous of the more polished
but less liberal life of the Old World. Europe has never understood
this nation, and not until a few years ago did Europeans dream of
its progress and its power.
Relation of the United States to South American Republics.--Toward
the republics of Spanish America the United States has always stood
in a peculiar relation. These countries achieved their independence of
Spain under the inspiration of the success of the United States. Their
governments were framed in imitation of the American, and in spite of
the turbulence and disorder of their political life, the United States
has always felt and manifested a strong sympathy for these states as
fellow-republics. She has moreover pledged herself to the maintenance
of their integrity against the attacks of European powers. This
position of the United States in threatening with resistance the
attempt of any European power to seize American territory is known
as the Monroe Doctrine, because it was first declared by President
Monroe in 1823.
Sympathy of American People for the Oppressed Cubans.--The fact that
the American nation attained its own independence by revolution has
made the American people give ready sympathy to the cause of the
revolutionist. The people of Cuba, who made repeated ineffective
struggles against Spanish sovereignty, always had the good wishes
of the American people. By international usage, however, one nation
may not recognize or assist revolutionists against a friendly power
until their independence is practically effected.
Thus, when rebellion broke out afresh in Cuba in 1894, the United
States government actively suppressed the lending of assistance to
the Cubans, as was its duty, although the American people themselves
heartily wished Cuba free. The war in Cuba dragged along for years and
became more and more merciless. The passions of Cubans and Spaniards
were so inflamed that quarter was seldom given, and prisoners were
not spared. Spain poured her troops into the island until there were
120,000 on Cuban soil, but the rebellion continued.
The Spanish have always been merciless in dealing with
revolutionists. Americans, on the other hand, have always conceded
the moral right of a people to resist oppressive government, and in
the entire history of the United States there has scarcely been a
single punishment for political crime. Although probably the fiercest
war in history was the American Civil War from 1861 to 1865, there
was not a single execution for treason. Thus the stories of the
constant executions of political prisoners, on an island in sight
of its own shores, greatly exasperated America, as did the policy of
Governor-general Weyler, which was excessive in its severity.
War with Spain.--Destruction of the "Maine."--As the contest proceeded
without sign of termination, the patience of the American people grew
less. Then, February 15, 1898, occurred one of the most deplorable
events of recent times. The American battleship "Maine," lying in the
harbor of Havana, was, in the night, blown to destruction by mine or
torpedo, killing 266 American officers and sailors. It is impossible
to believe that so dastardly an act was done with the knowledge of
the higher Spanish officials; but the American people rightly demanded
that a government such as Spain maintained in Cuba, unable to prevent
such an outrage upon the vessel of a friendly power, and that could
neither suppress its rebellion nor wage war humanely, should cease.
Declaration of War.--On April 19th the American Congress demanded
that Spain withdraw from the island and recognize the independence of
Cuba. This was practically a declaration of war. Spain indignantly
refused, and resolved upon resistance. Unfortunately, the ignorant
European press claimed for Spain military and naval superiority.
The war was brief, and was an overwhelming disaster to Spain. Every
vessel of her proud navy that came under the fire of American guns
was destroyed.
For a few months battle raged along the coasts of Cuba, and then
Spain sued for peace.
Dewey's Victory in Manila Bay.--But meanwhile the war, begun without
the slightest reference to the Philippine Islands, had brought about
surprising consequences here.
At the opening of the war, both Spain and the United States had
squadrons in Asiatic waters. The Spanish fleet lay at Cavite, the
American ships gathered at Hongkong. Immediately on the declaration of
war, the American naval commander, Dewey, was ordered to destroy the
Spanish fleet, which was feared on the Pacific coast of America. Dewey
entered the Bay of Manila in darkness on the morning of May 1st,
and made direct for the Spanish vessels at Cavite. His fleet was the
more powerful and immeasurably the more efficient. In a few hours
the Spanish navy was utterly destroyed and Manila lay at the mercy
of his guns.
A New Insurrection, under Aguinaldo.--At this signal catastrophe
to Spain, the smoldering insurrection in the Islands broke out
afresh. The Spanish troops not in Manila were driven in upon their
posts, and placed in a position of siege. The friars, so hated by the
revolutionists, were captured in large numbers and were in some cases
killed. With the permission and assistance of the American authorities,
Aguinaldo returned from Singapore, and landed at Cavite. Here he
immediately headed anew the Philippine insurrection.
Capture of Manila.--Troops were dispatched from San Francisco for the
capture of Manila. By the end of July, 8,500 men lay in the transports
off Cavite. They were landed at the little estuary of Paranaque,
and advanced northwards upon Fort San Antonio and the defenses of
Malate. The Spaniards behind the city's defenses, although outnumbering
the Americans, were sick and dispirited. One attempt was made to drive
back the invading army, but on the following day the Americans swept
through the defenses and line of blockhouses, and Manila capitulated
(August 13, 1898).
The Filipinos had scarcely participated in the attack on the city, and
they were excluded from occupying it after its surrender. This act was
justified, because the Filipino forces had been very recently raised,
the soldiers were undisciplined, and had they entered the city, with
passions as they were inflamed, it was feared by the Americans that
their officers might not be able to keep them from looting and crime.
Misunderstanding between Americans and Filipinos.--Up to this point,
the relations between the American and Filipino armies had been
friendly. But here began that misunderstanding and distrust which
for so many months were to alienate these two peoples and imbitter
their intercourse.
Provisional Government of the Filipinos.--In the interval between
the destruction of the Spanish fleet and the capture of Manila,
the Filipinos in Cavite had organized a provisional government and
proclaimed the independence of the archipelago.
American Ideas in Regard to the Philippines.--The idea of returning
these islands to the Spanish power was exceedingly repugnant to
American sentiment. Spain's attitude toward revolutionists was well
understood in America, and the Filipinos had acted as America's friends
and allies. On the other hand, the American government was unwilling
to turn over to the newly organized Filipino republic the government
of the archipelago. It was felt in America, and with reason, that
this Filipino government was not truly representative of all the
people in the Philippines, that the Filipino leaders were untried
men, and that the people themselves had not had political training and
experience. The United States, having overthrown the Spanish government
here, was under obligation to see that the government established in
its place would represent all and do injustice to none. The Filipinos
were very slightly known to Americans, but their educated class was
believed to be small and their political ability unproven. Thus, no
assurances were given to the Filipino leaders that their government
would be recognized, or that their wishes would be consulted in the
future of the Islands. In fact, these matters could be settled only
by action of the American Congress, which was late in assembling and
slow to act.
The Terms of Peace.--Spain and America were now negotiating terms of
peace. These negotiations were conducted at Paris, and dragged on
during many critical weeks. The Filipinos were naturally very much
concerned over the outcome.
Finally, the American government demanded of Spain that she cede the
Islands to the United States and accept the sum of $20,000,000 gold,
for public works and improvements which she had made.
Suspicions of the Filipino Leaders.--These terms became known in
December, 1898. They served to awaken the worst suspicions of the
Filipino leaders. Many believed that they were about to exchange
the oppressive domination of Spain for the selfish and equally
oppressive domination of America. There is reason to believe that some
leaders counseled patience, and during the succeeding months made a
constant effort to maintain the peace, but the radical party among
the Filipinos was led by a man of real gifts and fiery disposition,
Antonio Luna. He had received an education in Europe, had had some
instruction in military affairs, and when in September the Filipino
government was transferred to Malolos, Luna became the general in
chief of the military forces. He was also editor of the most radical
Filipino newspaper, "La Independencia."
New Filipino Government.--On January 4, 1899, President McKinley
issued a special message to General Otis, commanding the armies of the
United States in the Philippines, declaring that American sovereignty
must be recognized without conditions. It was thought in the United
States that a firm declaration of this kind would be accepted by
the Filipinos and that they would not dare to make resistance. The
intentions of the American president and nation, as subsequent events
have proven, were to deal with the Filipinos with great liberality;
but the president's professions were not trusted by the Filipinos,
and the result of Mr. McKinley's message was to move them at once to
frame an independent government and to decide on war.
This new government was framed at Malolos, Bulacan, by a congress
with representatives from most of the provinces of central Luzon. The
"Malolos Constitution" was proclaimed January 23, 1899, and Don Emilio
Aguinaldo was elected president. The cabinet, or ministry, included
Don Apolinario Mabini, secretary of state; Don Teodoro Sandico,
secretary of interior; General Baldomero Aguinaldo, secretary of war;
General Mariano Trias, secretary of treasury; Don Engracio Gonzaga,
secretary of public instruction and agriculture.
War with the Americans.--Battle of Manila.--The Filipino forces were
impatient for fighting, and attack on the American lines surrounding
Manila began on the night of February 4th. It is certain that battle
had been decided upon and in preparation for some time, and that
fighting would have been begun in any case, before the arrival
of reenforcements from America; but the attack was precipitated a
little early by the killing at San Juan Bridge of a Filipino officer
who refused to halt when challenged by an American sentry. On that
memorable and dreadful night, the battle raged with great fury along
the entire circle of defenses surrounding the city, from Tondo
on the north to Fort San Antonio de Abad, south of the suburb of
Malate. Along three main avenues from the north, east, and south
the Filipinos attempted to storm and enter the capital, but although
they charged with reckless bravery, and for hours sustained a bloody
combat, they had fatally underestimated the fighting qualities of
the American soldier.
The volunteer regiments of the American army came almost entirely from
the western United States, where young men are naturally trained to
the use of arms, and are imbued by inheritance with the powerful and
aggressive qualities of the American frontier. When morning broke,
the Filipino line of attack had, at every point, been shattered and
thrown back, and the Americans had advanced their positions on the
north to Caloocan, on the east to the Water Works and the Mariquina
Valley, and on the south to Pasay.
Declaration of War.--Unfortunately, during the night attack and before
the disaster to Filipino arms was apparent, Aguinaldo had launched
against the United States a declaration of war. This declaration
prevented the Americans from trusting the Filipino overtures which
followed this battle, and peace was not made.
The Malolos Campaign.--On March 25th began the American advance upon
the Filipino capital of Malolos. This Malolos campaign, as it is
usually called, occupied six days, and ended in the driving of the
Filipino army and government from their capital. Hard fighting took
place in the first days of this advance, and two extremely worthy
American officers were killed, Colonels Egbert and Stotsenberg.
The Filipino army was pursued in its retreat as far as Calumpit, where
on the southern bank of the Rio Grande de Pampanga the American line
rested during the height of the rainy season. During this interval
the volunteer regiments, whose terms of service had long expired,
were returned to the States, and their places taken by regiments of
the regular army.
The American Army.--The American army at that time, besides the
artillery, consisted of twenty-five regiments of infantry and ten of
cavalry. Congress now authorized the organization of twenty-four new
regiments of infantry, to be known as the 26th to the 49th Regiments
of U. S. Volunteers, and one volunteer regiment of cavalry, the 11th,
for a service of two years. These regiments were largely officered
by men from civil life, familiar with a great variety of callings and
professions,--men for the most part of fine character, whose services
in the months that followed were very great not only in the field, but
in gaining the friendship of the Filipino people and in representing
the character and intentions of the American government.
Anti-War Agitators in America.--Through the summer of 1899 the war was
not pressed by the American general, nor were the negotiations with
the Filipino leaders conducted with success. The Filipinos were by no
means dismayed. In spite of their reverses, they believed the conquest
of the Islands impossible to foreign troops. Furthermore, the war had
met with tremendous opposition in America. Many Americans believed that
the war was against the fundamental rights of the Filipino people. They
attacked the administration with unspeakable bitterness. They openly
expressed sympathy for the Filipino revolutionary cause, and for the
space of two years their encouragement was an important factor in
sustaining the rebellion.
Spread of the Insurrection.--In these same summer months the
revolutionary leaders spread their cause among the surrounding
provinces and islands. The spirit of resistance was prominent at first
only among the Tagalog, but gradually nearly all the Christianized
population was united in resistance to the American occupation.
Occupation of Negros.--The Americans had meanwhile occupied
Iloilo and the Bisayas, and shortly afterwards the presidios in
Mindanao surrendered by the Spaniards. In Negros, also, exceptional
circumstances had transpired. The people in this island invited
American sovereignty; and Gen. James Smith, sent to the island in March
as governor, assisted the people in forming a liberal government,
through which insurrection and disorder in that island were largely
avoided.
Death of General Luna.--With the cessation of heavy rains, the
fighting was begun again in northern Luzon. The Filipino army had
its headquarters in Tarlac, and its lines occupied the towns of the
provinces of Pangasinan and Nueva Ecija, stretching in a long line of
posts from the Zambales Mountains almost to the upper waters of the
Rio Pampanga. It was still well armed, provisioned, and resolute; but
the brilliant, though wayward, organizer of this army was dead. The
Nationalist junta, which had directed the Philippine government and
army, had not been able to reconcile its differences. It is reported
that Luna aspired to a dictatorship. He was killed by soldiers of
Aguinaldo at Cabanatuan.
The Campaign in Northern Luzon.--The American generals now determined
upon a strategic campaign. General MacArthur was to command an
advance up the railroad from Calumpit upon Tarlac; General Lawton,
with a flying column of swift infantry and cavalry, was to make a
flanking movement eastward through Nueva Ecija and hem the Filipino
forces in upon the east. Meanwhile, General Wheaton was to convey a
force by transport to the Gulf of Lingayen, to throw a cordon across
the Ilocano coast that should cut off the retreat of the Filipino army
northward. As a strategic movement, this campaign was only partially
successful. MacArthur swept northward, crushing the Filipino line on
his front, his advance being led by the active regiment of General
J. Franklin Bell. Lawton's column scoured the country eastward,
marching with great rapidity and tremendous exertions. Swollen
rivers were crossed with great loss of life, and the column,
cutting loose from its supplies, was frequently in need of food. It
was in this column that the Filipino first saw with amazement the
great American cavalry horse, so large beside the small pony of
the Philippines. Lawton's descent was so swift that the Philippine
government and staff narrowly escaped capture.
On the night of November 11th, the Filipino generals held their
last council of war at Bayambang on the Rio Agno, and resolved upon
dispersal. Meanwhile, Wheaton had landed at San Fabian, upon the
southern Ilocano coast, but his force was insufficient to establish
an effective cordon, and on the night of November 15th Aguinaldo,
with a small party of ministers and officers, closely pursued by the
cavalry of Lawton under the command of General Young, slipped past,
through the mountains of Pozorubio and Rosario, and escaped up the
Ilocano coast.
Then began one of the most exciting pursuits in recent wars. The chase
never slackened, except in those repeated instances when for the moment
the trail of the Filipino general was lost. From Candon, Aguinaldo
turned eastward through the comandancias of Lepanto and Bontoc, into
the wild Igorrote country of the Cordillera Central. The trail into
Lepanto leads over the lofty mountains through the precipitous Tila
Pass. On the summit, in what was regarded as an impregnable position,
Gregorio del Pilar, little more than a boy, but a brigadier-general,
with a small force of soldiers, the remnant of his command, attempted
to cover the retreat of his president. But a battalion of the
33d Infantry, under Major March, carried the pass, with the total
destruction of Pilar's command, he himself falling amid the slain.
Capture of Aguinaldo.--Major March then pursued Aguinaldo into
Bontoc and thence southward into the wild and mountainous territory
of Quiangan. On Christmas night, 1899, the American soldiers camped
on the crest of the Cordillera, within a few miles of the Igorrote
village where the Filipino force was sleeping. Both parties were
broken down and in dire distress through the fierceness of the flight
and pursuit, but for several weeks longer Aguinaldo's party was able
to remain in these mountains and elude its pursuers. A month later,
his trail was finally lost in the valley of the Cagayan. He and his
small party had passed over the exceedingly difficult trail through
the Sierra Madre Mountains, to the little Tagalog town of Palanan
near the Pacific coast. Here, almost entirely cut off from active
participation in the insurrection, Aguinaldo remained until June of
1901, when he was captured by the party of General Funston.
For some weeks following the disintegration of the Filipino army, the
country appeared to be pacified and the insurrection over. The new
regiments arriving from the United States, an expedition was formed
under General Schwan, which in December and January marched southward
through Cavite and Laguna provinces and occupied Batangas, Tayabas, and
the Camarines. Other regiments were sent to the Bisayas and to northern
Luzon, until every portion of the archipelago, except the islands of
Mindoro and Palawan, contained large forces of American troops.
Reorganization of the Filipino Army.--The Filipinos had, by no means,
however, abandoned the contest, and this period of quiet was simply
a calm while the insurgent forces were perfecting their organization
and preparing for a renewal of the conflict under a different form. It
being found impossible for a Filipino army to keep the field, there
was effected a secret organization for the purpose of maintaining
irregular warfare through every portion of the archipelago. The Islands
were partitioned into a great number of districts or "zones." At
the head of each was a zone commander, usually with the rank of
general. The operations of these men were, to a certain extent, guided
by the counsel or directions of the secret revolutionary juntas in
Manila or Hongkong, but, in fact, they were practically absolute and
independent, and they exercised extraordinary powers. They recruited
their own forces and commissioned subordinate commanders. They levied
"contributions" upon towns, owners of haciendas, and individuals of
every class, and there was a secret civil or municipal organization
for collecting these revenues. The zone commanders, moreover, exercised
the terrible power of execution by administrative order.
Assassination of Filipinos.--Many of the Filipino leaders were
necessarily not well instructed in those rules for the conduct of
warfare which civilized peoples have agreed upon as being humane
and honorable. Many of them tried, especially in the latter months
of the war, when understanding was more widely diffused, to make
their conduct conform to international usage; but the revolutionary
junta had committed the great crime of ordering the punishment by
assassination of all Filipinos who failed to support the insurgent
cause. No possible justification, in the light of modern morality,
can be found for such a step as this. The very worst passions were
let loose in carrying out this policy. Scores of unfortunate men were
assassinated, many of them as the results of private enmity. Endless
blackmail was extorted and communities were terrorized from one end
of the archipelago to the other.
Irregular Warfare of the Filipinos.--Through the surrender of
Spanish forces, the capture of the arsenals of Cavite and Olongapo,
and by purchase through Hongkong, the revolutionary government
possessed between thirty thousand and forty thousand rifles. These
arms were distributed to the different military zones, and the
secret organization which existed in each municipality received its
proportion. These guns were secreted by the different members of the
command, except when occasion arose for effecting a surprise or making
an attack. There were no general engagements, but in some towns there
was almost nightly shooting. Pickets and small detachments were cut
off, and roads became so unsafe throughout most of the archipelago
that there was no travel by Americans except under heavy escort. For a
long time, also, the orders of the commanding general were so lenient
that it was impossible to punish properly this conduct when it was
discovered.
Death of General Lawton.--The American army, in its attempt to garrison
every important town in the Islands, was cut up into as many as 550
small detachments of post garrisons. Thus, while there were eventually
sixty thousand American soldiers in the Islands, it was rare for as
many as five hundred to take the field, and most of the engagements
of the year 1900 were by small detachments of fifty to one hundred men.
It was in one of these small expeditions that the American army
suffered the greatest single loss of the war. A few miles east of
Manila is the beautiful Mariquina Valley, from which is derived the
city's supply of water, and the headwaters of this pretty stream lie in
the wild and picturesque fastness of San Mateo and Montalban. Although
scarce a dozen miles from the capital and the headquarters of a
Filipino brigade, San Mateo was not permanently occupied by the
Americans until after the 18th of December, 1899, when a force under
General Lawton was led around through the hills to surprise the town.
Early in the morning the American force came pouring down over the
hills that lie across the river from the village. They were met by
a brisk fire from the insurgent command scattered along the banks of
the river and in a sugar hacienda close to the stream. Here Lawton,
conspicuous in white uniform and helmet, accompanying, as was his
custom, the front line of skirmishers, was struck by a bullet and
instantly killed.
Filipino Leaders Sent to Guam.--In November, 1900, after the reelection
in the United States of President McKinley, a much more vigorous policy
of war was inaugurated. In this month General MacArthur, commanding
the division, issued a notable general order, defining and explaining
the laws of war which were being violated, and threatening punishment
by imprisonment of those guilty of such conduct. Some thousands of
Filipinos under this order were arrested and imprisoned. Thirty-nine
leaders, among them the high-minded but irreconcilable Mabini, were
in December, 1900, sent to a military prison on the island of Guam.
Campaigning was much more vigorously prosecuted in all military
districts. By this time all the American officers had become familiar
with the insurgent leaders, and these were now obliged to leave the
towns and establish cuartels in remote barrios and in the mountains.
These measures, pursued through the winter of 1900-01, broke the
power of the revolution.
The Philippine Civil Commission.--Another very influential factor in
producing peace resulted from the presence and labors of the Civil
Philippine Commission. These gentlemen, Judge William H. Taft, Judge
Luke E. Wright, Judge Henry C. Ide, Professor Dean C. Worcester,
and Professor Bernard Moses, were appointed by the president in the
spring of 1900 to legislate for the Islands and to prepare the way
for the establishment of civil government. President McKinley's letter
of instructions to this commission will probably be ranked as one of
the ablest and most notable public papers in American history.
The commission reached the Islands in June and began their legislative
work on September 1st. This body of men, remarkable for their high
character, was able at last to bring about an understanding with the
Filipino leaders and to assure them of the unselfish and honorable
purposes of the American government. Thus, by the early winter
of 1900-01 many Filipino gentlemen became convinced that the best
interests of the Islands lay in accepting American sovereignty, and
that they could honorably advocate the surrender of the insurgent
forces. These men represented the highest attainments and most
influential positions in the Islands. In December they formed an
association known as the Federal Party, for the purpose of inducing the
surrender of military leaders, obedience to the American government,
and the acceptance of peace.
End of the Insurrection.--Under these influences, the insurrection,
in the spring of 1901, went rapidly to pieces. Leader after leader
surrendered his forces and arms, and took the oath of allegiance and
quietly returned home. By the end of June there were but two zone
commanders who had not surrendered,--General Malvar in Batangas,
and General Lukban in Samar.
The First Civil Governor.--Peaceful conditions and security almost
immediately followed these surrenders and determined the president to
establish at once civil government. On July 4, 1901, this important
step was taken, Judge Taft, the president of the Philippine Commission,
taking office on that date as the first American civil governor of the
Philippines. On September 1st, the Philippine Commission was increased
by the appointment of three Filipino members,--the Hon. T. H. Pardo
de Tavera, M. D., the Hon. Benito Legarda, and the Hon. Jose Luzuriaga
of Negros.
The Philippine Commission has achieved a remarkable amount of
legislation of a very high order. From September, 1900, to the end
of December, 1902, the commission passed no less than 571 acts of
legislation. Some of these were of very great importance and involved
long preparation and labor. Few administrative bodies have ever worked
harder and with greater results than the Philippine Commission during
the first two years of its activity. The frame of government in all
its branches had to be organized and set in motion, the civil and
criminal law liberalized, revenue provided, and public instruction
remodeled on a very extensive scale.
The New Government.--The government is a very liberal one, and
one which gives an increasing opportunity for participation to the
Filipinos. It includes what is called local self-government. There
are in the Islands about 1,132 municipalities. In these the residents
practically manage their own affairs. There are thirty-eight organized
provinces in the archipelago, in which the administration rests
with the Provincial Board composed of the governor, treasurer,
and supervisor or engineer. The governor is elected for the
term of one year by the councilors of all the towns united in
assembly. The treasurer and supervisor are appointed by the governor
of the Philippine archipelago under the rules of the Civil Service
Board. The civil service is a subject which has commanded the special
consideration of the Commission. It gives equal opportunity to the
Filipino and to the American to enter the public service and to gain
public promotion; and the Filipino is by law even given the preference
where possessed of the requisite ability.
The Insular Government.--For the purposes of administration, the
insular, or central government of the Islands is divided into four
branches, called departments, each directed by a secretary who is
also a member of the Philippine Commission. These departments are,
interior, Secretary Worcester; finance and justice, Secretary Ide;
commerce and police, Secretary Wright; and public instruction,
Secretary Moses, until January 1, 1903, and since that date Secretary
Smith. Under each of these departments are a large number of bureaus,
by which the many important activities of the government are performed.
We have only to examine a list of these bureaus to see how many-sided
is the work which the government is performing. It is a veritable
commonwealth, complete in all the branches which demand the
attention of modern governments. Thus, under the Department of the
Interior, there is the Bureau of Public Health, with its extremely
important duties of combating epidemic diseases and improving public
sanitation, with its public hospitals, sanitariums, and charities;
the Bureau of Government Laboratories for making bacteriological and
chemical investigations; a Bureau of Forestry; a Bureau of Mining;
the Philippine Weather Bureau; a Bureau of Agriculture; a Bureau of
Non-Christian Tribes for conducting the government work in ethnology
and for framing legislation for pagan and Mohammedan tribes; and a
Bureau of Public Lands.
Under the department of Commerce and Police are the Bureau of Posts;
Signal Service; the Philippines Constabulary, really an insular army,
with its force of some sixty-five hundred officers and men; Prisons;
the Coast Guard and Transportation Service, with a fleet of about
twenty beautiful little steamers, nearly all of them newly built for
this service and named for islands of the archipelago; the Coast and
Geodetic Survey, doing the much-needed work of charting the dangerous
coasts and treacherous waters of the archipelago; and the Bureau of
Engineering, which has under its charge great public works, many of
which are already under way.
Under the Department of Finance and Justice are the Insular Treasurer;
the Insular Auditor; the Bureau of Customs and Immigration; the
Bureau of Internal Revenue; the Insular Cold Storage and Ice Plant;
and the great Bureau of Justice.
Under the Department of Public Instruction there is the Bureau of
Education in charge of the system of public schools; a Bureau of
Printing and Engraving, with a new and fully equipped plant; a Bureau
of Architecture; a Bureau of Archives; a Bureau of Statistics; and
the Philippine Museum.
Revenues and Expenditures.--The maintenance of these numerous
activities calls for an expenditure of large sums of money, but the
insular government and the Filipino people are fortunate in having
had their finances managed with exceptional ability. The revenues
of the Islands for the past fiscal year have amounted to about
$10,638,000, gold. Public expenditures, including the purchase
of equipment such as the coast-guard fleet and the forwarding of
great public works such as the improving of the harbor of Manila,
amounted during fiscal year of 1903 to about $9,150,000, gold. The
government has at all times preserved a good balance in its treasury;
but the past year has seen some diminution in the amount of revenues,
owing to the great depreciation of silver money, the falling off of
imports, the wide prevalence of cholera, and the poverty of many parts
of the country as a result of war and the loss of livestock through
pest. To assist the government of the Philippines, the Congress of
the United States in February, 1903, with great and characteristic
generosity appropriated the sum of $3,000,000, gold, as a free gift
to the people and government of the Philippines.
The Judicial System.--Especially fortunate, also, have been the labors
of the commission in establishing a judicial system and revising the
Spanish law. The legal ability of the commission is unusually high. As
at present constituted, the judicial system consists of a Supreme
Court composed of seven justices, three of whom at the present time
are Filipinos, which, besides trying cases over which it has original
jurisdiction, hears cases brought on appeal from the Courts of First
Instance, fifteen in number, which sit in different parts of the
Islands. Each town, moreover, has its justices of the peace for the
trial of small cases and for holding preliminary examinations in cases
of crimes. By the new Code of Civil Procedure, the administration of
justice has been so simplified that there are probably no courts in
the world where justice can be more quickly secured than here.
System of Public Schools.--Probably no feature of the American
government in the Islands has attracted more attention than the
system of public schools. Popular education, while by no means wholly
neglected under the Spanish government, was inadequate, and was
continually opposed by the clerical and conservative Spanish forces,
who feared that the liberalizing of the Filipino people would be the
loosening of the control of both Spanish state and church. On the
contrary, the success of the American government, as of any government
in which the people participate, depends upon the intelligence and
education of the people. Thus, the American government is as anxious to
destroy ignorance and poverty as the Spanish government and the Spanish
church were desirous of preserving these deeply unfortunate conditions.
Americans believe that if knowledge is generally spread among the
Filipino people, if there can be a real understanding of the genius
and purpose of our American institutions, there will come increasing
content and satisfaction to dwell under American law. Thus, education
was early encouraged by the American army, and it received the first
attention of the commission. The widespread system of public schools
which now exists in these islands was organized by the first General
Superintendent of Public Instruction, Dr. Fred W. Atkinson, and by
Professor Bernard Moses of the Philippine Commission.
Instruction in the English Language.--The basis of this public
instruction is the English language. This was early decided upon in
view of the great number of Filipino dialects, the absence of a common
native language or literature, and the very moderate acquaintance
with Spanish by any except the educated class.
It is fortunate for the Filipino people that English has been
introduced here and that its knowledge is rapidly spreading. Knowledge
of language is power, and the more widely spoken the tongue, the
greater the possession of the individual who acquires it. Of all the
languages of the world, English is to-day the most widely spoken and is
most rapidly spreading. Moreover, English is preeminently the language
of the Far East. From Yokohama to Australia, and from Manila to the
Isthmus of Suez, English is the common medium of communication. It is
the language alike of business and of diplomacy. The Filipino people,
so eager to participate in all the busy life of eastern Asia, so
ambitious to make their influence felt and their counsels regarded,
will be debarred from all this unless they master this mighty English
tongue.
The Filipino Assembly.--Thus, after four and a half years of
American occupation, the sovereignty of the United States has been
established in the archipelago, and a form of government, unique
in the history of colonial administration, inaugurated. One other
step in the contemplation of Congress, which will still further make
the government a government of the Filipino people, remains to be
taken. This is the formation of a Filipino assembly of delegates or
representatives, chosen by popular vote from all the Christianized
provinces of the archipelago. The recent census of the Philippines
will form the basis for the apportionment of this representation. This
assembly will share the legislative power on all matters pertaining
to the Christian people of the Philippines and those parts of the
Islands inhabited by them. When this step shall have been taken,
the government of the Philippine Islands will be like the typical
and peculiarly American form of government known as territorial.
Territorial Form of Government in the United States.--The American
Union is composed of a number of states or commonwealths which,
while differing vastly in wealth and population, are on absolutely
equal footing in the Union. The inhabitants of these states form
politically the American sovereignty. They elect the president and
Congress, and through their state legislatures may change or amend
the form of the American state itself.
Besides these states, there have always been large possessions
of the nation called territories. These territories are extensive
countries, too sparsely inhabited or too undeveloped politically to
be admitted, in the judgment of the American Congress, to statehood
in the Union. Their inhabitants do not have the right to vote for
the president; neither have they representation in the American
Congress. These territories are governed by Congress, through
territorial governments, and over them Congress has full sovereign
powers. That is, as the Supreme Court of the United States has decided
and explained, while Congress when legislating for the states in the
Union has only those powers of legislation which have been specifically
granted by the Constitution, in legislating for the territories it has
all the powers which the Constitution has not specifically denied. The
only limitations on Congress are those which, under the American
system of public law, guarantee the liberty of the individual,--his
freedom of religious belief and worship; his right to just, open,
and speedy trial; his right to the possession of his property; and
other precious privileges, the result of centuries of development
in the English-speaking race, which make up civil liberty. These
priceless securities, which no power of the government can take away,
abridge, or infringe, are as much the possession of the inhabitants
of a territory as of a state. [95]
The government of these territories has varied greatly in form and
may be changed at any time by Congress, but it usually consists of a
governor and supreme court, appointed by the president of the United
States, and a legislature elected by the people. Since 1783 there
has always been territory so held and governed by the United States,
and if we may judge from the remarkable history of these regions, this
form of government of dependent possessions is the most successful and
most advantageous to the territory itself that has ever been devised.
At the present time, the territories of the United States are Oklahoma,
the Indian Territory, New Mexico, Arizona, Alaska, the Hawaiian
Islands, Porto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam.
The territorial form of government has frequently been regarded
by American statesmen as a temporary condition to be followed
at a comparatively early date by statehood. But after more than a
century of development, territorial government, as shaped by Congress
and as defined by the Supreme Court, shows itself so flexible and
advantageous that there is no reason why it should not be regarded
as a permanent and final form. Whether it will long prevail in the
Philippines, depends very largely upon the political development and
ultimate desires of the Filipino people themselves. For the present,
it is the only suitable form of government and the only form which
it is statesmanlike to contemplate.
Filipino Independence.--The events of the last few years
seem to indicate that the American nation will not intrust the
Philippines with independence until they have immeasurably gained
in political experience and social self-control. The question is
too great to be discussed here, but this much may be said: The
rapid march of international politics in this coming century will
not be favorable to the independence of the small and imperfectly
developed state. Independence, while it may fascinate the popular
leader, may not be most advantageous for this people. Independence,
under present tendencies of international trade, means economic
isolation. Independence, in the present age, compels preparedness
for war; preparedness for war necessitates the maintenance of
strong armies, the building of great navies, and the great economic
burdens required to sustain these armaments. Especially would this
be true of an archipelago so exposed to attack, so surrounded by
ambitious powers, and so near the center of coming struggle, as
are the Philippines. Japan, with a population of forty-two million,
wonderful for their industry and economy, and passionately devoted to
their emperor, is independent, but at great cost. The burden of her
splendid army and her modern navy weighs heavily upon her people,
consumes a large proportion of their earnings, and sometimes seems
to be threatening to strain the resources of the nation almost to
the point of breaking.
Advantages of American Control.--Surely, a people is economically far
more privileged if, like the Philippines under the American government,
or Australia under the British, they are compelled to sustain no
portion of the burden of exterior defense. The navies of the United
States to-day protect the integrity of the Philippine archipelago. The
power of a nation so strong and so terrible, when once aroused, that
no country on the globe would think for a minute of wantonly molesting
its territory, shields the Filipino from all outside interference
and permits him to expend all his energy in the development of those
abilities to which his temperament and endowment inspire him.
American government means freedom of opportunity. There is no
honorable pursuit, calling, or walk of life under heaven in which the
Filipino may not now engage and in which he will not find his endeavors
encouraged and his success met with generous appreciation. In politics,
his progress may be slow, because progress here is not the development
of the individual nor of the few, but of the whole. But in the no
less noble pursuits of science, literature, and art, we may in this
very generation see Filipinos achieving more than notable success
and distinction, not only for themselves but for their land.
Patriotic Duty.--Patriotic duty, as regards the Philippines, means
for the American a wholesome belief in the uprightness of the national
purposes; a loyal appreciation of the men who have here worked wisely
and without selfishness, and have borne the brunt of the toil; a
loyalty to the government of the Philippines and of the United States,
so long as these governments live honestly, rule justly, and increase
liberty; and a frank and hearty recognition of every advance made by
the Filipino people themselves. And for the Filipinos, patriotic duty
means a full acceptance of government as it has now been established,
as better than what has preceded, and perhaps superior to what he
himself would have chosen and could have devised; a loyalty to his own
people and to their interests and to the public interests, that shall,
overcome the personal selfishness that has set its cruel mark on every
native institution in this land; and a resolution to obey the laws,
preserve the peace, and use faithfully every opportunity for the
development of his own character and the betterment of the race.
APPENDIX.
SPANISH GOVERNORS OF THE PHILIPPINES.
(1571-1898.)
1571-1572 Don Miguel Lopez de Legaspi.
1572-1575 (Tesorero) Guido do Labezares.
1575-1580 Don Francisco La-Sande.
1580-1583 Don Gonzalo Ronquillo.
1583-1584 Don Diego Ronquillo.
1584-1590 Dr. Don Santiago de Vera.
1590-1593 Don Gomez Perez de Dasmarinas.
1593-1595 Luis Perez Dasmarinas.
1595-1596 Don Antonio de Morga.
1596-1602 Don Francisco Tello de Guzman.
1602-1606 Don Pedro Bravo de Acuna.
1606-1608 Royal Audiencia.
1608-1609 Don Rodrigo Vivero.
1609-1616 Don Juan de Silva.
1616-1618 Don Andres Alcazar.
1618-1624 Don Alonso Faxardo y Tenza.
1624-1625 Royal Audiencia.
1625-1626 Don Fernando de Silva.
1626-1632 Don Juan Nino de Tabora.
1632-1633 Royal Audiencia.
1633-1635 Don Juan Zerezo de Salamanca.
1635-1644 Don Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera.
1644-1653 Don Diego Faxardo y Chacon.
1653-1663 Sabiano Manrique de Lara.
1663-1668 Don Diego Salcedo.
1668-1669 Senor Pena Bonifaz.
1669-1677 Don Manuel de Leon.
1677-1678 Royal Audiencia.
1678-1684 Don Juan de Vargas.
1684-1689 Don Gabriel de Curuzalequi.
1689-1690 Don Alonso de Avila Fuertes.
1690-1701 Don Fausto Cruzat y Gongora.
1701-1709 Don Domingo Zabalburu.
1709-1715 Conde de Lizarraga.
1715-1717 Royal Audiencia.
1717-1719 Don Fernando Manuel de Bustamante.
1719-1721 Archbishop Cuesta.
1721-1729 Don Toribio Jose de Cosio y Campo (Marques de Torre Campo).
1729-1739 Don Fernando Valdes y Tamon.
1739-1745 Don Gaspar de la Torre.
1745-1750 Bishop Father Juan de Arrechedra.
1750-1754 Don Francisco Jose de Obando y Solis.
1754-1759 Don Pedro Manuel de Arandia y Santisteban.
1759-1761 Don Miguel Lino de Ezpeleta (Bishop of Zebu).
1761-1764 Archbishop Don Manuel Antonio Rojo del Rio y Vieyra.
1764-1764 Dr. Don Simon de Anda y Salazar.
1764-1765 Don Francisco de la Torre.
1765-1770 Don Jose Raon.
1770-1778 Dr. Don Simon de Anda y Salazar.
1778-1787 Don Jose Basco y Vargas.
1787-1788 Don Pedro Sarrio.
1788-1793 Don Felix Berenguer de Marquina.
1793-1806 Don Rafael Maria de Aguilar y Ponce de Leon.
1806-1810 Don Mariano Fernandez de Folgueras.
1810-1813 Don Manuel Gonzalez Aguilar.
1813-1816 Don Jose de Gardoqui Jaraveitia.
1816-1822 Don Mariano Fernandez de Folgueras.
1822-1825 Don Juan Antonio Martinez.
1825-1830 Don Mariano Ricafort Palacio y Abarca.
1830-1835 Don Pascual Enrile y Alcedo.
1835-1836 Don Gabriel de Torres.
1836-1838 Don Andres Garcia Camba.
1838-1841 Don Luis Lardizabal y Montojo.
1841-1843 Don Marcelino de Oraa Lecumberri.
1843-1844 Don Francisco de Paula Alcala de la Torre.
1844-1850 Don Narciso Claveria y Zaldua.
1850-1850 Don Antonio Maria Blanco.
1850-1853 D. Antonio de Urbistondo, Marques de la Solana y Teniente
General.
1853-1854 El Mariscal de Campo de Ramon Montero, General Segundo Cabo
(acting).
1854-1854 El Teniente General Marques de Novaliches.
1854-1854 El Mariscal de Campo de Ramon Montero (acting).
1854-1856 El Teniente General de Manuel Crespo.
1856-1857 El Mariscal de Campo de Ramon Montero (acting).
1857-1860 El Teniente General de Fernando de Norzagaray.
1860-1860 El Mariscal de Campo de Ramon Solano y Llanderal (acting).
1860-1861 El Brigadier de Artilleria de Juan Herrera Davila (acting).
1861-1862 El Teniente General de Jose Lemery.
1862-1865 El Teniente General de Rafael Echaguee.
1865-1865 El Mariscal de Campo de Joaquin Solano (acting).
1865-1866 El Teniente General de Juan de Lara e Irigoyen.
1866-1866 El Mariscal de Campo de Juan Laureano Sanz (acting).
1866-1866 El Comandante General de Marina de Antonio Ossorio (acting).
1866-1866 El Mariscal de Campo de Joaquin Solano (acting).
1866-1866 El Teniente General de Jose de la Gandara.
1866-1869 El Mariscal de Campo de Manuel Maldonado (acting).
1869-1871 El Teniente General de Carlos de la Torre.
1871-1873 El Teniente General de Rafael Izquierdo.
1873-1873 El Comandante General de Marina de Manuel MacCrohon (acting).
1873-1874 El Teniente General de Juan Alaminos y Vivar.
1874-1874 El Mariscal de Campo de Manuel Blanco Valderrama (acting).
1874-1877 El Contra Almirante de la Armada de Jose Malcampo y Monje.
1877-1880 El Teniente General de Domingo Moriones y Murillo.
1880-1880 El Comandante General de Marina de Rafael Rodriguez Arias
(acting).
1880-1883 El Teniente General de Fernando Primo de Rivera, Marques
de Estella.
1883-1883 El Mariscal de Campo de Emilio de Molins, General Segundo
Cabo (acting).
1883-1885 El Capitan General del Ejercito de Joaquin Jovellar y Soler.
1885-1885 El Mariscal de Campo de Emilio de Molins (acting).
1885-1888 El Teniente General de Emilio Terrero.
1888-1888 El Mariscal de Campo de Antonio Molto (acting).
1888-1888 El Cotra Almirante de la Armada de Federico Lobaton (acting).
1888-1891 El Teniente General de Valeriano Weyler.
1891-1893 El Teniente General de Eulogio Despojol, Conde de Caspe.
1893-1893 El General de Division de Federico Ochando, General Segundo
Cabo (acting).
1893-1896 El Teniente General de Ramon Blanco y Erenas, Marques
de Pena-Plata.
1896-1897 El Teniente General de Camilo G. de Polavieja, Marques
de Polavieja.
1897-1897 de Jose de Lacharmbre y Dominguez, Teniente General (acting).
1897-1898 de Fernando Primo de Rivera, Capitan General, Marques
de Estella.
1898-1898 de Basilio Augustin Teniente General del Ejercito.
1898-1898 El General Segundo Cabo de Fermin Jaudenes y Alvarez.
NOTES
[1] Relacion de las Islas Filipinas, 2d ed., p. 38.
[2] See Yule's Marco Polo for a discussion of this point and for the
entire history of this great explorer, as well as a translation of
his narrative. This book of Ser Marco Polo has been most critically
edited with introduction and voluminous notes by the English scholar,
Sir Henry Yule. In this edition the accounts of Marco Polo, covering
so many countries and peoples of the Far East, can be studied.
[3] See the noted work The Life of Prince Henry of Portugal, surnamed
the Navigator, and its Results, by Richard Henry Major, London,
1868. Many of the views of Mr. Major upon the importance of Prince
Henry's work and especially its early aims, have been contradicted
in more recent writings. The importance of the Sagres Observatory
is belittled. Doubts are expressed as to the farsightedness of
Prince Henry's plans, and the best opinion of to-day holds that he
did not hope to discover a new route to India by way of Africa, but
sought simply the conquest of the "Guinea," which was known to the
Europeans through the Arab Geographers, who called it "Bilad Ghana"
or "Land of Wealth." The students, if possible, should read the essay
of Mr. E. J. Payne, The Age of Discovery, in the Cambridge Modern
History, Vol I.
[4] The classical work on this famous ruler is Robertson's Life of
Charles the Fifth, but the student should consult if possible more
recent works.
[5] Primer Viaje alrededor del Mundo, Spanish translation by Amoretti,
Madrid, 1899, page 27.
[6] The discovery of this famous relationship is attributed to
the Spanish Jesuit Abbe, Lorenzo Hervas, whose notable Catalogo
de las Lenguas de las Naciones conocidas was published in 1800-05;
but the similarity of Malay and Polynesian had been earlier shown by
naturalists who accompanied the second voyage of the famous Englishman,
Captain Cook (1772-75). The full proof, and the relation also of
Malagasy, the language of Madagascar, was given in 1838 by the work
of the great German philologist, Baron William von Humboldt.
[7] Relacion de las Islas Filipinas, 2d ed., p. 52.
[8] Another possible explanation of the many Sanskrit terms which
are found in the Philippine languages, is that the period of contact
between Filipinos and Hindus occurred not in the Philippines but in
Java and Sumatra, whence the ancestors of the Filipinos came.
[9] Relacion de las Islas Filipinas, 2d ed., pp. 58, 59, chap. XVII.
[10] Arte de la Lengua Tagala.
[11] This name is derived, in the opinion of Professor Blumentritt,
from Bayi, or Bay, meaning Laguna de Bay. Professor Meyer, in his
Distribution of the Negritos, suggests an identification from this
Chinese record, of the islands of Mindanao, Palawan (called Pa-lao-yu)
and Panay, Negros, Cebu, Leyte, Samar, Bohol, and Luzon.
[12] Through the courtesy of Professor Zulueta, of the Manila Liceo,
permission was given to use from Chao Ju-kua's work these quotations,
translated from the Chinese manuscript by Professor Blumentritt. The
English translation is by Mr. P. L. Stangl.
[13] "This would confirm," says Professor Blumentritt, "Dr. Pardo de
Tavera's view that in ancient times the Philippines were under the
influence of Buddhism from India."
[14] Conquista de las Islas Filipinas, p. 95.
[15] Relacion de la Conquista de la Isla de Luzon, 1572; in Retana,
Archivo del Bibliofilo Filipino, vol. I.
[16] Sucesos de las Filipinas, p. 297.
[17] These data are largely taken from the account of the customs
of the Tagalog prepared by Friar Juan de Plasencia, in 1589, at
the request of Dr. Santiago de Vera, the governor and president
of the Audiencia. Although there are references to it by the early
historians of the Philippines, this little code did not see the light
until a few years ago, when a manuscript copy was discovered in the
convent of the Franciscans at Manila, by Dr. Pardo de Tavera, and was
by him published. It treats of slave-holding, penalties for crime,
inheritances, adoption, dowry, and marriage. (Las Costumbres de los
Tagalog en Filipinas, segun el Padre Plasencia, by T. H. Pardo de
Tavera. Madrid, 1892.)
[18] See on this matter Diccionario Mitologico de Filipinas, by
Blumentritt; Retana, Archivo del Bibliofilo Filipino, vol. II.
[19] This word is of Sanskrit origin and is common throughout Malaysia.
[20] Relacion de las Cosas de las Filipinas hecha por Sr. Domingo
de Salazar, Primer obispo de dichas islas, 1583; in Retana, Archivo,
vol. III.
[21] The foundation and character of this great colonial administration
have been admirably described by the Honorable Bernard Moses, United
States Philippine Commissioner and the first Secretary of Public
Instruction, in his work, The Establishment of Spanish Rule in America.
[22] Moses: Establishment of Spanish Rule in America, p. 12.
[23] Demarcacion del Maluco, hecha por el maestro Medina, in Documentos
ineditos, vol. V., p. 552.
[24] This and subsequent voyages are given in the Documentos ineditos,
vol. V., and a graphic account is in Argensola's Conquista de las
Islas Molucas. They are also well narrated in English by Burney,
Discoveries in the South Sea, vol. I., chapters V., XII., and XIV.
[25] Fray Gaspar de San Agustin: Conquista de las Islas Filipinas,
lib. I., c. 13.
[26] One of the best paintings of the Filipino artist Juan Luna,
which hangs in the Ayuntamiento in Manila, represents Legaspi in the
act of the "Pacto de Sangre" with this Filipino chieftain.
[27] There is an old account of this interesting expedition by one
who participated. (Relacion de la Conquista de la Isla de Luzon,
Manila, 1572; Retana, Archivo del Bibliofilo Filipino, vol. IV.)
[28] Morga: Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, 2d ed., p. 10.
[29] Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas. P. 316.
[30] Conquista de la Isla de Luzon, p. 24.
[31] See the letter of Bishop Salazar to the king, explaining his
motives, in coming to the Philippines. Retana, Biblioteca Filipina,
vol, I.; Relacion, 1583, p. 4.
[32] Zuniga: Historia de Filipinas, pp. 195, 196.
[33] Both Van Noort and Morga have left us accounts of this sea-fight,
the former in his journal, Description of the Failsome Voyage Made
Round the World, and the latter in his famous, Sucesos de las Islas
Filipinas.
[34] Montero y Vidal: Historia de Filipinas, vol. I., p. 199.
[35] Relacion de la Conquista de Luzon, 1572, p. 15.
[36] Relacion de las Encomiendas, existentes en Filipinas, Retana,
Archivo del Bibliofilo Filipino, vol. IV.
[37] Ordenanzas ... para la Reparticion de los Indios de la Isla
Espanola, in Documentos Ineditas, vol. I., p. 236.
[38] Historia de Filipinos, p. 157, et sq.
[39] Among other documents, which throw a most unfavorable light upon
the condition of the Filipinos under the encomiendas, is the letter to
the king from Domingo de Salazar, the first bishop of the Philippines,
which describes the conditions about 1583.
[40] Domingo de Salazar, Relacion de las Cosas de las Filipinas,
1583, p. 5, in Retana Archives, vol. 3.
[41] Relacion, pp. 13, 14.
[42] Sucesos de las Filipinas, p. 334.
[43] Las Costumbres de los Tagalos en Filipinas segun el Padre
Plasencia. Madrid, 1892.
[44] Blumentritt: Organization Communale des Indigines des Philippines,
traduis de l'Allemand, par A. Hugot. 1881.
[45] Sucesos de las Filipinas, p. 332.
[46] See Salazar's relation on this point.
[47] Chirino: Relacion, pp. 19, 20.
[48] Morga, p. 329.
[49] Sucesos de las Filipinas, p. 323.
[50] The Principal Navigations, Voiages, Traffiques and Discoveries
of the English Nation, ... by Richard Hakluyt, Master of Artes and
sometime Student of Christ Church in Oxford. Imprinted at London,
1598. Vol. I., p. 560.
[51] Sucesos de las Filipinas, p. 347.
[52] Sucesos de las Filipinas, p. 352.]
[53] Laws of the Indies, VIII., 45, 46.
[54] Relacion de las Islas Filipinas, chap. V., p. 23, and
chap. XIII. p. 47.
[55] Ibid., p. 323.
[56] Ibid., p. 321.
[57] Morga: Sucesos, p. 324.
[58] Carta Relacion de las Cosas de la China y de los Chinos del
Parian de Manila, 1590; in Retana, Archivo, vol. III.
[59] Relacion de las Islas Filipinas, p. 18. See also Salazar,
Carta Relacion.
[60] Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, p. 364.
[61] Zuniga: Historia de las Filipinas, p. 252.
[62] Historia General de Filipinas, vol. I., p. 187.
[63] Morris: The History of Colonization, vol. I., p. 215 sq.
[64] Raffles: History of Java, vol. II., p. 116.
[65] On the history of this notable expedition see Argensola, Conquista
de las Islas Molucas. Madrid, 1609.
[66] An account of this victory, written the following year, Relacion
Verdadera de la gran vitoria, que el Armada Espanola de la China
tuuo contra los Olandeses Pirates, has been reprinted by Retana,
Archivo Bibliofilo Filipino, vol. II.
[67] "Just before the naval engagement of Playa Honda, the Dutch
intercepted junks on the way to Manila, bringing, amongst their
cargoes of food, as many as twelve thousand capons."--Foreman: The
Philippine Islands, p. 104.
[68] Historia de Filipinas, p. 282.
[69] How attractive the island appeared and how well they knew its
peoples is revealed by the accurate descriptions in the first book
of Combes' Historia de Mindanao y Jolo.
[70] Historia de Mindanao y Jolo, lib. IV., chap. 7.
[71] This important victory was commemorated in a number of writings,
some of which have been reprinted by Retana. See Sucesos Felices, que
por Mar y Tierra ha dado N. S. a las armas Espanolas, 1637. Another
is published in the Appendix to Barrantes', Historia de Guerras
Piraticas. The subject is also fully treated by Combes.
[72] The king did not confer the title of "Royal" until 1735, although
the University was taken under his protection in 1680.
[73] Entrada de la Seraphica Religion, de Nuestro P. S. Francisco en
las Islas Filipinas. Retana, vol, I.
[74] The Jesuits, on retiring with the Spanish forces from the
Moluccas, brought from Ternate a colony of their converts. These
people were settled at Marigondon, on the south shore of Manila Bay,
where their descendants can still be distinguished from the surrounding
Tagalog population.
[75] See the account of the "Settlement of the Ladrones by the
Spaniards," in Burney's Voyages in the Pacific, vol. III.
[76] Some of the benefits of such a trade are set forth by the Jesuit,
Alonzo de Ovalle, in his Historical Relation of the Kingdom of Chili,
printed in Rome, 1649. In Churchill's Collection of Voyages and
Travels, vol. III.
[77] Recopilacion de Leyes de las Indias, lib. VIII., titulo 45,
ley 78.
[78] Montero y Vidal: Historia de Filipinas, vol. I., p. 460.
[79] Relacion de la Entrada del Sultan Rey de Jolo, in Archivo del
Bibliofilo Filipino, vol. I.
[80] Historia de Filipinas, p. 682.
[81] These orders and other documents dealing with the Jesuit
expulsion are printed in Montero y Vidal, Historia de Filipinas,
vol. II. p. 180 sq.
[82] But the conquest was almost valueless, and a few years later the
inhabitants had to be transported to Cagayan because of the scarcity
of food.
[83] Alava made a series of journeys through the different provinces
of the Philippines, and on these trips he was accompanied by Friar
Martinez de Zuniga, whose narrative of these expeditions forms a most
interesting and valuable survey of the conditions of the Islands and
the people at the beginning of the nineteenth century. "Estadismo
de las Islas Filipinas, 6 mis viajes por este pais, por el Padre
Fr. Joaquin Martinez de Zuniga. Publica esta obra por primera vez
extensamente anotada W. E. Retana." 2 vols. Madrid, 1893.
[84] Jagor: Viajes por Filipinas, p. 81. Translated from the
German. Madrid, 1895.
[85] See Estado de las Islas Filipinas en 1847, by D. Sinibaldo de Mas.
[86] Bowring: A Visit to the Philippine Islands, p. 387.
[87] The reports of the Dominican missionaries of Nueva Vizcaya
and Isabela show the extent and persistence of these raids. (See the
files of the missionary publication, El Correo Sino-Annamita, and also
the work by Padre Buenaventura Campa, Los Maybyaos y la Raza Ifugao,
Madrid, 1895.
[88] Montero y Vidal: Historia de Filipinas, vol. III, p. 99.
[89] Montero y Vidal: Historia de Filipinas, vol. III., p. 209. The
document is given in Appendix 4 of the same volume.
[90] See Rajah Brooke, by Sir Spencer St. John, London, 1899.
[91] Keppel: Expedition to Borneo of H. M. S. Dido for the Suppression
of Piracy, with extracts from the Journal of James Brooke, Esq. 2
vols. London, 1846. Keppel: A Visit to the Indian Archipelago in
H. M. S. Moeandar. 2 vols. London, 1853.
[92] Spain established a permanent commission of censorship in
1856. It was composed of eight persons, one half nominated by the
governor and one half by the archbishop.
[93] El Periodismo Filipino, por W. E. Retana. Madrid, 1895.
[94] An account of Rizal's trial and execution, together with many
papers on the revolution, is printed by Retana. See Archivo, Tomo
IV. Documentos politicos de Actualidad.
[95] See the decisions of the Supreme Court in the cases of American
Insurance Co. v. Canter (1 Peters, 511), decided in 1828; National
Bank v. County of Yankton (101 U. S. Reports, 129), decided in 1879;
The Mormon Church v. United States (136 U. S. Reports, 1), decided May,
1890. On the domain of personal liberty possessed by the inhabitants
of a territory, in addition to above cases, see also the cases of
Reynolds v. United States (98 U. S. Reports, 154), 1878; and Murphy
v. Ramsey (114 U. S. Reports, 15), 1884.
End of Project Gutenberg's A History of the Philippines, by David P. Barrows