had yielded no pottery. Previously they had excavated extensively in the
Mesa Verde where the graves always contained pottery. But not a single
piece was found with the burials in Butler Wash. Instead, the burials
yielded a profusion of baskets. For this reason Richard began referring
to the people as the "Basket Makers" and the name is still in use.
Few evidences of the early Basket Makers have been found in the Mesa
Verde. The remains of these people are found in caves and Mesa Verde
caves contain cliff dwellings. In order to find the early remains it
will be necessary to excavate under the cliff dwellings and this work is
yet to be done. However, the Basket Makers seem to have occupied the
entire Mesa Verde region and when it becomes possible to excavate under
the cliff dwellings the material probably will be found. Even though few
evidences of the Basket Makers have been discovered in the Mesa Verde
the culture is well known from extensive excavation in nearby areas.
At the beginning of the Basket Maker period the people seem to have
lived a seminomadic life. They had only recently taken up farming and at
first they probably farmed incidentally, regarding it only as a novel
side line. Its possibilities became more and more apparent with each
harvest and conditions were soon reversed. Farming became the mainstay
and hunting became the side line. After the people fully realized the
advantages of agriculture they never returned to a hunting life. Their
main dependence was on the harvests and hunting was secondary in
importance.
Our first recognition of these people brings up an interesting problem.
Were they living in the Mesa Verde region as hunters when corn and
squash came to them from some other tribe or did they bring these plants
from some other region where they had already learned to farm? The
answer is not yet known so we can simply say that when we first
recognize them in the Mesa Verde area they were turning from a hunting
to a farming life.
Physically, the Basket Makers were an interesting group. A large number
of their burials have been found so their physical appearance is not in
doubt. They were rather short in stature, the women averaging about five
feet and the men three or four inches taller. The skin color varied from
light to dark brown and it is safe to say that their eyes were also
brown. The hair was black, sometimes rusty black and occasionally was
inclined toward a slight waviness. On the mummies that have been found
the hair of the women usually is cropped short but the male mummies
sometimes exhibit elaborate hair styling. On some a wide line was shaved
down the center of the head and the remaining hair was done up in a
number of large and small braids.
If we could have walked through a Basket Maker village we probably would
have considered the people rather attractive even when viewed from our
own standards. They would have seemed short to us but well proportioned.
Their features would have been pleasing for there would have been none
of the amazing skull deformities which we saw among the people of Cliff
Palace. Everything indicates they were a peaceful, easygoing people and,
in all probability, they would have been easy to like.
From a cultural viewpoint the Basket Makers are important because of
their lack of certain very important traits. During their early farming
stages they did not make pottery, did not use the bow and arrow, and did
not have permanent houses except in one area which we shall mention in a
moment.
The lack of houses and pottery was perfectly natural for they had only
recently been a hunting people. While they lived as hunters they were
forced to move about in search of game and a permanent house was an
impossibility. Pottery was also out of the question for it was too heavy
for them to transport as they moved about. The absence of the bow was
simply due to the fact that it had not yet reached these people. The bow
probably was invented only once. From its point of beginning somewhere
in the Old World it spread slowly from tribe to tribe and we shall see
it reach the Basket Makers at a later date.
All people need shelter, household utensils and weapons so, lacking
houses, pottery and the bow, our Basket Makers used substitutes. As is
always the case they were inferior.
Part of the time, probably during the cold seasons, the Basket Makers
lived in caves. These offered shelter from the elements and provided
safe, dry places for the storage of food. The women built their fires in
level sheltered areas and around these fires centered most of the
activities. In the rear of the cave they constructed storage cists for
their corn. Small pits were dug in the cave floor and were lined with
slabs of sandstone chinked with bark and mud. Over the pit was placed a
roof of poles and packed earth, leaving only a small hatchway which was
closed with a thin stone slab. Such cists were secure and dry and served
as excellent storage bins for the year's harvest of corn. When the
people left the cave for any length of time they could conceal the
storage pits by covering them over with earth and stones so they would
not be detected by chance visitors.
Even though most of the Basket Maker remains have been found in caves it
is probable that they lived in the open near their fields for at least
part of the year. As farming became more important to them they were
forced to protect their crops. Each farm needed to be watched carefully
to prevent damage by birds and mammals or even by men of other groups.
Because of this necessity of living near their fields it is probable
that they erected temporary shelters for protection from the sun and
rain. A mere framework of poles covered with brush and grass would have
sufficed. No trace of these temporary shelters has been found but there
is a strong feeling that they did exist.
Recent excavations have revealed that in one area the Basket Makers
began experimenting with permanent houses at an earlier date than
formerly had been realized. Near Durango, Colorado, Mr. Earl H. Morris,
of the Carnegie Institution, excavated a number of house structures,
both in caves and on open hillsides, which date from the first and
second centuries A.D. While these houses were crude when compared with
the standardized pithouses which later came into wide use, they do
indicate that the Basket Makers, in that area at least, began to
experiment with permanent structures soon after they became a farming
people. Further excavation may reveal that crude, hogan-like structures
were in general use at an earlier date than has been realized.
The absence of pottery during Basket Maker times resulted in a
widespread use of baskets and, as the name implies, basketry was the
major craft. Many of the baskets of this period are superb examples of
workmanship and design. Skillfully woven, artistically decorated and
gracefully shaped they are outstanding among the basketry of the early
Indians. Shallow trays were the most common form but there were also
bowls, water baskets, deep carrying baskets and small baskets which
probably served for storing trinkets and ceremonial objects. Large,
flexible bags were also woven and these were often split open and used
as burial wrappings.
Since pottery was unknown baskets were used for all household purposes
where containers were needed. Some were so tightly woven that water
could be carried and stored in them and, surprisingly, food was cooked
in them. Cooking in a basket was a tedious affair. Stones were placed in
the fire and when they were very hot were dropped into the basket of
food. When the stones cooled they were replaced with more hot stones
until the cook's fingers were thoroughly burned and her patience was
exhausted. Half-cooked "stew-a-la-ashes" was the inevitable result. It
was a crude, inefficient method and greatly limited the cooking
possibilities.
Lack of the bow and arrow forced the Basket Makers to rely on an odd
weapon, the atlatl, which was as difficult to use as it is to pronounce.
It was used in many parts of the world before the bow took its place.
The atlatl was a spear thrower which served as a mechanical lengthener
for the arm. It was a slender, flattened stick about two feet in length.
At one end was the grip, equipped with two loops for the fingers. At the
opposite end, on the upper face, was a short spur or hook, against which
the dart or spear rested.
The dart, either a reed or a slender shaft of wood, was four or five
feet long. One end was tipped with a stone point: the other end was
feathered and this basal end was cup-shaped to fit against the spur on
the atlatl. In reality the dart was merely a long arrow.
When the hunter was ready to use the atlatl he held it in his hand with
his first two fingers through the finger loops. The end of the dart was
hooked against the spur at the rear end of the atlatl and the arm was
drawn back with the atlatl extending out behind, horizontally. From this
position the arm was thrown sharply forward in a long sweeping arc and
the dart was projected from the end of the atlatl. In this way the
length of the arm was doubled and great force was imparted to the
missile.
Even though the atlatl was a powerful weapon it had certain bad points.
Accuracy was difficult to achieve and it was not well adapted for use in
stalking game. The hunter was forced to stand erect and be free of
bushes and trees in order to throw the dart. Later we shall see the
people discard the atlatl in favor of a superior weapon.
In addition to the atlatl another wooden implement was in common use.
This was a short, curved stick about two feet long which was much like
the throwing stick used by modern Hopis in killing rabbits. While the
exact use of the curved stick is not known the fact that it is so often
found with the atlatl must indicate that the two comprised the hunting
or fighting equipment of the men.
The atlatl was a poor weapon for use in hunting small game so nets and
snares were widely used. The nets, made of yucca fiber and human hair
cord, were sometimes over two hundred feet long and three or four feet
wide. Such nets probably were stretched across game trails or small
canyons and the game was driven into them by groups of men who would
then club the trapped animals. Dogs, which the people seem to have had
from the very first, may have been used in the game drives. These were
not just tamed wolves or coyotes, but true dogs which had been brought
across from Asia.
Clothing of the Basket Makers can best be described as scanty. A great
many well-preserved mummies have been found and since it was customary
to place the personal possessions of the deceased in the grave we can
assume that no articles of clothing have escaped us completely. The
total wardrobe seems to have consisted of robes and sandals for people
of all ages and, occasionally, small string aprons for the women.
The Basket Maker country was cold in winter, temperatures sometimes
dropping as low as zero. Since there were few, if any, houses except in
the one area mentioned above, some articles of clothing were needed
during the winter months. In every case these seem to have been robes
made of animal skins. Sometimes they were simply the tanned hides of
deer, mountain sheep or elk. The finest robes, however, were woven from
strips of fur. Rabbit skins were cut into long narrow strips which were
wound around yucca cords to produce fur-covered strings. These were
woven into robes which, when wrapped around the body, gave the wearer
considerable protection against the winter's cold. Beautiful sashes were
woven from dog hair and these probably were used to hold the robes and
blankets in place.
Sandals evidently were common for a great many have been found in Basket
Maker caves. These were woven of yucca fibers or yucca fiber cords and
consisted simply of a square-toed, flat sole which was held to the foot
by tie strings.
The only other article of clothing was a small string apron worn by the
women. This consisted of a cord or belt which was tied around the waist
and from this hung scores or hundreds of strings. The fringe of strings
was only a few inches wide so it evidently covered only the front of the
wearer. Sometimes the strings were long enough to pass between the legs
and be looped over the waist band at the back. The number of aprons
found is not large and it may indicate that they were worn only at times
of occasional necessity.
Present evidence indicates that except for sandals the Basket Makers
wore little clothing during the warm season. When winter came the fur
and skin robes, of which there seem to have been an abundance, provided
protection from the cold.
What the people lacked in clothing they made up in jewelry. Beads,
necklaces, pendants and earrings are found in profusion in the graves
and there can be no doubt that the people had a strong desire for
personal adornment. The materials used seem quite drab to us but from
such ordinary materials as shell, bone, seeds and brightly-colored
stones, jewelry of lasting beauty was fashioned.
[Illustration: An ancient style show
Left. These superb, 1500-year old sashes are made of dog hair
Right. Necklaces made of bone, stone and shells]
The Basket Maker cradle was entirely different from the wooden cradle we
saw used in Cliff Palace. It was a soft flexible affair made of reeds
and withes. A long stick was bent into a loop and the ends were tied
together to form an oval frame. To this was bound a layer of reeds or
slender withes and the cradle was then padded with soft bark or fur.
When the baby was bound to the cradle a soft pad was placed under its
head and the skull developed normally without being flattened.
Many additional tools of wood, stone and bone are found when Basket
Maker caves are excavated: wooden planting sticks and scoops; stone
knives, scrapers, drills and pipes; bone awls, scrapers and whistles. An
important item was the metate, or milling stone. This was a slab of
stone with a shallow trough on the top surface. Corn was placed on the
metate and ground with the mano, a small stone which was rubbed back and
forth in the trough.
One of the interesting things about the Basket Makers was the manner in
which they buried their dead and, surprisingly enough, it is because of
this that we have our present knowledge of the early people. All burials
which have been found up to the present time have been found in caves,
although it is possible that bodies were sometimes buried in other
places. A favorite place for burial seems to have been the cists which
originally were built for the storage of food. When these were not
available graves were dug in the cave floor or the bodies were placed in
holes and crevices in the rocks. Often several bodies were buried
together and as many as nineteen have been found in a single grave. The
bodies were flexed, with the arms and legs drawn up against the chest.
Blankets were wrapped around them and sometimes the burial bundle was
placed in a large woven bag.
Fortunately for the archeologist it was customary to place offerings in
the grave and these consisted of articles the deceased had used or
articles his spirit would need in the afterworld. Even though burial
took place almost 2000 years ago the dry caves have preserved the
materials amazingly well and as a result we have not only the mummified
remains of the people but all of the articles which were in daily use
centuries ago.
We have seen briefly the outstanding traits of the Basket Maker culture.
Summing them up, we see a tribe of Indians living in the Mesa Verde
region at the beginning of the Christian Era. Formerly hunters, they
turned more and more to farming, raising corn and squash on the mesa
tops or in open canyon bottoms. Having no permanent houses they sought
the shelter of caves and since pottery was unknown baskets were widely
used. The atlatl, or spear thrower, was used instead of the bow. Minor
arts and crafts enabled the people to live a comparatively well-rounded
life.
The noteworthy point is that from this simple beginning developed the
amazing Pueblo culture which reached its peak in the thirteenth century.
Since the people were industrious and intelligent they progressed
steadily, following the same trail which all people have taken in their
climb toward civilization. In the early stages progress was slow but
with the acquisition of each new idea the pace quickened.
The great step forward was the abandonment of the chase, the acceptance
of a settled farming life. Within a short time they became firmly
established agriculturists. Their main dependence for food was soon on
their farms, and wild animals and plants became a secondary source.
The change to a farming life revolutionized the entire culture. As the
source of food changed the religious, social and economic life also
changed. The religion of hunters could never suffice for farmers. The
men viewed rain, snow, the soil, the sun, frosts and the changing
seasons through the eyes of farmers instead of through the eyes of
hunters. All events of nature were interpreted according to their effect
upon agriculture. New social regulations grew out of the settled
existence and the entire outlook on life was different.
Even though progress was slow at first some startling changes came.
About the middle of the fifth century some of the changes were so
important that the culture was radically modified. A new descriptive
term must now be used in order to indicate these new developments.
MODIFIED BASKET MAKER PERIOD. 450 to 750 A.D.
Even though the culture changed the people themselves did not. It is
extremely important to keep in mind the fact that the Modified Basket
Makers were merely the descendants of the true Basket Makers. They added
new material things to their culture, thus modifying it, but they
themselves changed not one particle.
To state it briefly, it can be said that the change in name has been
made because the people acquired the things which were mentioned as
lacking during the earlier period. They learned to make pottery, they
began to build houses and they adopted the bow and arrow. Thus the true
basket making culture changed. The weaving of baskets continued but the
addition of pottery modified the culture and this is indicated in the
new name.
It is important to note that all three of the new developments did not
appear at exactly the same time nor did they reach all of the Basket
Makers at the same time. They spread from one group to the next. They
were slow in getting to some regions or, since there are conservatives
among all people, perhaps some of the Basket Makers were hesitant about
accepting the new-fangled contraptions.
It is extremely doubtful if the Basket Makers invented a single one of
the important new things. New inventions usually were passed from one
tribe to another: often an intricate contrivance such as the bow and
arrow traveled all over the world after a single invention. The Basket
Makers did a certain amount of traveling and trading and they were not
averse to borrowing new ideas from their neighbors.
It seems fairly certain that pottery came to them from the south where
other tribes had been making it prior to its arrival in the Mesa Verde
region. Some of the Basket Maker men, while on a trading expedition, may
have seen women making vessels out of clay. Realizing the superiority of
these vessels which could be placed directly on the fire the men
mentioned the matter to their wives upon their return home. Possessed
only of the idea, the women began trying to make pottery.
They were practically forced to invent pottery all over again for they
knew nothing about the actual process. They had merely heard that fine
vessels could be made from clay. Their first attempts were extremely
clumsy and resulted in absolute failure. They made the first pots from
pure clay and as fast as it dried the vessels cracked and fell into
pieces. After a time the women realized they must add something to the
clay to hold it together. Straw and juniper bark were tried and there
was a certain measure of success. The vessels had less tendency to crack
but when they were placed on the fire the straw burned out and the
result was more in the nature of a sieve than a pot.
The patient women continued to experiment and at last they learned that
some kind of sand or grit was necessary for temper. In several places in
the Mesa Verde volcanic formations provided the potters with an
abundance of volcanic grit. When this was ground fine and added to the
pottery clay the vessels did not crack upon drying. The first pieces of
pottery were merely sun dried but soon the women learned that if they
were subjected to intense heat they were much stronger and were
waterproof. Each vessel was carefully baked, or fired, and true pottery
was the result.
The effect of pottery upon the food habits of the people was profound.
With vessels that could be placed directly on the fire whole new lines
of food were available. Soups, stews, porridges and greens became
commonplace. Many new plants were utilized and innumerable combinations
of meats and plants were discovered. Pottery was also of great value for
water storage. Baskets were not good for this because the moisture soon
caused them to disintegrate. Pottery lasted indefinitely and each woman
could make an unlimited number of large water jars. On rainy days every
jar in the village could be filled and the terrors of drouth were
lessened.
Thus it is easily seen that the perfection of pottery was one of the
major steps in the progress of the Indians. The diet was improved, the
drudgery of cooking was lessened, the range of foods was widened,
storage facilities were increased and the entire domestic economy of the
people took a decided turn for the better.
At first the pottery was crude but with each succeeding generation it
improved. The proper percentage of temper and clay was discovered,
designs were introduced and improved upon and vessel shapes became more
graceful and efficient. As time passed the fingers of the potters became
more and more deft.
The adoption of a permanent house was also of great importance. Life in
the open caves was never too comfortable. Heavy rains, deep snows and
the bitter temperatures of winter held certain terrors for the people
who were without actual dwellings. No great population could ever grow
under such conditions. A permanent, secure house was needed to stabilize
the culture.
As we have already seen, the Basket Makers in at least one area began to
experiment with permanent houses at an early date. It is not yet known
whether these earliest houses developed into the standardized pithouses
which spread widely over the area early in Modified Basket Maker times
but we may be quite sure the people did not develop it entirely by
themselves. Similar pithouses were used by Indians in many parts of
America, in fact they can be traced up the northwest coast and on to
Alaska and Siberia. Since this type of house was used so widely it is
probable that the Basket Makers borrowed the idea from some neighboring
tribe.
The dwellings were pithouses, partially above and partially below the
ground. The underground portion consisted of a shallow pit two or three
feet in depth and ten to twenty feet in diameter. Sometimes the earthen
walls were plastered with clay, or if the walls had a tendency to cave
they were lined with stone slabs. In the floor, forming a large square,
four holes were dug and a forked post slightly higher than a man's head
was set upright in each. Four slender logs were placed in the forks of
these posts forming a square framework, the main support of the roof.
Slender poles were slanted from the edge of the pit to this framework at
twelve or fifteen inch intervals, entirely around the room. Other poles
were placed across the flat, top portion to complete the skeleton of the
roof.
To this framework was lashed a solid covering of reeds, brush, bark or
coarse grass and the entire roof was covered with a layer of earth
several inches thick. A small hatchway was left in the center of the
roof. This served as a smoke hole and it was often equipped with a
ladder and used as an entrance. The firepit was in the center of the
room below the smoke hole.