CHAPTER XXVII._Mind and Hand: Manual Training the Chief Factor in Education

PROGRESS OF THE NEW EDUCATION--1883-1898.

Educational Revolution in 1883-4. -- Urgent Demand for Reform --

Existing Schools Denounced as Superficial, their Methods as Automatic,

their System as a Mixture of Cram and Smatter -- The Controversy

between the School-master of the Old Régime and the Reformer -- The

Leaders of the Movement, Col. Parker, Dr. MacAlister, and Others --

Followers of Rousseau, Bacon, and Spencer -- “The End of Man is an

Action, not a Thought” -- The Conservative Teachers Fall into Line --

The New Education Becomes an Aggressive Force, Pushing on to Victory

-- The Physical Progress of Manual Training -- Its Quality Not Equal

to its Extent -- The New System of Training Confided to Teachers of

the Old Régime -- Ideal Teachers Hard to Find -- Teachers Willing to

Learn Should Be Encouraged -- The Effects of Manual Training Long

Antedate its Introduction to the Schools -- Bacon’s Definition of

Education -- Stephenson and the Value of Hand-work -- Manual Training

is the Union of Thought and Action -- It is the Antithesis of the

Greek Methods, which Exalted Abstractions and Debased Things -- The

Rule of Comenius and the Injunction of Rousseau -- Few Teachers

Comprehend Them -- The Employment of the Hands in the Arts is More

Highly Educative than the Acquisition of the Rules of Reading and

Arithmetic -- What the Locomotive has Accomplished for Man --

Education Must be Equal, and Social and Political Equality will Follow

-- The Foundation of the New Education is the Baconian Philosophy as

Stated by Macaulay -- Use and Service are the Twin-ministers of Human

Progress -- Definitions of Genius -- Attention -- Sir Henry Maine --

Manual Training Relates to all the Arts of Life -- Mind and Hand --

Newton and the Apple -- The Sense of Touch Resides in the Hand --

Robert Seidel on Familiarity with Objects -- Material Progress the

Basis of Spiritual Growth -- Plato and the Divine Dialogues --

Poverty, Society, and the Useful Arts -- Selfishness Must Give Way to

Altruism -- The Struggle of Life -- The Progress of the Arts and the

Final Regeneration of the Race -- The Arts that Make Life Sweet and

Beautiful -- The Final Fundamental Educational Ideal is Universality

-- Comenius’s Definition of Schools -- The Workshops of Humanity --

That One Man Should Die Ignorant who had Capacity for Knowledge is a

Tragedy -- Mental and Manual Exercises to be Rendered Homogeneous in

the School of the Future -- The Hero of the Ideal School.

Fifteen years ago a great wave of educational awakening swept over this

country. It penetrated every nook and corner of the land, pervading both

cities, large and small, and the rural districts. It took the shape of a

demand, often almost inarticulate, for reform. The schools were

denounced as superficial; their methods as automatic; their teachers as

unintelligent and untrained, their system of instruction as a mixture of

cram and smatter.

The school-master is a conservative, and with his champions he came

promptly to the defence of the old schools and their old methods. The

controversy became heated, and soon the rival forces joined battle. Col.

Francis W. Parker, of the Chicago Normal School, and Dr. James

MacAlister, now President of the Drexel Institute of Philadelphia, and

others were prominent leaders of the new reform movement, whose banner

was “Manual Training,” or “The New Education.”

Under this brilliant and enthusiastic leadership the movement became a

crusade in the interest of the educational ideas of Montaigne, Rousseau,

Bacon, Locke, Comenius, Pestalozzi, Froebel, Spencer, Mann, and their

long array of sympathizers and supporters, who, with Bacon, declare that

“the end of man is an action, not a thought.”

But the work of the reformers was too serious to be long controlled,

either by emotion or passion. The more intelligent and better educated

and trained teachers gradually came to the support of the new system and

methods, and the mass of the teaching fraternity caught something of the

enthusiasm by which the reformers were inspired to struggle for a great

cause. Thereafter Manual Training became an aggressive force openly

demanding recognition, and pushing for victory and ultimate control.

In the Appendix hereto the physical progress of Manual Training is shown

in tabulated form; and the extent of such progress is all, if not more,

than its most ardent friends and advocates could rationally desire. But

it is not to be doubted that the quality of the progress the new

education has made in the period of fifteen years under consideration is

far inferior to its extent. The statistics here presented relate mainly

to the village, town, and city schools of this country, and especially

to its public schools, with some general observations and facts in

relation to the progress of the new education in England and the chief

countries in Europe. In a few instances the tabulations include

institutions designed for industrial rather than strictly educational

purposes. But it is deemed wise to retain them, on the ground that

whether so designed or not all industrial training is educative.

It is worthy of intelligent inquiry whether as a matter of fact, not

only in this country, but in all countries, the progress of Manual

Training has not been very unsatisfactory in quality. In most cases the

new education was necessarily confided to teachers of the old régime,

who, as a preliminary, were compelled to unlearn what was false and

erroneous in the old system, to overcome the prejudices of years,

sometimes of a lifetime, and to become faithful and laborious students

of a new and scientific scheme of education. The main difficulty in

matters educational has always been to secure ideal teachers. Education

is the first of human considerations, and its professors should be the

most learned of human beings. If the teachers who have been called to

the Priesthood, of the New Education, have proved incompetent in many

instances, instead of being hastily condemned they should be helped

forward towards the goal of competency by all friends of that progress

in education which is the sole hope of human perfection.

The most striking effects of Manual Training long antedate its

introduction to the schools. For thousands of years, in every shop where

the humble mechanic wrought; at every fireside where the domestic arts

obtained a foothold; in every field where a step forward was made

through the invention of some less crude implement of husbandry than the

one that preceded it, the mind and the hand expressed their joint

struggle towards the achievement of that skill in useful things which

constitutes the very kernel of civilization. Bacon’s definition of

education--“the cultivation of a just and legitimate familiarity betwixt

the mind and things”--is a recognition of the philosophic fact that the

hand is the source of wisdom; and the life of George Stephenson, the

inventor of the locomotive, affords a most impressive illustration of

the educative value of hand-work. At the coal-pit’s mouth Stephenson,

meantime learning his “A B C’s,” invented the “Rocket,” while the

bookish engineers were declaring it to be a mechanical impossibility.

Stephenson’s achievement was the realization in things of Bacon’s

luminous precept--“The end of man is an action, not a thought.”--This

is the philosophy, the rationale, of Manual Training; it is the union of

thought and action, and it therefore demands the elimination from

educational methods of the abstract philosophy of the Greeks. In his

declaration, “All the useful arts are degrading,” Plato defined the

character of the revival of learning which was to occur hundreds of

years afterwards; it was a revival of Greek methods, which exalted

abstractions, and debased things. Mr. Herbert Spencer refers to its

baleful effects upon the schools of England in the severest terms of

condemnation. That Mr. Spencer’s arraignment of the schools is just, is

shown by its antithesis expressed in the dictum of Dr. Dwight, of Yale

College, who says: “Education is for the purpose of developing and

cultivating the thinking power. It is to the end of making a knowing,

thinking mind.”

Bacon discovered, and did not hesitate to declare, that “the

understanding is more prone to error than the senses”; and this fact

constitutes the basis of his philosophy of “things,” which is another

name for the law of induction. “For if we would look into and dissect

the nature of this real world,” he says, “we must consult only things

themselves.” If we would find the corner-stone of education, we must

consult labor. Nothing great is accomplished without a due mingling of

drudgery and humility; for of all the virtues humility is the most

excellent. The Greeks failed to comprehend the true educational idea

because of their pride. They associated use with slavery, because in

Greece all labor was performed by slaves; and, scorning labor, they

scorned use, and, by consequence, service, the greatest of the

moralities.

Upon the foundation laid by Bacon, Rabelais, and Montaigne, Comenius,

Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Froebel raised a great superstructure of

educational ideas. Words were subordinated, and things ennobled.

Comenius’s rule, to “leave nothing until it has been impressed by means

of the ear, the eye, the tongue, the hand,” and the injunction of

Rousseau that “the student will learn more by one hour of manual labor

than he will retain from a whole day’s verbal instructions; that the

things themselves are the best explanations”--these are the maxims of

the new education.

But to what extent has the old school-master adopted the new education,

to what extent occupied the old school-room with new ideas? How many

school-masters of even the present _régime_ comprehend with John Ruskin

that “the youth who has once learned to take a straight shaving off a

plank, or to draw a fine curve without faltering, or to lay a brick

level in its mortar, has learned a multitude of other matters which no

lips of man could ever teach him?” In other words, to what extent does

the conviction pervade the ranks of the fraternity of teachers, whether

of public-schools, private schools, colleges, or universities, that the

employment of the hands in the useful arts is more highly educative than

the acquisition of the rules of reading, writing, and arithmetic? Or,

considering the subject of the history and career of George Stephenson,

for instance, what, in the opinion of the modern school-master,

contributed most to his development as a man and citizen of the

world--the mental exercise of learning to read, write, and cipher, which

task he accomplished while engaged in inventing the locomotive, or the

combined mental and manual exercise of taking apart, repairing, and

putting together the stationary engine used at the colliery where he

was employed? If, in the course of our investigation, it should be found

that doing things as Stephenson did is more conducive to intellectual

development than memorizing words and reciting poetry, as the Greeks

did, some light may be thrown on the general subject of existing

educational methods. Their chief defect is their lack of moral power.

Morality does not reside in the letters of the alphabet, but there is in

the locomotive, for example, a great moral principle--the principle of

the brotherhood of man. For, in devising the locomotive, Stephenson made

man’s neighborhood coterminous with earth’s utmost bounds; thus, in a

single act, achieving his own apotheosis, and assuring, ultimately, the

moral and intellectual kinship of the race. For the hand stands for use,

for service, and for unyielding integrity; and it may be confidently

asserted on the conviction of observation, experience, and a studious

consideration of historic facts, that its drill and discipline as

enforced in the world’s workshops, and in the best of existing

Manual-training schools, results in a far greater degree of mind

development than is produced by any exclusively academic course, and

hence that Manual Training is the most important of all methods of

education.

The most sacred of human rights is the right of the poor child, born in

a highly civilized, wealthy community, to the same kind and degree of

education as that received by the child of the most opulent citizen.

It was long ago remarked that “the inequalities of intellect, like the

inequalities of the surface of our globe, bear so small a proportion to

the mass that in calculating its great revolutions they may safely be

neglected;” and the late Henry George declared that the differences in

men, intellectually, are no greater than their physical differences.

The perpetuity of free institutions depends upon social not less than

upon political equality. But social equality is impossible without

educational equality: the very thought of intimate relations with the

ignorant is repulsive to the learned. Education, impartial and

universal, is, therefore, the sole guarantee of an ideal civilization,

and so of an imperishable state.

Old social evils constantly recur because the old crime of inequality in

education is forever and ever repeated. It follows that we shall make

all things equal through equal education. But what sort of education? We

shall not train the child, as the ancients did, “to dispute in learned

phrase as to whether we can be certain that we are certain of nothing!”

Nor shall we stuff his memory with the grammar and rhetoric of an

ancient tongue, in view of the profound observation of Dr. Draper, that

a living thought can no more be embodied in a dead language than

activity can be imparted to a corpse. But we shall rather instruct him

in the principles of the Baconian philosophy, of which Macaulay so aptly

says: “Its characteristic distinction, its essential spirit, is its

majestic humility--the persuasion that nothing can be too insignificant

for the attention of the wisest which is not too insignificant to give

pleasure or pain to the meanest.”

The end sought in education by the ancients was ornament, and its strict

analogy is found in barbaric life. Spencer has pointed out that the

savage smeared his body with yellow ochre before he covered it with

clothes, and that he adorned his head with feathers before he built a

hut. So, under the laws of evolution, before a Bacon could arise, whole

generations of philosophers were born, lived, speculated, and died,

without leaving to mankind the smallest heritage of that common sense by

which we nevertheless live.

A philosophy which scorned the useful in all its aspects was essentially

barbaric; for art differentiates civilized from savage life: its law was

stagnation, as the law of scientific investigation is progress. Use is

the greatest thing in the material world, as service is the greatest

thing in the moral world; and they are united in the philosophy of

Bacon, which, beginning in observation and ending in art, multiplies

useful things that are beautiful, and beautiful things that are useful.

The old education was an outgrowth of the old philosophy; the new

education springs as logically from the new, or Baconian, philosophy.

The old education was ornamental; the new is scientific, or useful. The

old education was designed to make masters; the new is designed to make

men.

President Eliot, of Harvard University, admits that his method of

education is to compel the student to work. On the other hand, the

method of the new education is to attract him. Genius has many

definitions, one of which is “a capacity for taking infinite pains.” But

its humblest equivalent is “attention”; and we propose to secure the

student’s attention through his hands: for the most significant fact in

all the realm of certitude is the fact that man impresses himself upon

nature through the hand alone!

Let us then, in the new school, unite mind and hand in a crusade after

the truths that are hidden in things. For Manual Training,

educationally, is the blending of thought and action. The thought that

does not lead to an act is both mentally and materially barren. For as

it confers no benefit upon the human race, neither does it profit the

mind that conceives it. Nay, more. An unprolific thought exhausts the

mind to no purpose, as an unfruitful tree cumbers the ground. It follows

that the integrity of the mind can be maintained only by the submission

of its immature judgments to the verification of things. Hence the

correlation of thoughts and things is as necessary to mental and moral

growth as the application of the principles of abstract mechanics to the

arts of peace is essential to human progress.

Sir Henry Maine supports this doctrine in a graphic paragraph:

“Unchecked by external truth the mind of man has a fatal facility for

ensnaring and entrapping and entangling itself. But happily, happily for

the human race, some fragment of physical speculation has been built

into every false system.”

Things are the source of ideas. Action generates thought. He who has

tools in his hand thinks best as well as acts best. The man whose finger

is on Nature’s pulse feels her heart-throbs, and so discovers and

utilizes her secrets. The men and women who do the world’s work are

better educated than the schoolmen who vainly tell them how to do it;

and they are better educated because they are in closer relationship

with things, through the supreme sense of touch, which refines and

spiritualizes the hand--that wonderful member which differentiates man

from the other animals, and makes him their master.

Manual Training educationally, then, relates to all the arts whose sum

is the art of living. For whether it be the chair on which we sit; or

the bed on which we lie; or the garments we wear; or the house that

shelters us; or the railway train on which we cross continents; or the

ship that takes us over seas; or the unspeakable marvels of the world’s

museums and galleries upon which we gaze with rapture; or the orchestra

of an hundred instruments, whose music enchants us; or the treasures of

dead cities--long buried--now unearthed; or the temples in which we

worship; or the monuments which commemorate our heroes and martyrs; or

the tombs in which we moulder away to dust--they are all the work of the

hand!

Manual Training is the acquisition by the hand of the arts through which

man expresses himself in things. It is a series of educational

generalizations in things. The purpose of it is to put the mind and hand

_en rapport_ with each other; to make the hand acquainted with the

elementary manipulations of the typical arts, by actual exercises, as

the mind is familiarized with the fundamental principles of the sciences

by studying their laws.

Superior observation is only another name for genius. To the dull eye

the falling apple taught no lesson, but to Newton’s quick apprehension

it revealed the law of gravitation!

It is not alone, however, in the sense of sight that observation

resides; nor is it keenest there. We have recently learned the value of

object teaching; but we have yet to learn, popularly and practically,

what has long been known to science--that the sense of touch is the

master sense, whence all the other senses spring. It is because of this

fact, and of the further fact that the sense of touch is most highly

developed in the hand, that man is the wisest of animals.

It follows that more than in the sense of seeing, hearing, tasting, or

smelling--nay, more than in all these senses combined--the faculty of

observation resides in the hand.

Dr. Wilson declares that touch “reigns throughout the body, and is the

token of life in every part”; and Dr. Maudsley says: “It is the

fundamental sense, the mother-tongue of language.”

How apt is this definition of the sense of touch--“the token of life in

every part”--and how comprehensive this--“the mother-tongue of

language!” And of this master sense the hand is the chief organ and

minister. How versatile it is; what adaptability it possesses; what

helpfulness! In the moment of danger how reassuring its supporting

grasp; how consoling its gentle touch when grief overwhelms! In defeat

how it trembles with emotion, and how tense with exaltation it becomes

in the hour of victory! With what infinite loathing it shrinks from a

hated contact, and with what sympathetic vibrations of ardor responds to

the clinging pressure of love!

If we would become familiar with objects we must subject them to the

test of touch, we must handle them. As Robert Seidel, a great teacher,

well says: “We must stretch them, beat them, cool them, expose them to

the sun, the water, the air--we must work them.”

It is through these processes of loving manipulation that the mechanic

and the artisan transform things crude and ugly into forms of use and

beauty. And it is in this way, and this way only, that man has trod the

path of progress. It is a rugged road, whose steeps are to be climbed

alone by those whose hearts are warm with holy zeal, whose souls are

aglow with enthusiasm, and whose hands are endowed with the rich

experiences of thoughtful toil. And we shall fit all mankind for this

noble task by training them to usefulness--that is, by teaching them,

not merely how to think, but how to act, how to work.

It is a broad and conclusive generalization of Herbert Spencer that

since literature and the fine arts are made possible by the useful arts,

manifestly that which is made possible must be postponed to that which

makes it possible. Nor does this rational and sober view of art detract

in the least from its dignity or sentiment. On the contrary, it provides

a foundation for works of the imagination--a basis for that spirituality

which is the fruit of the happy conjunction of a multitude of material

conditions evolved from the humblest as well as the noblest of the

useful arts--a basis without which the beautiful arts could never exist.

It thus becomes plain that social and economic conditions are the

product of education in things. Art education differentiates the

civilized from the savage man. The pathway of progress which now blazes

with the glory of electricity stretches back to the gloom of the caves

where our early ancestors dwelt; and the steps of this advance consist

of improvements in the useful and beautiful arts. From gesture to

speech; from pictures to types; from the canoe to the steamship, and

from the canal to the locomotive, the race has moved forward, always and

only, through art triumphs.

So all the generations of men have lived and toiled for us. We are the

heirs of the hoarded learning, of the accumulated mental and moral

fibre, and of the treasured arts of the ages. And we are hence the

elders, as Bacon says, of the philosophers, the sages, and the inventors

and discoverers of all time. Their achievements are heights whence we

may discern and occupy new and wider fields of human endeavor.

The precise relation of the useful arts to social and economic

conditions is, therefore, that of creator. As your art education is, so

shall your society be. There are persons who unconsciously dissociate

art and civilization--who think that things are not essential to

spiritual development, who fail to realize the fact that the main reason

of the barbaric character of the savage is the absence from his

environment of the arts of peace and plenty. If, for example, Plato had

not been provided with food and clothing and shelter, he would doubtless

not have composed the divine dialogues; and if there had been neither

mechanics, nor architects, nor sculptors to adorn with palaces and

temples the Greek cities, his ideal republic would not have had a place

in classic literature; and finally, if there had been no (slave)

hand-workers in Greece (for art products are all, directly or

indirectly, the work of the hand), instead of being the most venerated

of philosophers, Plato might have been, perhaps, the most wretched of

savages, prolonging a miserable existence by means the most inglorious.

But so unconscious was he of the true relation of the useful arts to

life that he denounced them all as “degrading”!

Poverty is the chief scourge of society; and it is a familiar economic

fact that where the useful arts are most flourishing poverty is least

pressing, so that to abolish poverty it would seem to be only necessary

to multiply and extend the arts. And if poverty is to be abolished; if

there is ever to be an ideal civilization, the controlling motive of

humanity must be changed from selfishness to altruism; and this change

can come only through love of work. So long as work shall be regarded

as a “curse,” the paramount purpose of the individual will be to avoid

it, and to compel others to submit to it. Hence the antagonisms that

arise at every point of human contact. The sum of these antagonisms is

what we call the struggle of life, which is merely the struggle of each

to survive at the expense of his fellows, and is therefore barbaric.

Now as we have seen that it is through the arts that man has been

civilized--that, in a word, the arts differentiate the civilized from

the savage man--it is evident that the further regeneration of the race

is to be wrought by analogous means--that is to say, by a wider

expansion of the arts of peace. And the way to achieve this result is to

transform our schools, which were modelled after the classic methods of

Greece and Rome, into laboratories for the development of useful men and

women, through the mastery of the useful arts; the arts that make life

sweet and beautiful; the arts that adorn our homes, that render the

earth fertile and make it blossom as the rose; the arts that annihilate

distance and so promote man’s brotherhood by enlarging his

neighborhood--these are the arts that inspire us with just and generous

impulses, the arts in which the noblest moral sentiments are made

manifest in things.

These, then, are the arts which ought to be made the subject of thorough

and exhaustive education--the arts that led Comenius to define schools

as the workshops of humanity. The final essential educational condition

is universality; for it is obvious that inequality of educational

opportunity is the grossest injustice of which organized society is

capable. It is against this injustice that Carlyle exclaims: “That there

should one man die ignorant, who had capacity for knowledge, this I

call a tragedy, were it to happen more than twenty times in the minute.”

This is indeed the tragedy of tragedies--the tragedy on the heels of

which slavery stalks; in whose train caste rides in scornful state; in

whose hideous shadow war waits to shed blood and spread pestilence and

famine. All these are the satellites of ignorance, and hardly less of

partial education than of total unenlightenment; and hence the only hope

that civilization shall finally triumph over barbarism rests in

universal, impartial, and scientific education.

The contrasts between the old and the new school methods pointed out in

this chapter show along what lines educational progress is to be sought.

The ideal school is to consist, not of one academic department, and a

department of Manual Training, but of mental and manual exercises so

related as to produce homogeneity.

The tabulations of facts which will be found in the Appendix show that a

vast number of schools have been dedicated to the new education. If they

are to be developed into ideal schools thousands of ideal teachers must

devote themselves to the arduous task. Each school transformed from the

dull routine of mediocrity to the vigor and elasticity which wait on

development will cost the life of a hero. The school that has no hero to

struggle for its salvation will surely languish and die. Every great

school of the future must therefore have its hero, for it is only the

hero who toils without thought of reward. As Carlyle so well says: “The

wages of every noble work do yet lie in heaven or else nowhere.” And he

has left this message of advice and encouragement to the hero of the

school of the future which is to revolutionize the world: “Thou wilt

never sell thy life in a satisfactory manner. Give it like a royal

heart; let the price be nothing: thou hast then, in a certain sense, got

all for it!”

APPENDIX

STATISTICS.--MANUAL TRAINING, 1883-1898, IN THE UNITED STATES

MANUAL TRAINING IN PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOLS

-----------------------+-------------+-----+--------+--------+--------

-----------------------+-------------+-----+--------+--------+--------

High-school |Peru |Ill. | 1883 | 2 | 41

Polytechnic High-school|Baltimore |Md. | 1883 | 16 | 674

High-school |Eau Claire |Wis. | 1884 | 1 | 50

School |Philadelphia |Penn.| 1885 | 13 | 406

High-school |Indianapolis |Ind. | 1885 | 10 | 676

Rochester Free Academy |Rochester |N. Y.| 1885 | .. | 908

High-school |Toledo |Ohio | 1885 | 11 | 394

School | Cleveland |Ohio | 1885 | 4 | 200

Central High-school |Washington |D. C.| 1886 | .. | 235

school |New Haven |Conn.| 1886 | 13 | ..

Manual-training School |Springfield |Mass.| 1886 | 3 | 34

High-school |Minneapolis |Minn.| 1886 | 4 | 375

Newburg Free Academy |Newburg |N. Y.| 1886 | 2 | 133

Manual-training School |Galesburg |Ill. | 1887 | 1 | 74

High-school |St. Paul |Minn.| 1887 | 5 | 350

school |Stillwater |Minn.| 1887 | 1 | 12

High-school |Jamestown |N. Y.| 1887 | 1 | 48

Central High-school |Easton |Del. | 1888 | .. | ..

High-school |Easton |Md. | 1888 | .. | ..

School |Cambridge |Mass.| 1888 | 9 | 178

High-school |Concord |N. H.| 1888 | 4 | 52

Orange High-school |Orange |N. J.| 1888 | 3 | 180

High-school |Albany |N. Y.| 1888 | 3 | 750

school |Pueblo |Col. | 1889 | 1 | 160

school |Davenport |Iowa | 1889 | 1 | 82

school |Des Moines |Iowa | 1889 | 1 | 50

school |Fall River |Mass.| 1889 | 1 | 62

High-school |Duluth |Minn.| 1889 | 2 | 80

High school |Omaha |Neb. | 1889 | .. | 100

High-school |Union |N. J.| 1889 | 3 | 200

High-school |Westchester |Penn.| 1889 | 4 | 240

Manual-training School |Chicago |Ill. | 1890 | 17 | 430

school |Louisville |Ky. | 1890 | 13 | 212

Approved High-school |Vineland |N. J.| 1890 | 1 | 150

High-school |Passaic |N. J.| 1890 | 2 | 53

High-school |South Orange |N. J.| 1890 | 1 | 150

School |Cleveland |Ohio | 1890 | 3 | 100

schools |Milwaukee |Wis. | 1890 | 4 | 144

Norwich Free Academy |Norwich |Conn.| 1891 | 1 | 33

High-school |Waterbury |Conn.| 1891 | 1 | ..

High-school |Springfield |Ill. | 1891 | 1 | 20

Moline High-school |Moline |Ill. | 1891 | 1 | 47

school |Waltham |Mass.| 1891 | 2 | 18

High-school |Bay City |Mich.| 1891 | [120] | [120]

Ridgewood High-school |Ridgewood |N. J.| 1891 | 3 | 35

school |Camden |N. J | 1891 | 3 | 150

school |Seattle |Wash.| 1891 | 2 | 70

High-school |Menominee |Wis. | 1891 | 5 | 103

High-school |Bristol |Conn.| 1892 | 1 | 30

school |Wilmington |Del. | 1892 | 3 | 210

School |Fremont |Ohio | 1892 | 1 | 50

training School |Philadelphia |Penn.| 1892 | 9 | 369

High-school |Norristown |Penn.| 1892 | 2 | 290

school |Providence |R. I.| 1892 | 18 | 280

High-school |Spokane |Wash.| 1892 | 3 | 85

school |San Francisco|Cal. | 1893 | 4 | 250

school |Mason City |Iowa | 1893 | 1 | 125

High-school |Manchester |N. H.| 1893 | 1 | 12

High-school |Atlantic City|N. J.| 1893 | 1 | 235

East Orange High-school|East Orange |N. J.| 1893 | 3 | 125

school |Denver |Col. | 1894 | .. | 400

High-school |Frankfort |Ky. | 1894 | 2 | 100

school |Boston |Mass.| 1894 | 11 | 324

school |Brooklyn |N. Y.| 1894 | .. | 800

Washington High-school |Washington |Penn.| 1894 | .. | 27

School |Newport |R. I.| 1894 | 2 | 26

Ryan High-school |Appleton |Wis. | 1894 | 1 | 26

Manual-training School |Lowell |Mass.| 1895 | 2 | 50

English High-school |Somerville |Mass.| 1895 | 2 | 75

High-school |Worcester |Mass.| 1895 | 4 | 283

High-school |Medford |Mass.| 1895 | 2 | 20

English High-school |Lynn |Mass.| 1895 | 3 | 72

High-school |Lawrence |Mass.| 1895 | 1 | 33

Royen High-school |Youngstown |Ohio | 1895 | 1 | 200

High-school |Fitchburg |Mass.| 1895 | .. | ..

High-school |Burlington |Wis. | 1896 | .. | ..

High-school |Los Angeles |Cal. | 1896 | 6 | 315

High-school |Rockford |Ill. | 1896 | 1 | 27

High-school |Florence |Wis. | 1896 | 2 | 36

Brookline High-school |Brookline |Mass.| 1896 | 1 | 50

High-school |Janesville |Wis. | 1896 | .. | ..

High-school |Malden |Mass.| 1896 | 2 | 60

School |Muskegon |Mich.| 1896 | 4 | 350

training School |Ishpeming |Mich.| 1896 | 1 | 75

training School |Menominee |Mich.| 1896 | 1 | 25

High-school |Summit |N. J.| 1896 | 1 | 40

Industrial Art |Binghamton |N. Y.| 1896 | 3 | 173

High-school |Syracuse |N. Y.| 1896 | .. | 50

High-school |Akron |Ohio | 1896 | 2 | 180

Cross Creek School |Washington |Penn.| 1896 | .. | 14

High-school |Waupaca |Wis. | 1897 | 1 | 16

High-school |Winnetka |Ill. | 1897 | 1 | 16

High-school |Fond du Lac |Wis. | 1897 | 1 | 50

school |Kansas City |Mo. | 1897 | 27 | 800

High-school |Oshkosh |Wis. | 1897 | 3 | 250

High-schools |Buffalo |N. Y.| 1897 | 1 | 50

High-school |Mayville |Wis. | 1897 | 1 | 30

High-school |Red Bank |N. J.| 1897 | 1 | 375

High-school |Hartford |Conn.| 1898 | 4 | 140

school |Newark |N. J.| 1898 | .. | ..

Howard School |Wilmington |Del. | [121] | 1 | 45

High-school |Iowa City |Iowa | [121] | .. | ..

High-school |Brockton |Mass.| [121] | .. | ..

High-school |South Omaha |Neb. | [121] | .. | ..

High-school |Stamford |Conn.| [121] | .. | ..

-----------------------+-------------+-----+--------+--------+--------

|101 Cities |23 | | 320 |15,942

-----------------------+-------------+-----+--------+--------+--------

[120] Abandoned temporarily for want of funds.

[121] Date of establishment not reported.

MANUAL TRAINING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS--GRAMMAR GRADES

-------------------+------+-----------+--------+--------+--------

-------------------+------+-----------+--------+--------+--------

Montclair |N. J. | 1882 | All | 4 | 530

Peru |Ill. | 1883 | 2 | 2 | ..

New Haven |Conn. | 1884 | .. | .. | ..

Jamestown |N. Y. | 1884 | 2 | 2 | 800

Eau Claire |Wis. | 1884 | 1 | .. | 100

Waltham |Mass. | 1885 | 1 | 2 | 425

Rochester |N. Y. | 1885 | .. | .. | 336

Toledo |Ohio | 1885 | 11 | 11 | 2,257

Washington |D. C. | 1886 | 40 | 43 | 9,452

Springfield |Mass. | 1886 | 1 | 3 | 267

Boston |Mass. | 1886 | All | 81 | 37,240

Newburg |N. Y. | 1886 | 1 | 2 | 95

Tidioute |Penn. | 1886 | .. | .. | ..

Beardstown |Ill. | 1887 | 1 | 2 | ..

Easton |Del. | 1888 | .. | .. | ..

Brookline |Mass. | 1888 | 1 | 2 | 525

Winchester |Mass. | 1888 | 1 | 2 | 408

Concord |N. H. | 1888 | 2 | 4 | 402

Hoboken |N. J. | 1888 | 6 | 6 | 1,229

Orange |N. J. | 1888 | 5 | 3 | 842

New York |N. Y. | 1888 | 37 | 32 | 10,187

Meadville |Penn. | 1888 | .. | 2 | 263

Wilmington |Del. | 1889 | 1 | .. | 45

Davenport |Iowa | 1889 | 1 | 1 | 101

Vineland |N. J. | 1889 | All | 1 | 500

Union |N. J. | 1889 | All | All | 643

St. Louis |Mo. | 1890 | 1 | 8 | 116

| | | [122] | [122] | [122]

Duluth |Minn. | 1890 | 12 | 25 | 1,000

Passaic |N. J. | 1890 | .. | 2 | 152

Garfield |N. J. | 1890 | 1 | 2 | 550

Paterson |N. J. | 1890 | 1 | 1 | 300

Ridgewood |N. J. | 1890 | .. | 4 | 200

Knoxville |Tenn. | 1890 | .. | .. | ..

South Orange |N. J. | 1890 | 1 | 1 | 300

Waterbury |Conn. | 1891 | .. | .. | ..

Springfield |Ill. | 1891 | 1 | 1 | 50

Moline |Ill. | 1891 | 1 | 1 | 279

Salem |Mass. | 1891 | 1 | 1 | 160

Northampton |Mass. | 1891 | 1 | 1 | 900

Bay City |Mich. | 1891 | [123] | [123] | [123]

San Francisco |Cal. | 1892 | 3 | 2 | 560

St. Paul |Minn. | 1892 | .. | 4 | 2,366

Camden |N. J. | 1892 | .. | 4 | 4,600

Norristown |Penn. | 1892 | 2 | 3 | 1,430

Providence |R. I. | 1892 | 13 | .. | ..

Menominee |Wis. | 1892 | 2 | 4 | 200

Bristol |Conn. | 1893 | 2 | .. | 276

Haverhill |Mass. | 1893 | 1 | 1 | 190

Manistee |Mich. | 1893 | .. | .. | ..

Minneapolis |Minn. | 1893 | 5 | 5 | 1,214

St. Cloud |Minn. | 1893 | 1 | 1 | 150

Manchester |N. H. | 1893 | All | 1 | 196

Bayonne |N. J. | 1893 | All | All | All

East Orange |N. J. | 1893 | All | 2 | 755

Cleveland |Ohio | 1893 | 2 | 1 | 3,500

Newport |R. I. | 1893 | .. | 4 | 633

Staunton |Va. | 1893 | .. | 1 | 200

Santa Barbara |Cal. | 1894 | 1 | 2 | 232

San Diego |Cal. | 1894 | 5 | 1 | 270

Portland |Maine | 1894 | 1 | 3 | 900

Medford |Mass. | 1894 | 1 | 2 | 400

New Bedford |Mass | 1894 | 1 | 1 | 400

Ithaca |N. Y. | 1894 | 2 | 2 | 420

Mason City |Iowa | 1894 | 1 | 1 | 50

Denver |Colo. | 1895 | All | .. | 2,500

Chicago |Ill. | 1895 | 28 | 32 | 8,200

Cape May |N. J. | 1895 | All | 3 | 411

Fitchburg |Mass. | 1895 | .. | .. | ..

Buffalo |N. Y. | 1895 | .. | 1 | 200

Pittsburg |Penn. | 1895 | 3 | 2 | 400

Barbadoes Township |N. J. | 1895 | 3 | 3 | 713

Woonsocket |R. I. | 1895 | .. | 1 | 150

Oakland |Cal. | 1896 | 1 | 1 | 425

Carlstadt |N. J. | 1896 | All | 5 | 240

Los Angeles |Cal. | 1896 | 7 | .. | 2,080

Summit |N. J. | 1896 | 3 | 3 | 200

Hartford |Conn. | 1896 | All | 5 | 800

Des Moines |Iowa | 1896 | 2 | 2 | 80

Florence |Wis. | 1896 | 1 | .. | ..

Menominee |Mich. | 1896 | 1 | 1 | 80

Brooklyn |N. Y. | 1896 | .. | .. | ..

Glens Falls |N. Y. | 1896 | 1 | 1 | 60

Utica |N. Y. | 1896 | .. | 4 | 2,300

Akron |Ohio | 1896 | .. | 2 | 210

Washington |Penn. | 1896 | 5 | 3 | 112

Pueblo Dist. No. 1 |Colo. | 1897 | .. | 2 | 180

Winnetka |Ill. | 1897 | 1 | 1 | 48

Oshkosh |Wis. | 1897 | 25 | 28 | 1,400

Indianapolis |Ind. | 1897 | 1 | 2 | 1,000

North Adams |Mass. | 1897 | 1 | 1 | 247

Lynn |Mass. | 1897 | 1 | 1 | 351

Newton |Mass. | 1897 | 1 | 1 | 135

Worcester |Mass. | 1897 | .. | 2 | 397

Cambridge |Mass. | 1897 | 1 | 2 | 136

Muskegon |Mich. | 1897 | 2 | 4 | 700

Kansas City |Mo. | 1897 | .. | .. | ..

Newark |N. J. | 1897 | .. | 3 | 2,265

Milwaukee |Wis. | 1897 | 1 | 1 | 15

Pueblo Dist. No. 20|Colo. | 1898 | .. | 2 | 300

New Britain |Conn. | 1898 | .. | .. | 190

Peabody |Mass. | 1898 | .. | .. | ..

Moberly |Mo. | 1898 | .. | .. | ..

Stockton |Cal. | [124] | .. | .. | ..

Santa Cruz |Cal. | [124] | .. | .. | ..

Manchester |Conn. | [124] | .. | .. | ..

Stamford |Conn. | [124] | .. | .. | ..

Iowa City |Iowa | [124] | .. | .. | ..

Augusta |Me. | [124] | .. | .. | ..

Baltimore |Md. | [124] | All | .. | All

Hyde Park |Mass. | [124] | 3 | 3 | 204

Holyoke |Mass. | [124] | 1 | .. | ..

Easton |Mass. | [124] | .. | .. | ..

Fall River |Mass. | [124] | .. | .. | ..

Dedham |Mass. | [124] | .. | .. | ..

Malden |Mass. | [124] | .. | .. | ..

Milton |Mass. | [124] | .. | .. | ..

Waterbury |Mass. | [124] | .. | .. | ..

Wellesley |Mass. | [124] | .. | .. | ..

Canton |Mass. | [124] | .. | .. | ..

Richmond |Va. | [124] | .. | .. | ..

-------------------+------+-----------+--------+--------+--------

119 Cities |24 | | 287 | 444 |118,835

-------------------+------+-----------+--------+--------+--------

[122] Colored School.

[123] Abandoned temporarily for want of funds.

[124] Date of establishment not reported.

MANUAL TRAINING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS--PRIMARY GRADES

------------------+-----+-----------+--------+--------+--------

------------------+-----+-----------+--------+--------+--------

Montclair |N. J.| 1882 | All | All | 1,047

Jamestown |N. Y.| 1882 | All | All | 2,400

Baltimore |Md. | 1884 | .. | .. | ..

Washington |D. C.| 1886 | 55 | .. | 12,900

Newburg |N. Y.| 1886 | .. | .. | ..

Tidioute |Penn.| 1886 | .. | .. | ..

Oakland |Cal. | 1888 | .. | 2 | 2,159

Springfield |Mass.| 1888 | All | .. | 29,256

Concord |N. H.| 1888 | .. | .. | ..

Orange |N. J.| 1888 | 4 | 3 | 2,132

New York |N. Y.| 1888 | .. | .. | 12,000

Union |N. J.| 1889 | All | All | 560

Vineland |N. J.| 1889 | All | 1 | 700

Westchester |Penn.| 1889 | .. | 1 | ..

Garfield |N. J.| 1890 | .. | 1 | 200

South Orange |N. J.| 1890 | 1 | 1 | 200

Waterbury |Conn.| 1891 | .. | 1 | ..

Moline |Ill. | 1891 | .. | .. | ..

Northampton |Mass.| 1891 | .. | 1 | 900

Ridgewood |N. J.| 1891 | .. | 3 | 200

San Francisco |Cal. | 1892 | 1 | 1 | 176

St. Paul |Minn.| 1892 | 40 | .. | 4,500

Camden |N. J.| 1892 | .. | .. | 3,080

Providence |R. I.| 1892 | 50 | .. | ..

Bristol |Conn.| 1893 | 2 | 2 | 144

Minneapolis |Minn.| 1893 | 44 | .. | 4,446

Stillwater |Minn.| 1893 | .. | .. | ..

Cleveland |Ohio | 1893 | .. | .. | 3,500

Staunton |Va. | 1893 | .. | 1 | 200

Menominee |Wis. | 1893 | .. | 2 | 200

St. Cloud |Minn.| 1894 | .. | 2 | 488

Philipsburg |N. J.| 1894 | All | All | 700

Elyria |Ohio | 1894 | All | All | 700

Newport |R. I.| 1894 | .. | 2 | 101

Denver |Colo.| 1895 | .. | .. | ..

Oshkosh |Wis. | 1896 | 20 | 25 | 800

Waltham |Mass.| 1896 | .. | .. | 100

Carlstadt |N. J.| 1896 | All | 5 | ..

Utica |N. Y.| 1896 | .. | .. | ..

Akron |Ohio | 1896 | All | All | 1,800

San Diego |Cal. | 1897 | 5 | 3 | 250

Newark |N. J.| 1897 | .. | .. | ..

Indianapolis |Ind. | 1897 | .. | 2 | 500

Moberly |Mo. | 1897 | .. | .. | ..

Passaic |N. J.| 1897 | .. | 1 | 375

Pueblo Dist. No. 1|Colo.| 1898 | .. | 1 | 180

Santa Cruz |Cal. | .. | .. | .. | ..

Elgin |Ill. | .. | .. | 1 | ..

Augusta |Me. | .. | .. | .. | ..

Detroit |Mich.| .. | .. | .. | ..

Toledo |Ohio | .. | .. | .. | ..

Pittsburg |Penn.| .. | .. | .. | ..

Shenandoah |Penn.| .. | .. | .. | ..

La Crosse |Wis. | .. | .. | .. | ..

------------------+-----+-----------+--------+--------+----------

54 Cities |20 | | 222 | 62 | 88,398

------------------+-----+-----------+--------+--------+----------

[125] Of the 54 cities tabulated, only 9 report the number of separate

primary schools in which Manual Training is taught. These 9 cities

report 202 schools, or an average of 22.4 schools per city. Nine

cities report all. Thirty-four cities do not report. If the average

obtained from the cities reporting can be applied to all, then 1120

primary schools have Manual Training. Thirty-one cities do not report

the number of teachers. Twenty cities report 34. Applying the above

method shows 85 teachers of Manual Training in primary schools. It

must be remembered that there are special or supervising teachers; the

regular teachers doing most of this work under supervision. Thirty-two

cities report 87,598 pupils taking Primary Manual Training; or 2737 on

the average to each city reporting. Applying this average to the 51

cities reporting, the total is 139,587.

KINDERGARTENS IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS

----------------+-----+-----------+--------+--------+-------

----------------+-----+-----------+--------+--------+-------

St. Louis |Mo. | 1873 | 60 | 400 | 7,694

Milwaukee |Wis. | 1880 | 42 | 83 | 3,816

Cedar Rapids |Iowa | 1881 | 12 | 16 | 766

Newport |R. I.| 1882 | 4 | 8 | 250

Lowell |Mass.| 1883 | 12 | 25 | 400

Pawtucket |R. I.| 1883 | 4 | 9 | 295

La Porte |Ind. | 1884 | 3 | 5 | 163

Muskegon |Mich.| 1884 | 8 | 10 | 581

Philadelphia |Penn.| 1884 | 135 | 180 | 6,500

Traverse City |Mich.| 1885 | 4 | 4 | 180

San José |Cal. | 1885 | 7 | 17 | 337

Augusta |Ga. | 1887 | 4 | 8 | 183

Des Moines |Iowa | 1887 | 14 | 28 | 807

Marshalltown |Iowa | 1887 | 7 | 10 | 260

Louisville |Ky. | 1887 | 10 | 59 | 750

Albany |N. Y.| 1887 | 19 | 30 | 750

Boston |Mass.| 1888 | 67 | 126 | 3,925

Brookline |Mass.| 1888 | 11 | 18 | 373

Rochester |N. Y.| 1888 | 13 | 68 | 1,972

Sheboygan |Wis. | 1888 | 9 | 27 | 980

Bristol |Conn.| 1889 | 3 | 7 | 253

Richmond |Ind. | 1889 | 2 | 2 | 75

Cambridge |Mass.| 1889 | 11 | 22 | 583

Grand Rapids |Mich.| 1889 | 8 | 7 | 352

Montclair |N. J.| 1889 | 5 | 12 | 273

Louisburg |N. Y.| 1889 | 5 | 10 | 165

North Tonawanda |N. Y.| 1889 | 4 | 4 | 200

Norwich |Conn.| 1890 | 3 | 7 | 120

Lexington |Ky. | 1890 | 5 | 10 | 360

Grand Haven |Mich.| 1890 | 1 | 3 | 105

Garfield |N. J.| 1890 | 2 | 2 | 80

East Orange |N. J.| 1890 | 6 | 6 | 180

South Orange |N. J.| 1890 | 1 | 2 | 55

Providence |R. I.| 1890 | 15 | 31 | 700

Los Angeles |Cal. | 1891 | 29 | 78 | 1,800

Covington |Ky. | 1891 | 5 | 10 | 600

Frankfort |Ky. | 1891 | 1 | 2 | 50

Somerville |Mass.| 1891 | 5 | 11 | 200

Iron Mountain |Mich.| 1891 | 11 | 11 | 586

Ironwood |Mich.| 1891 | 3 | 9 | 290

Negaunee |Mich.| 1891 | 2 | 2 | 78

Concord |N. H.| 1891 | 5 | 7 | 288

Passaic |N. J.| 1891 | 6 | 8 | 284

Greenwich |Conn.| 1892 | 1 | 1 | 52

Terre Haute |Ind. | 1892 | 16 | 11 | 435

Worcester |Mass.| 1892 | 10 | 19 | 518

Lowell |Mass.| 1892 | 12 | 26 | 900

Duluth |Minn.| 1892 | 16 | 27 | 1,000

Omaha |Neb. | 1892 | 26 | 40 | 1,600

Plainfield |N. J.| 1892 | 5 | 5 | 230

Utica |N. Y.| 1892 | 11 | 26 | 750

Cohoes |N. Y.| 1892 | 2 | 4 | 127

Niagara Falls |N. Y.| 1892 | 4 | 6 | 156

San Diego |Cal. | 1893 | 6 | 6 | 250

Denver |Colo.| 1893 | 25 | 50 | 2,534

Chicago |Ill. | 1893 | 51 | 121 | 2,500

Newton |Mass.| 1893 | 13 | 29 | 569

Lincoln |Neb. | 1893 | 8 | 22 | 700

Menominee |Mich.| 1893 | 5 | 5 | 350

Kansas City |Mo. | 1893 | 5 | 5 | 200

Ridgewood |N. J.| 1893 | 1 | 2 | 75

Union |N. J.| 1893 | 2 | 3 | 120

Saratoga Springs|N. Y.| 1893 | 9 | 24 | 500

Flushing |N. Y.| 1893 | 3 | 4 | 60

New Rochelle |N. Y.| 1893 | 5 | 7 | 476

El Paso |Tex. | 1893 | 1 | 3 | 100

Burlington |Vt. | 1893 | 4 | 8 | 137

Racine |Wis. | 1893 | 6 | 11 | 573

Fond du Lac |Wis. | 1894 | 5 | 11 | 250

Hammond |Ind. | 1894 | 1 | 2 | 80

Oskaloosa |Iowa | 1894 | 5 | 5 | 210

Sioux City |Iowa | 1894 | 3 | 6 | 125

Springfield |Mass.| 1894 | 8 | 17 | 346

Peabody |Mass.| 1894 | 3 | 6 | 126

Medford |Mass.| 1894 | 4 | 8 | 220

Superior |Wis. | 1894 | 5 | 11 | 225

Lawrence |Mass.| 1894 | 1 | 2 | 36

Escanaba |Mich.| 1894 | 4 | 4 | 225

Winona |Minn.| 1894 | 8 | 13 | 400

Natchez |Miss.| 1894 | 1 | 1 | 50

Portsmouth |N. H.| 1894 | 4 | 6 | 180

Binghamton |N. Y.| 1894 | 13 | 14 | 600

Geneva |N. Y.| 1894 | 4 | 5 | 150

Sing Sing |N. Y.| 1894 | 3 | 3 | 91

Wilkesbarre |Penn.| 1894 | 2 | 2 | 80

Marinette |Wis. | 1894 | 5 | 5 | 300

La Crosse |Wis. | 1894 | 3 | 3 | 150

Madison |Wis. | 1894 | 2 | 6 | 134

Oakland |Cal. | 1895 | 1 | 1 | 60

Jeffersonville |Ind. | 1895 | 7 | 7 | 200

Burlington |Iowa | 1895 | 5 | 10 | 200

North Adams |Mass.| 1895 | 3 | 6 | 120

Vicksburg |Miss.| 1895 | 4 | 5 | 180

Fremont |Ohio | 1895 | 3 | 5 | 160

Oshkosh |Wis. | 1895 | 9 | 25 | 800

Winnetka |Ill. | 1896 | 1 | 5 | 57

Indianapolis |Ind. | 1896 | 1 | 1 | 53

Dubuque |Iowa | 1896 | 4 | 8 | 232

Malden |Mass.| 1896 | 2 | 5 | 85

Northampton |Mass.| 1896 | 2 | 4 | 90

Ishpeming |Mich.| 1896 | 2 | 6 | 300

Detroit |Mich.| 1896 | 6 | 12 | 91

Nashua |N. H.| 1896 | 2 | 4 | 120

Syracuse |N. Y.| 1896 | 2 | 4 | 97

Mt. Vernon |N. Y.| 1896 | 2 | 2 | 30

Cleveland |Ohio | 1896 | 12 | 24 | 500

Stevens Point |Wis. | 1896 | 4 | 5 | 180

New Bedford |Mass.| 1897 | 3 | 6 | 140

Walden |Mass.| 1897 | 1 | 2 | 40

Newark |N. J.| 1897 | 26 | 50 | 2,100

Hoboken |N. J.| 1897 | 7 | 15 | 368

Bayonne |N. J.| 1897 | [126] | [126] | [126]

Brooklyn |N. Y.| 1897 | 14 | 28 | ..

Woonsocket |R. I.| 1897 | 1 | 2 | 30

Pueblo |Colo.| 1898 | 1 | 2 | 65

Akron |Ohio | 1898 | 1 | 3 | 30

Seattle |Wash.| 1898 | 1 | 2 | 51

Appleton |Wis. | 1898 | 4 | 8 | 200

Anniston |Ala. | .. | 2 | .. | 122

Hot Springs |Ark. | .. | 1 | 1 | 16

Sacramento |Cal. | .. | 4 | 8 | 172

Santa Cruz |Cal. | .. | 1 | 2 | 53

Manchester |Conn.| .. | 1 | 8 | 210

New Britain |Conn.| .. | 6 | 13 | 410

New Haven |Conn.| .. | 8 | 19 | 676

Hartford |Conn.| .. | 12 | 138 | 1,326

Norwalk |Conn.| .. | 3 | 6 | 95

Rockville |Conn.| .. | 1 | 1 | ..

Willimantic |Conn.| .. | 2 | 6 | 229

Rome |Ga. | .. | 1 | 1 | 16

Evanston |Ill. | .. | 2 | 6 | 100

Augusta |Me. | .. | 1 | 1 | ..

Portland |Me. | .. | 6 | 10 | 125

Fall River |Mass.| .. | 2 | 4 | 202

Sault Ste. Marie|Mich.| .. | 3 | 5 | 300

St. Paul |Minn.| .. | 28 | 57 | ..

Trenton |N. J.| .. | 1 | 1 | 65

Paterson |N. J.| .. | 15 | 17 | 500

[127]Buffalo |N. Y.| .. | 10 | 15 | 925

Gloversville |N. Y.| .. | 4 | 4 | 411

New York |N. Y.| .. | 15 | 16 | 571

Schenectady |N. Y.| .. | 1 | 2 | 40

Newark |Ohio | .. | 2 | 3 | 33

Pittsburg |Penn.| .. | 16 | 48 | 800

Oil City |Penn.| .. | 2 | 2 | 104

Allegheny |Penn.| .. | 3 | 12 | 120

----------------+-----+-----------+--------+--------+-------

146 Cities |26 | .. | 1,202 | 2,695 |73,543

----------------+-----+-----------+--------+--------+-------

[126] All first-grade schools have kindergartens.

[127] Kindergartens are conducted by a private association financially

assisted from public-school funds.

MANUAL TRAINING IN SCHOOLS FOR THE COLORED RACE

---------------+---------------+----------+--------+--------+--------

---------------+---------------+----------+--------+--------+--------

Storrs School |Atlanta, Ga. |Grammar | 1865 | .. | 120

| | | | |

Shaw University|Raleigh, N. C. |Collegiate| 1865 | 6 | 216

| | | | |

Storer College |Harper’s Ferry,|High | 1867 | 9 | 121

|W. V. | | | |

| | | | |

Hampton Normal |Hampton, Va. |Gram. and | 1868 | 48 | 658

| | | | |

Mt. Hermon |Clinton, Miss. |High | 1875 | 2 | 16

| | | | |

Southland Col. |Southland, Ark.|Primary to| 1876 | .. | 56

| | | | |

Princess Anne |Princess Anne, |High | 1878 | 7 | 101

Academy |Md. | | | |

| | | | |

Colored |Huntsville, |High | 1879 | 4 | 150

Industrial |Ala. | | | |

| | | | |

Knoxville |Knoxville, |Gram. and | 1879 | 4 | 125

| | | | |

Penn Normal and|Frogmore, S. C.|High | 1880 | 3 | 164

| | | | |

State Colored |Salisbury, |Gram. and | 1881 | 4 | 118

| | | | |

Allen |Columbia, S. C.|Primary to| 1881 | 4 | 332

| | | | |

Tuskegee Nor. |Tuskegee, Ala. |Gram. and | 1882 | .. | 661

| | | | |

Tougaloo |Tougaloo, Miss.|Primary to| 1882 | .. | 175

| | | | |

Albion Academy |Franklinton, |High | 1882 | 5 | 100

|N. C. | | | |

| | | | |

Spelman |Atlanta, Ga. |Gram. and | 1883 | 16 | 375

| | | | |

Ballard Normal |Macon, Ga. |Gram. and | 1883 | 12 | 415

| | | | |

Scotia Seminary|Concord, N. C. |Gram. and | 1883 | 16 | 286

| | | | |

Central |Nashville, |Gram. to | 1884 | 7 | 103

| | | | |

Hartshorn |Richmond, Va. |High | 1884 | 8 | 108

| | | | |

Biddle |Charlotte, |Gram. to | 1885 | 6 | 136

| | | | |

Fisk University|Nashville, |Gram. and | 1885 | 4 | 275

| | | | |

Roger Williams |Nashville, |High and | 1885 | 1 | 68

| | | | |

Paul Quinn |Waco, Tex. |High | 1885 | 3 | 31

| | | | |

Norfolk Mission|Norfolk, Va. |.. | 1886 | 2 | 320

| | | | |

Howard |Washington, |.. | 1887 | 6 | 169

University |D. C. | | | |

| | | | |

Colored Public |Jacksonville, |Prim. to | 1887 | .. | ..

| | | | |

Straight |New Orleans, |High | 1887 | 3 | 50

University |La. | | | |

| | | | |

Wilberforce |Wilberforce, |Gram. and | 1888 | 7 | 133

| | | | |

Mary Allen |Crockett, Tex. |Gram. and | 1888 | .. | 445

| | | | |

Virginia |Petersburg, Va.|High | 1888 | 5 | 389

| | | | |

Scofield |Aiken, S. C. |Grammar | 1889 | 6 | 155

| | | | |

Institute for |Philadelphia, |High and | 1889 | 9 | 259

| | | | |

Burrell Academy|Selma, Ala. |Grammar | 1890 | 8 | 238

| | | | |

Emerson Mem. |Ocala, Fla. |Gram. and | 1890 | 2 | 30

| | | | |

State Normal |Tallahassee, |High | 1890 | 1 | 27

and Ind. |Fla. | | | |

| | | | |

State Nor. |Frankfort, Ky. |High | 1890 | 3 | 96

| | | | |

Southern |New Orleans, |Gram. to | 1890 | 5 | 107

| | | | |

Alcon Agr. and |West Side, |Collegiate| 1890 | 5 | 298

| | | | |

State Normal |Goldsboro, |High | 1890 | 4 | 163

School |N. C. | | | |

| | | | |

Lincoln Academy|King’s Mount’n,|Gram. and | 1890 | 6 | 186

|N. C. |High | | |

| | | | |

St. Augustine |Raleigh, N. C. |Gram. to | 1890 | 4 | 88

| | | | |

Lincoln Academy|Jefferson City,|High | 1891 | 8 | 400

|Mo. | | | |

| | | | |

Arkansas |Pine Bluff, |High | 1892 | 6 | 62

Industrial |Ark. | | | |

| | | | |

Berea College |Berea, Ky. |High and | 1892 | 2 | 56

| | | | |

Colored |Bordentown, |Gram. and | 1892 | 6 | 54

| | | | |

Bishop College |Marshall, Tex. |Gram. and | 1892 | 5 | 109

| | | | |

Brewer Normal |Greenwood, |Gram. and | 1893 | 1 | 120

| | | | |

Hearne Academy |Hearne, Tex. |High | 1893 | 1 | 35

| | | | |

Shorter |Arkadelphia, |Gram. and | 1894 | 1 | 20

| | | | |

Knox Institute |Athens, Ga. |Gram. and | 1894 | 2 | 87

| | | | |

Walker Baptist |Augusta, Ga. |High | 1894 | 2 | 67

| | | | |

Chandler Normal|Lexington, Ky. |Gram. and | 1894 | 2 | 150

| | | | |

Washburn |Beaufort, N. C.|Gram. and | 1894 | 1 | 77

| | | | |

State Col’d |Normal, Ala. |High | .. | 10 | 248

| | | | |

Cookman |Jacksonville, |High | .. | .. | ..

Institute |Fla. | | | |

| | | | |

Beach Institute|Savannah, Ga. |Gram. and | .. | 7 | 85

| | | | |

Allen |Thomasville, |High | .. | 2 | 80

Industrial |Ga. | | | |

| | | | |

Leland |New Orleans, |High and | .. | .. | ..

| | | | |

New Orleans |New Orleans, |.. | .. | .. | ..

University |La. | | | |

| | | | |

Mississippi |Holly Springs, |High | .. | 1 | 85

| | | | |

State Colored |Elizabeth City,|High | .. | .. | ..

Normal School |N. C. | | | |

| | | | |

Plymouth State |Plymouth, N. C.|High | .. | .. | ..

| | | | |

Rankin-Richards|Orangeburg, |Gram. and | .. | 20 | 454

| | | | |

Slater Training|Knoxville, |Gram. and | [128] | 1 | 25

| | | | |

Tillotson |Austin, Tex. |.. | .. | 4 | 55

| | | | |

Emerson |Mobile, Ala. |Gram. and | .. | .. | ..

---------------+---------------+----------+--------+--------+--------

67 Manual-training Schools | 327 | 10,332

---------------------------------------------------+--------+--------

[128] The date given is that of establishment of school. Date of

establishment of Manual Training was not ascertained in these

instances.

PRIVATE MANUAL-TRAINING SCHOOLS

--------------------+---------------+--------+--------+--------+------

--------------------+---------------+--------+--------+--------+------

Massachusetts Inst. |Boston, Mass. |High | 1876 | .. | ..

| | | | |

Penn. School of |Philadelphia, |High | 1876 | .. | ..

| | | | |

Working-men’s School|New York, N. Y.|Grammar | 1878 | 19 | 353

| | | | |

Miller Manual-labor |Crozet, Va. |High | 1878 | .. | 198

| | | | |

Washington |St. Louis, Mo. |High | 1879 | 14 | 300

| | | | |

Girard College |Philadelphia |Gram. | 1882 | 11 | 650

| | | | |

Chicago Manual- |Chicago, Ill. |High | 1893 | 13 | 263

| | | | |

Hebrew Technical |New York, N. Y.|Grammar | 1883 | 11 | 254

| | | | |

M. T. School of |New Orleans, |High | 1884 | 6 | 114

Tulane University |La. | | | |

| | | | |

H. Mann School and |New York, N. Y.|Primary | 1884 | 12 | 257

| | | | |

Haish Manual- |Denver, Col. |.. | 1886 | 2 | 11

| | | | |

Pratt Institute |Brooklyn, N. Y.|High | 1887 | .. | 125

| | | | |

H. S. Newcom |New Orleans, |High and| 1887 | .. | ..

| | | | |

Sloyd Manual- |Boston, Mass. |Normal | 1889 | 3 | 104

| | | | |

Tyler School |Providence, |Gram. | 1890 | 6 | 330

|R. I. |and High| | |

| | | | |

Jewish Training |Chicago, Ill. |Prim. | 1890 | 27 | 700

School | |and | | |

| | | | |

National University |Chicago, Ill. |.. | 1890 | 5 | 500

| | | | |

Miss Sayer’s School |Newport, R. I. |Gram. | 1891 | 2 | 20

| | | | |

Swedenborgian School|Waltham, Mass. |Grammar | 1891 | 1 | 60

| | | | |

Thorp Polytechnic |Pasadena, Cal. |Gram. to| 1892 | 8 | 300

| | | | |

Friends’ Select |Philadelphia, |High | 1892 | .. | 123

| | | | |

Providence Training |Providence, |Normal | 1893 | 1 | 49

School for Sloyd |R. I. | | | |

| | | | |

Plainfield Academy |Plainfield, |Prim. to| 1893 | 2 | 25

|N. J. |High | | |

| | | | |

California School of|San Francisco, |High | 1895 | 7 | 310

Mechanical Arts |Cal. | | | |

| | | | |

St. Andrew’s |Rochester, |High | 1895 | 1 | 60

|N. Y. | | | |

| | | | |

Lewis Institute |Chicago, Ill. |High and| 1896 | 10 | 200

| | | | |

Free Industrial |San Diego, Cal.|Gram. | 1896 | 2 | 80

| | | | |

Commons Manual- |Chicago, Ill. |Grammar | 1896 | 1 | 40

| | | | |

Hull House Manual- |Chicago, Ill. |Gram. | 1897 | 2 | 70

| | | | |

Elmwood School |Buffalo, N. Y. |.. | .. | .. | ..

| | | | |

Franklin School |Buffalo, N. Y. |.. | .. | .. | ..

| | | | |

Lasell Seminary |Auburndale, |.. | .. | .. | ..

| | | | |

Talladega College |Talladega, Ala.|.. | .. | .. | ..

| | | | |

Kenilworth Academy |Kenilworth, |.. | .. | .. | ..

|Ill. | | | |

| | | | |

Y. M. C. A. Manual- |Hartford, Conn.|.. | .. | .. | ..

| | | | |

Clark University |Atlanta, Ga. |.. | .. | .. | ..

| | | | |

Private Manual- |Winnetka, Ill. |.. | .. | .. | ..

--------------------+---------------+--------+--------+--------+------

[129] The Massachusetts Institute of Technology was established in

1865; but in 1876 it adopted Manual Training as a system into all its

grades, and thus became the first distinctive Manual-training School

without prejudice to its high standing as an Institute of Technology.

MANUAL TRAINING IN PUBLIC NORMAL SCHOOLS

-----------------------+-------------------+--------+--------+--------

| | Manual |Teachers| Pupils

| |Training| of | Taking

| | Estab- | Manual | Manual

NAME OF SCHOOL |LOCATION | lished |Training|Training

-----------------------+-------------------+--------+--------+--------

Santee Normal Training |Santee Agency, Neb.| 1870 | 12 | 72

School | | | |

| | | |

Cook County Normal |Chicago, Ill. | 1883 | .. | 450

School[130] | | | |

| | | |

State Normal School |Whitewater, Wis. | 1883 | 2 | 100

| | | |

State Normal Training |New Britain, Conn. | 1884 | 5 | 253

School | | | |

| | | |

Industrial Institute |Columbus, Miss. | 1885 | 1 | 123

and College | | | |

| | | |

West Chester State |West Chester, Penn.| 1889 | 2 | 220

Normal School | | | |

| | | |

State Normal School |San José, Cal. | 1890 | 3 | 700

| | | |

Georgia Normal and |Milledgeville, Ga. | 1891 | 15 | 284

Industrial College | | | |

| | | |

State Normal and Model |Trenton, N. J. | 1891 | 1 | 225

School | | | |

| | | |

State Female Normal |Farmville, Va. | 1891 | 2 | 75

School | | | |

| | | |

Normal College of New |New York, N. Y. | 1892 | 12 | 257

York | | | |

| | | |

Normal and Industrial |Greensboro, N. C. | 1892 | 5 | 300

School | | | |

| | | |

Keystone State Normal |Kutztown, Penn. | 1892 | 2 | 106

School | | | |

| | | |

State Normal School |Framingham, Mass. | 1893 | 1 | 25

| | | |

Westfield Normal School|Westfield, Mass. | 1893 | 5 | 70

| | | |

State Normal School |Los Angeles, Cal. | 1894 | 2 | 475

| | | |

Alabama Normal College |Livingston, Ala. | .. | 1 | ..

for Girls | | | |

-----------------------+-------------------+--------+--------+--------

[130] The Cook County (Illinois) Normal School was originally

established as a private school. It is now the public training school

for teachers in the public schools.

PRIVATE TRADE SCHOOLS AND INSTITUTES OF TECHNOLOGY

------------------------------+--------------+--------+--------+------

| |Date of | |

| | Estab- | |

NAME OF INSTITUTION |LOCATION |lishment|Teachers|Pupils

------------------------------+--------------+--------+--------+------

Rensselaer Polytechnic |Troy, N. Y. | 1824 | 18 | ..

Institute | | | |

| | | |

Ohio Mechanics’ Institute |Cincinnati, | 1828 | .. | 720

|Ohio. | | |

| | | |

Massachusetts Institute of |Boston, Mass. | 1865 | 6 | 222

Technology | | | |

| | | |

Cornell University |Ithaca, N. Y. | 1865 | 36 | 599

| | | |

Worcester Polytechnic |Worcester, | 1868 | .. | ..

Institute |Mass. | | |

| | | |

Stevens Institute of |Hoboken, | 1871 | 22 | 256

Technology |N. J. | | |

| | | |

Lowell School of Practical |Boston, Mass. | 1872 | .. | 65

Designing | | | |

| | | |

Rhode Island School of Design |Providence, | 1878 | .. | 341

|R. I. | | |

| | | |

Chicago College of Horology |Chicago, Ill. | 1880 | .. | ..

| | | |

Case School of Applied |Cleveland, | 1881 | 11 | ..

Sciences |Ohio. | | |

| | | |

School of Ind. Art and Tech. |New York, | 1881 | .. | ..

Design for Women |N. Y. | | |

| | | |

New York Trade School |New York, | 1881 | 26 | 556

N. Y. | | |

| | | |

Rose Polytechnic Institute |Terre Haute, | 1883 | 6 | ..

|Ind. | | |

| | | |

[131]Textile Schools |Philadelphia, | 1883 | .. | 65

|Penn. | | |

| | | |

Milwaukee Cooking School |Milwaukee, | 1884 | 2 | ..

|Wis. | | |

| | | |

Newark Technical School |Newark, N. J. | 1885 | 6 | 250

| | | |

Technical School of |Cincinnati, | 1886 | .. | ..

Cincinnati |Ohio. | | |

| | | |

Technical Drawing School |Providence, | 1887 | .. | ..

|R. I. | | |

| | | |

Cogswell Polytechnic School |San Francisco,| 1888 | 7 | 150

|Cal. | | |

| | | |

Institute for Artisans |New York, | 1888 | .. | ..

|N. Y. | | |

| | | |

Watchmakers’ Trade School |La Porte, Ind.| 1888 | .. | ..

| | | |

Institute for Colored Youth |Philadelphia, | 1889 | 9 | 259

|Penn. | | |

| | | |

Master-Builders’ Mechanical |Philadelphia, | 1890 | 6 | 67

School of Phil’a. |Penn. | | |

| | | |

Lawrence Scientific School of |Cambridge, | 1891 | 3 | 64

Harvard Univ’ty |Mass. | | |

| | | |

Baron de Hirsch Trade School |New York, | 1891 | .. | ..

|N. Y. | | |

| | | |

[132]University of Cincinnati |Cincinnati, | 1891 | .. | ..

|Ohio. | | |

| | | |

Leland Stanford University |Palo Alto, | 1891 | .. | ..

|Cal. | | |

| | | |

Williamson Free School of |Williamson | 1891 | 10 | 160

Mechanical Trades |Schools, Pa. | | |

| | | |

Springfield Industrial |Springfield, | 1891 | 5 | 105

Institute |Mass. | | |

| | | |

Drexel Institute |Philadelphia, | 1892 | 38 | ..

|Penn. | | |

| | | |

Armour Institute |Chicago, Ill. | 1893 | 15 | 300

| | | |

Mechanics’ Institute |Rochester, | 1893 | 15 | 972

|N. Y. | | |

| | | |

Private School of Carpentry |Racine, Wis. | 1896 | 1 | 30

| | | |

Lafayette College |Easton, Penn. | .. | .. | ..

| | | |

Vanderbilt University |Nashville, | .. | .. | ..

|Tenn. | | |

| | | |

Boston Normal School of |Boston, Mass. | .. | .. | ..

Cookery | | | |

------------------------------+--------------+--------+--------+------

NOTE.--Private trade schools for teaching watch-making, some fifteen

in number, are united, because no data was secured. Private cooking

schools, dress-making schools, barber schools, etc., have within the

last five years sprung up in various parts of the country. Some of

these are of considerable importance, but most are small, and no

effort has been made to secure reports from them.

[131] These schools are supported by both legislative appropriations

and private endowments. They are not public schools in the usual sense

of the term.

[132] The University of Cincinnati is supported by both public funds

and private endowments. It is unique in this, that, although a

university in its grade of work, it is essentially a part of the

public-school system. The city collects a one-tenth mill tax annually

for its benefit; and the university, including its technical and

Manual-training course, is free to residents of the city. The

necessary expenses, such as laboratory fees, are kept to the lowest

possible limit; and every family in the municipality is entitled to

educate its children in this thoroughly equipped university,

practically without cost.

TECHNOLOGY IN PUBLIC EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS OF COLLEGIATE

GRADE--EXCLUSIVE OF PURELY AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES

-------------------------+------------------+---------+--------+------

| |Technical| |

| |Training | |

| | Estab- | |

INSTITUTION |LOCATION | lished |Teachers|Pupils

-------------------------+------------------+---------+--------+------

United States Naval |Annapolis, Md. | 1845 | .. | ..

Academy | | | |

| | | |

State Agricultural |Agricultural | 1857 | 14 | 332

College |College, Mich. | | |

| | | |

Maine State College |Orono, Me. | 1864 | 13 | 191

| | | |

University of Vermont |Burlington, Vt. | 1865 | 11 | 119

| | | |

Illinois University |Urbana, Ill. | 1868 | .. | ..

| | | |

University of Minnesota |Minnesota, Minn. | 1869 | 9 | 159

| | | |

University of Tennessee |Knoxville, Tenn. | 1869 | 6 | 150

| | | |

University of Iowa |Ames, Iowa. | 1869 | 9 | 284

| | | |

Kansas State Agricultural|Manhattan, Kan. | 1873 | 20 | 530

College | | | |

| | | |

Ohio State University |Columbus, Ohio. | 1873 | 9 | 373

| | | |

University of California |Berkeley, Cal. | 1874 | 3 | 84

| | | |

[133]Purdue University |Lafayette, Ind. | 1874 | 10 | 280

| | | |

Agricultural and |College Station, | 1876 | 16 | 313

Mechanical College |Tex. | | |

| | | |

State Agricultural |Fort Collins, Col.| 1879 | 2 | 137

College | | | |

| | | |

Agricultural and |Agricultural | 1880 | 3 | ..

Mechanical College |College, Miss. | | |

| | | |

Agricultural and |Blacksburg, Va. | 1880 | 18 | 190

Mechanical College | | | |

| | | |

Mechanical College of |Baton Rouge, La. | 1880 | 1 | 56

State University | | | |

| | | |

Storrs Agricultural |Storrs, Conn. | 1881 | 4 | 145

College | | | |

| | | |

Agricultural and |Auburn, Ala. | 1885 | 4 | 200

Mechanical College | | | |

| | | |

Arkansas Industrial |Fayetteville, Ark.| 1885 | 7 | 150

University | | | |

| | | |

Michigan Mining School |Houghton, Mich. | 1886 | 11 | 82

| | | |

Agricultural College of |Brookings, S. D. | 1887 | 11 | 160

South Dakota | | | |

| | | |

Florida Agricultural |Lake City, Fla. | 1888 | 2 | 62

College | | | |

| | | |

Oregon State Agricultural|Corvallis, Ore. | 1888 | 9 | 237

College | | | |

| | | |

Agricultural College of |Logan, Utah. | 1889 | 7 | 119

Utah | | | |

| | | |

New Mexico College of |Messilla Park, | 1890 | .. | ..

Mechanical Arts |N. M. | | |

| | | |

University of Michigan |Ann Arbor, Mich. | 1890 | 5 | ..

| | | |

Delaware College |Newark, Del. | 1891 | 3 | 23

| | | |

Agricultural and |Lexington, Ky. | 1891 | 3 | 31

Mechanical Coll. of | | | |

Kentucky | | | |

| | | |

State University |Columbia, Mo. | 1891 | 2 | 145

| | | |

College of Mining |Rolla, Mo. | 1891 | 7 | 225

| | | |

University of Nebraska |Lincoln, Neb. | 1891 | 3 | 210

| | | |

Nevada State University |Reno, Nev. | 1891 | 1 | 106

| | | |

University of Wyoming |Laramie, Wy. | 1891 | 4 | 60

| | | |

North Dakota Agricultural|Fargo, N. D. | 1892 | 2 | 24

College | | | |

| | | |

West Virginia University |Morgantown, W. Va.| 1892 | 5 | 79

| | | |

Clemson Agricultural |Clemson College, | 1893 | 9 | 635

College |S. C. | | |

-------------------------+------------------+---------+--------+------

[133] Purdue University is partially supported by endowment, but as it

secures regular appropriations, it is here classified as a State

University.

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN CHARITY SCHOOLS[134]

---------------------------+---------------+--------+-----------+-----

| | Indus- |Teachers| Pupils

| | trial | of | Taking

| |Training| Indus- | Indus-

| | Estab- | trial | trial

NAME OF SCHOOL |LOCATION | lished |Training|Training

---------------------------+---------------+--------+--------+--------

| | | |

Baltimore Manual-labor |Arbutus, Md. | 1841 | 2 | 60

School | | | |

| | | |

Wilson Industrial School |New York, N. Y.| 1853 | 3 | 100

for Girls | | | |

| | | |

Industrial Home School |Washington, | 1867 | 6 | 60

|D. C. | | |

| | | |

McDonough School |McDonough, Md. | 1873 | 5 | 140

| | | |

South End Industrial School|Roxbury, Mass. | 1884 | 21 | 313

| | | |

Five Points House of |New York, N. Y.| 1885 | 9 | 331

Industry | | | |

| | | |

Indiana Soldiers’ Orphans’ |Kingstown, Ind.| 1885 | 7 | 80

Home | | | |

| | | |

Skyland Institute |Blowing Rock, | 1886 | .. | ..

|N. C. | | |

| | | |

Samuel Ready School for |Baltimore, Md. | 1887 | 3 | 60

Female Orphans | | | |

| | | |

Chicago Waifs’ Mission and |Chicago, Ill. | 1888 | 3 | 30

Training School | | | |

| | | |

Industrial School |Brooklyn, N. Y.| 1888 | 8 | 80

Association | | | |

| | | |

Kalamazoo Industrial School|Kalamazoo, | 1889 | 18 | 224

|Mich. | | |

| | | |

Industrial School of |Rochester, | 1890 | 5 | 120

Rochester |N. Y. | | |

| | | |

Industrial School for Boys |Glenwood, Ill. | 1890 | .. | 400

| | | |

Jewish Orphan Asylum |Cleveland, Ohio| 1891 | 8 | 157

| | | |

St. George’s Boys’ |New York, N. Y.| 1892 | 6 | 259

Industrial Trade School | | | |

| | | |

Boys’ Club in Carpentry |Lynn, Mass. | 1895 | 1 | 25

| | | |

Polish Orphans’ Home |Chicago, Ill. | .. | .. | ..

| | | |

Unity Church Manual- |Chicago, Ill. | .. | .. | ..

training School | | | |

| | | |

Iowa Orphans’ Home |Davenport, | .. | .. | ..

|Iowa. | | |

---------------------------+---------------+--------+--------+--------

[134] Industrial Training, rather than Manual Training, characterizes

the Charity Schools, the central idea being to prepare the child for

some occupation by which it can become self-supporting. As will be

seen by the table, this idea found very early expression in the

Manual-labor School at Arbutus, Maryland. The co-education of mind and

hand, because of its equal, or greater, educational value, was not

thought of in these charity institutions until recently, and cannot be

said to obtain in any of them even now.

PROGRESS OF MANUAL TRAINING BY YEARS, IN CITIES

The following table shows growth by years, as represented by cities

establishing Manual Training or Kindergartens in Public Schools. The

number refers to cities adopting this feature of education in the years

named.

-------------+--------------+--------------+--------------

HIGH SCHOOLS |GRAMMAR GRADES|PRIMARY GRADES|KINDERGARTENS

------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------

Year | of | Year | of | Year | of | Year | of

------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------

.. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 1873 | 1

.. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 1880 | 1

.. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 1881 | 1

.. | .. | 1882 | 1 | 1882 | 2 | 1882 | 1

1883 | 2 | 1883 | 1 | 1883 | 0 | 1883 | 2

1884 | 1 | 1884 | 3 | 1884 | 1 | 1884 | 3

1885 | 5 | 1885 | 3 | 1885 | 0 | 1885 | 2

1886 | 5 | 1886 | 5 | 1886 | 3 | 1886 | 0

1887 | 4 | 1887 | 1 | 1887 | 0 | 1887 | 5

1888 | 6 | 1888 | 8 | 1888 | 5 | 1888 | 4

1889 | 8 | 1889 | 4 | 1889 | 3 | 1889 | 7

1890 | 7 | 1890 | 8 | 1890 | 2 | 1890 | 7

1891 | 10 | 1891 | 6 | 1891 | 4 | 1891 | 9

1892 | 7 | 1892 | 6 | 1892 | 4 | 1892 | 10

1893 | 5 | 1893 | 11 | 1893 | 6 | 1893 | 15

1894 | 7 | 1894 | 7 | 1894 | 4 | 1894 | 20

1895 | 8 | 1895 | 8 | 1895 | 1 | 1895 | 7

1896 | 15 | 1896 | 13 | 1896 | 5 | 1896 | 12

1897 | 8 | 1897 | 13 | 1897 | 5 | 1897 | 7

1898 | 2 | 1898 | 4 | 1898 | 1 | 1898 | 4

[135] | 5 | [135] | 18 | [135] | 8 | [135] | 28

------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------

[135] Not reported.

NOTE ON STATE LAWS IN RELATION TO MANUAL TRAINING.

Connecticut, in 1888, authorized and empowered school boards to

introduce Manual Training in public schools.

Congress appropriated $8000 to Manual Training equipment in the District

of Columbia in 1896.

In 1885 the State of Georgia passed a law authorizing and recommending

school boards to introduce Manual Training in the public schools of the

state. The law was simply a moral indorsement, and had little practical

effect.

Indiana has a law authorizing the introduction of Manual Training into

the public schools of all cities of 100,000 inhabitants or over.

Massachusetts passed an authorizing act in 1884, and on April 14, 1894,

a law was adopted, section one of which is as follows:

“After the first day of September in the year eighteen hundred and

ninety five, every city of twenty thousand or more inhabitants shall

maintain as part of its high-school system the teaching of Manual

Training. The course to be pursued in said instruction shall be

subject to the approval of the state board of education.”

In 1887 New Jersey passed a law to encourage the introduction of Manual

Training in public schools. The chief provision of the act was, that

whenever any school district should raise by taxation, subscription, or

both, a sum of money not less than $1000, for the establishment of

Manual Training in such school district, the state should appropriate a

sum equal to that raised by the district, to aid in the establishment of

such school; provided that no one district should receive over $5000 in

any one year from state funds. In 1888 this law was amended so as to

include districts that should raise not to exceed $500, the state

agreeing to duplicate the sum raised. The effect of this law was very

marked in 1890, resulting in the establishment of a large number of

schools.

In 1888 New York passed a law authorizing local school boards to

establish Manual Training within their respective jurisdictions. The

same law makes the teaching of Manual Training compulsory in normal

schools, subject, however, to recommendations of the state

superintendent of public instruction, which provision has practically

nullified it.

Ohio has a law authorizing a tax levy of ⁵⁄₁₀ of a mill for cities of a

certain size, and ¹⁄₅ of a mill for certain other cities, in excess of

other taxes; the sums so raised to be used for the purpose of

introducing Manual Training into the public schools.

In 1895 Wyoming authorized school boards to establish Manual Training in

the public schools.

In 1895 Wisconsin authorized the establishment of Manual Training in its

public schools providing state aid for the same, but limiting the number

to receive state aid to ten high-schools to be selected by the state

superintendent of schools.

The best of existing state-aid laws is that of Maryland, enacted April

7, 1898. It is very liberal and will doubtless greatly stimulate the

progress of the new education in that state. The Wisconsin law gives

$250 to each of its schools per year, and the New Jersey law duplicates

whatever the school board raises for that purpose. But the Maryland law

gives $1500 to each school the first year, and $50 per pupil per year

thereafter, up to the limit of $1500 per school per year--enough,

probably, to pay the entire expense of the system. Following is the text

of the statute:

“_Whereas_, The establishment of well-conducted and liberally

supported schools, or departments, in one of the large graded schools

or high-schools in each county of the state, for the development and

training of the manual ability of pupils, must tend to supply a

growing want in each county of the state; and

_Whereas_, It is especially the duty of the state to afford the best

educational facilities to its youth in those technical studies which

are directly associated with the material prosperity of its people;

and

_Whereas_, It is for the best interests of this state that the colored

population of each county shall have an opportunity for the

establishment of separate industrial schools; therefore,

SEC. 1. _Be it enacted by the General Assembly of Maryland_, That it

shall be the duty of the board of county school commissioners, when a

suitable building, or room or rooms connected with one of the large

graded schools or high-schools shall be provided by the county, or

money sufficient for the erection of such building, or room or rooms,

to accept the same (if, in the judgment of the board, there is any

necessity therefor), and thereafter to provide for the maintenance of

a Manual Training school, or Manual Training department, for said

county, and the salaries of teachers and Manual Training instructors,

out of the general school fund and the state aid hereinafter provided.

SEC. 2. _And be it enacted_, That whenever a Manual Training school,

or Manual Training department, is opened in any county, the president

and secretary of the board of county school commissioners of said

county shall report to the secretary of the state board of education,

and the state board of education shall, without delay, proceed to

appoint the principal of the state normal school, or one of the

teachers in said school, well qualified for such service, to visit the

school and give a certificate of approval of its condition and the

plan upon which it is conducted; and thereafter the president and

secretary of the board of county school commissioners shall report to

the comptroller the condition of the school, the number of

instructors, and the number of pupils enrolled, on or before the

twentieth day of January in each year.

SEC. 3. _And be it enacted_, That the comptroller of the treasury,

after receiving the certificate of approval concerning the county

Manual Training school, or Manual Training department, according to

the provisions of the second section of this act, is hereby authorized

and directed to issue his warrant upon the treasurer of the state for

the sum of fifteen hundred dollars, payable to the order of the

treasurer of the board of county school commissioners of the county

filing the certificate of approval aforesaid, out of any moneys in the

state treasury not otherwise appropriated, on the first day of October

in each year, for the support of said Manual Training school, or

Manual Training department.

SEC. 4. _And be it enacted_, That the county Manual Training school,

or the Manual Training department and the school to which it is

attached, shall be under the management and control of the board of

county school commissioners.

SEC. 5. _And be it enacted_, That it shall be the duty of the board of

county school commissioners of each county in this state, whenever a

suitable building, or room or rooms connected with one of the colored

schools of said county, shall be provided by the county to accept the

same, if in the judgment of the said board there is any necessity

therefor, and thereafter to provide for the maintenance of such member

[number] of separate colored industrial schools as in their judgment

may be needed, and the salaries of such teachers as may be required

for that purpose shall be paid out of the general fund and the state

aid hereinafter provided.

SEC. 6. _And be it enacted_, That whenever any such separate colored

industrial school or schools are opened in any county, the president

and secretary of the board of county school commissioners of said

county shall report the fact to the secretary of the state board of

education, and the state board of education shall without delay

proceed to appoint a proper person well qualified for such service, to

visit the said school or schools and give a certificate of approval of

its condition and the plan upon which it is conducted, and thereafter

the president and secretary of the said board shall report to the

comptroller of this state the condition of said school or schools, the

number of instructors and the number of pupils enrolled during the

school year last ended, on or before the 20th day of August in each

year.

SEC. 7. _And be it enacted_, That the comptroller of the treasury upon

receiving the certificate of approval concerning the county colored

industrial school or schools, as aforesaid, according to the

provisions of the sixth section of this act, is hereby authorized and

directed to issue his warrant upon the treasurer of the state for the

sum of fifteen hundred dollars, payable to the order [of the]

treasurer of the board of county school commissioners of the county,

upon the filing of the certificates of approval aforesaid, out of any

moneys in the state treasury not otherwise appropriated, on the first

day of October in each year, for the support of said colored

industrial school or schools, and thereafter the said industrial

school or schools shall be under the management and control of the

said board of county school commissioners.

SEC. 8. _And be it enacted_, That no entire appropriation for the

benefit of any Manual Training school, provided for under this act,

shall be paid as authorized, after the first annual appropriation,

unless said school have had an average daily attendance of thirty

scholars for the preceding year; and in case said attendance shall

fall short of said number, then there shall only be paid towards the

maintenance of said school at the rate of fifty ($50.00) dollars for

each scholar of its daily average annual attendance, to be determined

by the report hereinbefore required to be made to the comptroller.

SEC. 9. _And be it enacted_, That no appropriation for the benefit of

the colored industrial schools of any county, provided for under this

act, shall be paid after the first annual appropriation, unless the

average daily attendance at such school or schools shall have been,

for the preceding year, at least thirty scholars; and in case said

attendance shall fall short of said number, then there shall be paid

to the treasurer of the county school commissioners maintaining said

school or schools, only at the rate of fifty ($50.00) dollars a

scholar, for the daily average annual attendance at the same, to be

determined by the report hereinbefore required to be made to the

comptroller.

Approved April 7, 1898.”

The report of the state superintendent of public instruction for

Michigan, for the year 1897, shows that Kindergartens exist in the

public schools of the following cities and towns: Cities of over 4000

population as shown by state census of 1894--Albion, Big Rapids,

Cadillac, Calumet, Detroit, Escanaba, Grand Haven, Grand Rapids,

Holland, Ionia, Ironwood, Ishpeming, Jackson, Menonimee, Mt. Clemens,

Muskegon, Negamee, Niles, St. Joseph, Traverse City, West Bay City,

Wyandotte--twenty-two cities of over 4000 population. The twenty-four

cities and towns with less than 4000 population as shown by state census

of 1894, and having Kindergartens in their public schools, are: Algonac,

Alma, Au Sable, Caro, Crystal Falls, Dowagiac, Fremont, Greenville,

Hartford, Houghton, Ithaca, Lake Linden, Lake View, Mancelona,

Manistique, Montague, Morenci, Nashville, Pentwater, Reed City, Sand

Beach, Stanton, Union City, Vassar. Such of these cities and towns as

furnished reports will be found in the accompanying tables; from the

others no data was received.

Two thoroughly equipped Manual Training schools are projected: one, to

be in Pullman, Illinois, is to result from a bequest in the will of the

late Mr. George M. Pullman, who left a large sum for its construction,

and an annuity of $25,000 for its maintenance; the other school is to be

built by the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company, at Calumet, Michigan.

Both these schools will be free, and will probably become a part of the

public-school system of their respective towns.

The legislature of Massachusetts in 1898 passed an act establishing a

trade-school for weavers, to be located at Lowell, Massachusetts,

provided the city would raise half the money necessary for its

construction, the state to pay the other half. This is the first

well-defined movement in this country to establish public trade-schools

to teach the trades prevailing in the locality of the school. Europe has

many such schools.

MANUAL TRAINING IN RUSSIA.

There is, as yet, no established national school system in Russia. The

school systems of Finland and other Russian dependencies are provincial

and local. An imperial decree of March 7, 1888, however, contained an

elaborate plan for elementary national education, in which Manual

Training, Technical, and Trade education were given not only prominence

but precedence. The doctrine of state aid to educational institutions

is, however, fully and liberally recognized. Manual Training was founded

in Russia in 1868, as mentioned in the first edition of this work, by M.

Victor Della Vos, and revived and extended in 1884 by the then Minister

of Finance, who sent two teachers to Naäs, Sweden, to take a six weeks’

course of instruction, and a workshop for boys’ hand labor was the same

year established in connection with the Teachers’ Institute in St.

Petersburg. In 1885 this was made a permanent feature of Teachers’

Institute work, and an annual grant of 3000 rubles ($1659) was voted;

and in 1887 a course in metal work was added to this school. In 1888

three normal courses for instructing teachers in Manual Training were

instituted and subsidized by the imperial government. One of these at

Novaia Ladoga trains both city and country school-teachers; at Riga,

city teachers only, while at Kiev only country teachers are trained. The

instruction of teachers in Manual Training was also made part of the

teachers’ institutes at Glookhov, Vilna, and Orenboorg in 1889. Besides

these there were in 1890 eleven vacation institutes, training two

hundred and fifty teachers for the work of imparting manual instruction.

These teachers’ institutes, vacation and permanent (or normal schools),

have increased rapidly and received rich subsidies from the imperial

treasury. In 1891 the Russian Minister of War introduced Manual Training

into all the cadet schools. The most recent available data indicate the

introduction of Manual Training into one hundred and sixteen

establishments, as follows: four teachers’ institutes, fourteen

teachers’ seminaries, four intermediate schools, forty-four higher

public schools, and thirty-four elementary common schools. A more recent

report--which, however, is not at hand--is said to show remarkable

developments in Manual Training in common and rural schools. A brief

survey of technical and trade schools in Russia follows.

The technical schools at Moscow and St. Petersburg are imperial schools

of university grade, richly endowed, and reputed to be the best equipped

schools in Europe. The oldest and best technical school in Moscow below

university rank, and making no attempt to teach trades, is the Komisarof

Technical School, founded in 1865 by two railroad contractors. It now

receives government aid, and has about four hundred pupils. The Society

for the Promotion of Technical Education in 1873 founded a school called

the “Mechanical Handicraft School of Moscow.” The government contributes

$1000 per year to this school. There are five technical schools having a

grade of academic work comparable with our high schools--the Komisarof

Technical School of Moscow, mentioned above, founded in 1865; the Lodz,

in 1869; Irkootsk, 1873; Kungursk, 1877; and the Omsk, in 1882. The five

schools had 1052 students at date of latest available report.

Trade-schools of grammar grade, twenty-three in number, had 2474 pupils.

Of these schools three were established in 1868; one in 1871; two in

1872; one in 1873; one in 1874; one in 1875; two in 1877; one in 1878;

two in 1879; one in 1880; two in 1883; two in 1885; three in 1886; one

in 1887. Trade-schools of primary grade, sixty-three in number, with

2562 pupils. One was established in 1865; one in 1866; two in 1867; one

in 1870; one in 1871; three in 1872; two in 1873; five in 1874; six in

1875; one in 1876; six in 1877; four in 1878; three in 1879; two in

1880; two in 1881; four in 1882; five in 1883; five in 1884; one in

1885; one in 1886; four in 1887; two in 1888; one in 1889.

MANUAL TRAINING IN FINLAND.

Finland was the birthplace of the man who first devised and practised

that method of education known as Sloyd--a form of Manual Training.

Otto Cygneans, of Helsingfors Teachers’ Seminary, after a thorough study

of Froebel and Pestalozzi (to whom he gives ample credit), originated in

1858 a system for carrying the education of the hand beyond the

kindergarten into all grades of schools. To Finland also belongs the

credit of being the first country to officially recognize the value of

such education. Since 1866 (sometimes stated 1868) Manual Training

(Sloyd) has been compulsory in all the elemental and normal schools of

Finland. In 1896 there were four normal schools with 569 students, and

75,712 pupils taking Manual Training in the elementary schools of the

cities. Statistics of rural schools are not obtainable. In addition to

these, there were in 1896 forty-two separate and distinctively

Manual-training high-schools, with 1030 pupils, besides eight industrial

schools, with 56 teachers and 380 pupils. All are public schools. There

are technical and trade schools of all grades, from the Polytechnic

School at Helsingfors to the elementary trade and weaving schools. There

are seven schools where navigation is taught, twelve weaving, dyeing,

and sewing schools, supported wholly or in part by the government,

fourteen elementary technical schools, five high-grade technical

schools, and ten trade-schools other than weaving and navigation.

Government aid is granted to all of these schools.

MANUAL TRAINING IN ENGLAND.

The activity of Germany along the line of trade and technical schools,

immediately following the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia, alarmed

the people of England, producing in 1882 what has been termed a

“Technical education scare.” The friends of Manual Training, acting upon

this popular and commercial anxiety, secured the passage of the

“Technical Instruction Act of 1889.” By the terms of this act the

schools organized under it were not to be trade-schools; and the

construction put upon the expression “Manual Instruction” makes the term

practically synonymous with our term Manual Training. The following

table shows the growth of these schools. The growth of cooking schools

is also statistically represented in the table.

----+-----------------------++---------------------------------

| MANUAL INSTRUCTION || SCHOOLS OF COOKERY AND

DATE| NUMBER OF SCHOOLS || DOMESTIC SCIENCE

----+-----------+-----------++-----------+-----------+---------

| | Number of || | |

| Number of | Schools || Number of | Number of |

| Schools |Established|| Schools | Schools |

|Existing in| During ||Existing in|Established|Number of

YEAR| Year Named| Year Named|| Year Named|During Year| Pupils

----+-----------+-----------++-----------+-----------+---------

1876| .. | .. || 29 | 29 | ..

1877| .. | .. || 125 | 96 | ..

1878| .. | .. || 178 | 53 | ..

1879| .. | .. || 223 | 45 | ..

1880| .. | .. || 276 | 53 | ..

1881| .. | .. || 299 | 23 | ..

1882| .. | .. || 347 | 48 | ..

1883| .. | .. || 420 | 73 | 1,251

1884| .. | .. || 541 | 121 | 7,597

1885| .. | .. || 715 | 174 | 17,754

1886| .. | .. || 812 | 97 | 24,526

1887| .. | .. || 921 | 109 | 30,431

1888| .. | .. || 1,086 | 165 | 42,159

1889| .. | .. || 1,355 | 269 | 57,539

1890| 30 | 30 || 1,554 | 199 | 66,820

1891| 145 | 115 || 1,796 | 242 | 68,291

1892| 285 | 140 || 2,113 | 317 | 90,794

1893| 430 | 145 || 2,419 | 306 | 108,192

1894| 677 | 247 || 2,634 | 215 | 122,325

1895| 949 | 272 || 2,775 | 141 | 134,930

| [136] | || | |

----+-----------+-----------++-----------+-----------+---------

[136] The number of pupils taking Manual Training cannot be given; as

an indication, however, it may be said that the London School Board

reports that in 1895, 30,508 boys were instructed in wood work in

London schools alone.

Governmental aid to drawing and Manual Training, when incorporated in

the curriculum of day grammar-grade schools, evening “continuation

schools,” and teachers’ training colleges, is bestowed through the

executive department, styled “The Science and Art Department.” Special

attention is paid to training teachers in the teachers’ colleges, so

that they will be able to give instruction in Manual Training. This is

specially true to grammar-grade teachers. In 1894 56 teachers’ colleges

were giving Manual Training to 4,434 teacher-pupils, the government

granting $13,290 in aid of such training. In 1895, the science and art

department, upon examinations aided 910 elementary Manual-training

schools, giving instruction to 67,470 pupils; the amount of aid granted

was $81,537.

In 1890 a law was passed empowering county councils to use the surplus

from duties on liquor to aid Manual-training and technical schools.

Many districts use the “liquor money” to establish purely

Manual-training schools, attaching them to municipal technical schools.

Generally, however, the “liquor money” goes to technical and art

schools. The report for 1895 shows $5,699,046 applied by local

authorities to technical instruction under the “liquor money” law.

Scotland secured in 1887 a law empowering local authorities to levy a

tax of a penny in the pound for the support of technical schools. In

1889 a similar law was passed for England. The Welsh law of 1889

organizing intermediate schools, recognizes and defines Manual Training.

These acts led up to the “liquor money” law referred to.

The City and Guilds of London Institute, organized in 1876, is the

principal private promoter of technical education in England. This

organization has founded three schools of its own, besides aiding

liberally similar schools in all parts of the kingdom. With the

exception of the well-known South-Kensington school, the Manchester

school, and the Birmingham schools, the technical schools of England, as

well as its Manual-training schools and kindergartens, are of recent

origin. Huddersfield Technical School, founded as a mechanics’ institute

in 1841, is another exceptionally old and especially good school of its

class.

MANUAL TRAINING IN SWITZERLAND.

As each canton regulates its own school system, the federal constitution

requiring only that education must be obligatory and free, the same

diversity of conditions exists in the cantons of Switzerland that is

found in the states of our own Union:--

Thus in the canton of Geneva, kindergartens and Manual-training schools

are a part of the public-school system, entirely supported by public

funds, and Manual Training is compulsory for all male pupils, in all

grades of the public schools. The gradual advance from kindergarten work

to primary, grammar, and high-school, makes a complete course in Manual

Training in the schools of Geneva--perhaps the most complete to be found

in any single public-school system. In other cantons, however,

kindergartens exist generally as private institutions, aided by public

funds and contributions from societies and individuals. The growth of

kindergartens in Switzerland by years cannot be shown from any data at

hand; the following table, however, shows the status at the date of most

recent available data:

PUPILS AND TEACHERS IN KINDERGARTENS OF SWITZERLAND

-----------------------+-------------+---------+---------

| Number of | |

| Separate |Number of|Number of

CANTON |Kindergartens| Pupils | Teachers

-----------------------+-------------+---------+---------

Zurich | 61 | 3,532 | 79

Berne | 62 | 2,550 | 63

Lucerne | 3 | 260 | 6

Uri | 1 | .. | ..

Schwytz | 4 | 91 | 4

Unterwalden | 2 | 85 | 2

Zug | 5 | 188 | 6

Freyburg | 10 | 912 | 10

Soleure | 8 | .. | ..

Basel Town | 32 | 2,117 | 46

Basel Land | 8 | 452 | 8

Appenzell Outer Rhodes | 16 | 843 | 19

Appenzell Inner Rhodes | 1 | 60 | 2

Grisons | 2 | 80 | 4

Aargau | 13 | .. | 13

Ticino | 23 | 1,351 | 43

Vaud | 160 | 4,000 | 160

Valais | 3 | 249 | 3

Neuchâtel | 36 | 997 | 36

Geneva | 65 | 3,872 | 85

-----------------------+-------------+---------+---------

Total | 515 | 21,639 | 589

-----------------------+-------------+---------+---------

Manual Training for boys was introduced into the Switzerland schools in

1884 by M. Rudin, who in that year instructed a class of forty teachers;

in 1891 over one hundred teachers were taking a Manual-training course

under his instruction. The following table shows the growth of Manual

Training to 1889, or five years after its introduction. More recent data

are unfortunately not available.

MANUAL-TRAINING CLASSES IN SWITZERLAND

------------+---------+---------+---------

|Number of|Number of|Number of

CANTON | Classes | Pupils | Teachers

------------+---------+---------+---------

Zurich | 19 | 305 | 13

Basel | 32 | 558 | 19

Saint Gall | 6 | 122 | 8

Schaffhausen| 2 | 120 | 2

Grisons | 2 | 48 | 2

Thurgau | 2 | 46 | 1

Soleure | .. | 40 | 1

Aargau | 1 | .. | 1

Berne | 5 | 175 | 5

------------+---------+---------+---------

Classes in Manual Training are reported from the cantons of Vaud,

Neuchâtel, Appenzell, Freyburg, and Glarus; but statistics are not

given. Manual Training for girls has been an integral part of the public

schools of Switzerland for many years, and in practically all of the

cantons this instruction is obligatory. The instruction consists in

knitting, sewing, mending, cutting, and fitting, with lectures on

house-keeping, and was introduced into the schools rather for its

industrial use than in recognition of its educational value. Switzerland

early recognized the importance of technical instruction and the

development of artisan skill. The Municipal School of Art at Geneva was

founded in 1751, and is intended as a school for working-men. It is the

oldest in Switzerland. The working-man’s school at Berne was founded in

1829, and, though a private institution, it is subsidized by the federal

government. The Polytechnic School at Zurich was founded by the federal

government in 1854. The Industrial School in that city, founded in 1873

by a society, is subsidized by the city, canton, and federal government.

“The Tecknikum” of Winterthur, probably the most complete of its class

of schools, was founded as a cantonal institution in 1873. The most

extensive are the technical institutions for the education of

working-men. The government began the establishment of these at the

beginning of this century. By 1865, ninety-one had been established; in

1889, eleven hundred and eighty-four of these schools, having 26,716

pupils, were reported. Trade-schools have sprung up everywhere, adapting

themselves to local industries and common needs. The School of

Watchmaking, at Fleurier, was founded as a private institution in 1850,

but has been municipal property since 1875. Municipal Schools of

Watchmaking exist at Chaux-de-Fonds, 1865; St. Imier, 1866; Locle, 1868;

Neuchâtel, 1871; Bienne, 1872; Porentruy, 1883, is a municipal and state

school, as is also that at Soleure, 1884. The Trade School for Women is

a private institution of Basel, founded in 1879; that of Berne, in 1888.

These schools are founded by Societies for the Advancement of Public

Utility, and teach women the millinery and dress-making trades, and give

instruction in household work, and all the means by which women can

become self-supporting. The societies have also founded numerous

House-keeping Schools, and Schools for Domestic Servants.

No attempt is here made to give a complete list of Switzerland’s

trade-schools, or the efforts being made to advance the skill of her

artisans. It is but proper, however, to mention the latest efforts to

overcome the difficulties growing out of the decline in apprenticeship.

In 1884 the Mannheim Trade Unions asked for a committee of investigation

into the condition of the small trades. The committee reported,

recommending the adoption of a suggestion received from the Karlsruhe

Trades Union. It was in effect, that master-workmen who are willing to

train apprentices systematically, according to regulations prescribed by

school authorities, shall be aided by the state treasury. In 1888 Baden

appropriated 5000 marks per annum for this purpose, and in 1892

twenty-two trades, or one hundred and twenty-two workshops, having one

hundred and eighty apprentices, were subsidized. In 1895 the

appropriation was increased. In 1898 the federal government of

Switzerland adopted the plan and purposes to greatly extend it. The

result of this is, practically, that every skilled master-workman who

desires may become to a certain extent a public-school teacher, and

every factory or workshop is, or may become, a school-house.

MANUAL TRAINING IN GERMANY.

The officials of the regular school systems of Germany, while for some

years past active in advancing trade-schools, have never recognized

Manual Training as worthy a place in the public schools, except as

regards female handiwork, which is everywhere a part of the course in

grammar and high schools for girls. Individuals, and “societies for the

promotion of practical education,” must therefore take the initiative in

Manual Training, and this results either in private schools, or in

persuading municipal or state authorities to annex a Manual-training

department to some public school.

Of the 328 Manual-training schools for boys existing in 1892, 126 were

independent schools, and 202 were annexes attached to other educational

institutions of various kinds. Special societies maintain 50 schools and

72 annexes, of the above total, while municipal authorities maintain 70

schools and state authorities 66 annexes. The growth by years since 1878

is shown in the following table:

-------------+-----------+-------------

ESTABLISHED |Independent| Annexes to

| Schools |Other Schools

-------------+-----------+-------------

Prior to 1878| .. | 26

1878 | 1 | ..

1879 | 3 | ..

1880 | 4 | 4

1881 | 9 | 6

1882 | 4 | 3

1883 | 2 | 6

1884 | 3 | 10

1885 | 2 | 11

1886 | 1 | 9

1887 | 8 | 11

1888 | 13 | 11

1889 | 19 | 23

1890 | 21 | 30

1891 | 27 | 36

1892 | 9 | 16

-------------+-----------+-------------

Total | 126 | 202

-------------+-----------+-------------

In 1892 there were 285 teachers and 7374 pupils in the independent

schools; 363 teachers and 6841 pupils in the annexes, or 648 teachers

and 14,235 pupils in both. While something had been done in Germany in

the way of trade-schools prior to that date, the general interest and

official zeal was created by the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia

in 1876, when Professor Reuleaux cabled to Bismarck, “Our goods are

cheap but wretched.” The various states began to inaugurate the

educational system that had made the manufactures of France so superior

to those of her competitor, and from 1879 to 1890 over 50 trade-schools

were established in Prussia.

Some of the German states, notably Saxony and Würtemberg, had early

established trade-schools. In 1837 three royal labor-schools were

established by the state of Saxony; one in 1838, and two in 1840.

Special schools for instruction in weaving, embroidery, and lace-making

were established; one in 1835, one in 1857, one in 1861, one in 1866,

and one in 1881. Of the 32 trade-schools in Saxony seven have been

established since 1886. In the 20 “_Kleinstaaten_” or so-called small

states of Germany there were, in 1895, 218 trade-schools having 2047

pupils. Practically all of these have been established since 1879. The

city of Berlin in 1895 reported 21 trade-schools with 8992 pupils, 332

teachers, and expenditures (exclusive of state aid) for these schools of

$129,102; besides $80,339 spent for trade education in so-called

“continuation” schools. In February, 1897, the number of students

attending these schools in Berlin was 14,750, or 1 per cent. of the

population.

It will be interesting, in view of the antagonistic attitude of the

school authorities to the introduction of Manual-training methods in

public schools from kindergartens up, to note how long Germany will

follow the trade-school experiment of France, without learning, as did

France, to fit her boys for the trade-schools by putting their little

hands to school in the kindergarten, the primary school, and so on

through grammar and high school; so that by the time the trade-school

comes in to differentiate and accentuate special skill, the boy will

have learned equally the use and control of muscle and of mind.

The highest results of trade-schools upon a nation’s manufactures, and

therefore upon its exports and its wealth, cannot be realized until the

Manual-training school has furnished the educated hand as raw material

for the trade-school to work upon. The nation that begins with the

trade-school first will have a long and expensive lesson to learn.

France learned it. Will Germany require as long and expensive a tuition?

Germany has, however, the advantage, in that many of her private

citizens, and “societies for practical education,” are, as usual, far

more intelligent than her school authorities.

MANUAL TRAINING IN FRANCE.

The thorough reorganization of the public schools of France by the law

of June 16, 1881, renders any reference to the prior system unnecessary

here.

By this law primary education was rendered absolutely free; and by the

law of March 28, 1882, compulsory education for all children between the

ages of 6 and 13 years was established. The law of October 30, 1886,

systematized the public schools, classifying and grading them, and

fixing a curriculum. Kindergartens admitting pupils from the ages of 2

to 6 years were made general by this law, and in 1886-87 there were 3597

kindergartens with 543,839 pupils. In 1895 this number had grown to 4734

kindergartens, 714,734 pupils, and 9199 teachers, all women.

The government programme contemplates that Manual Training proper shall

begin where its elements in the kindergarten leave off, and be continued

throughout the four grades of primary instruction. But the full purpose

of the law seems slow of realization, for in 1890, four years after the

passage of the law, only 400 shop-schools of primary grade had been

established, 101 of these in Paris. Manual Training has been compulsory

in all public high-schools of France since 1886. These may be either

independent schools or classes annexed to an elementary school. In the

latter case they are called _cours complémentaires_. In 1886 there were

16,217 boys and 5150 girls in public high-schools; in 1895 there were

21,996 boys and 8660 girls, a rise of 35 per cent. for boys and of 68

per cent. for girls in the ten years.

In the _cours complémentaires_ there were 11,518 boys and 5223 girls in

1895, an increase of 37 per cent. for boys and 26 per cent. for girls

over the figures for 1886. This result was not, however, accomplished at

once. There had been the usual struggle for Manual-training schools

before the law of 1886 made them universal and compulsory. The school

authorities of Paris introduced sewing into the public schools in 1867,

and in 1873 M. Salicis began the introduction of Manual Training into

what we would term grammar-schools. Shops were annexed to the boys’

school in the Rue Tournefort in 1873. From that time until the general

law of 1886 the growth was gradual. There are in France a large number

of Manual Apprenticeship schools. They are a kind of primary

trade-school. Prior to 1880 various cities, as Paris, Havre, Rheims,

etc., had founded apprenticeship schools. Private schools of the same

character had been established by individuals and industrial

associations. The law of 1880 organized these efforts, assimilated all

these institutions, and brought them under the control of the public.

The tendency to bring all industrial institutions, whether classical,

manual, trade, or technical, under control of the state has been very

marked since 1880 in France, and still more so since the law of 1886. Of

the six industrial and house-keeping schools for girls in Paris four

were founded by the city; the others were private institutions absorbed

by the city--one in 1884, the other in 1886. They are of high-school

grade, and, in addition to general domestic economy, teach special

trades to women, such as millinery and artificial flower work. The

nation maintains high-class trade and technical schools in all

industries important to her commerce. And there can be no doubt that the

excellence of her manufactures has its origin in the large number,

variety, and excellence of her free schools. The National School of

Watch-makers was founded in 1848 by the government of Savoy, and

reorganized by the French government in 1890. The National Schools of

Arts and Trades, four in number, are the oldest and most important of

the public institutes of technology and trades. The first of these was

founded as a private institution in 1780, and became national property

during the First Republic. The second of these schools was established

in 1804, the third in 1843, and the fourth completed in 1892. These

schools instruct fully in the mechanical arts, the purpose being to

educate at public expense thoroughly equipped superintendents and

masters of workshops for industrial establishments. Such, too, is the

purpose of the Central School of Arts and Manufactures at Paris, which,

founded as a private institution in 1829, became the property of the

state in 1857.

Schools of Mining, such as the one at Houghton, Michigan, are located,

one at Paris (National High-school of Mines); one at St. Étienne (School

of Mines); and schools for master miners at Alais and at Douai. The

National Conservatory of Arts and Trades, founded by the National

Convention in 1794, began in 1819, under special ordinance of the

government, gratuitous courses of instruction upon the application of

the sciences and industrial arts. It is to industrial education what the

College of France is to classicism and “pure science”--whatever that may

mean. No attempt is here made to give a complete list of the trade and

technical schools of France, whether public or private. They are

exceedingly numerous, and cover every phase of industry. The purpose

here, however, is to call attention to the fact that France began with

trade-schools, and, after a hundred years of experimenting with trade

and technical institutions, she reached the wisdom embodied in the laws

of 1886 and 1890, which provide for the training of the hand of the

child in the kindergarten and continuously throughput the school age,

thus furnishing aptest possible pupils for her higher trade and

technical institutes, and the greatest possible development of skill for

her industries. The character of her manufactures shows the importance

of the scholar in industry.

MANUAL TRAINING IN ITALY.

Discussions in 1882 and 1885 led to an official adoption of Manual

Training in normal schools in 1892, when twenty selected teachers were

given one month’s gratuitous training. In 1893 Sloyd was made obligatory

in the practice department of all normal schools. In 1893, 34 men and 34

women teachers were taking the Manual-training course at Repatrausone.

The school authorities in Italy acting upon the English idea of teaching

Manual Training to the teachers first, and so interest them that they

will introduce Sloyd into the elementary schools of their districts.

Beyond the statement that Manual Training was experimentally taught to

400 pupils in Genoa in 1892, no data is at present obtainable as to the

success of this plan. There are 194 industrial schools, seeking to teach

special industries. In 1887 there were 419 technical schools, of more or

less importance, and 74 institutes of secondary technology. With the

exception of the Aldini-Valeriani institute in Bologna, founded in 1834,

and the _Scuola Professionale_ at Foggia, established by the state in

1872, the trade and technical schools of Italy seem to be of recent

origin.

MANUAL TRAINING IN BELGIUM.