IMPORTS AND EXPORTS.--LIVE STOCK
It is a curious fact that the barriers which protected the British
farmer were thrown down shortly before he became by unforeseen causes
exposed to the competition of the whole world. Down to 1846 Germany
supplied more than half the wheat that was imported into England,
Denmark sent more than Russia, and the United States hardly any.
Other competitors who have since arisen were then unknown. By the end
of the next decade Russia and the United States sent large
quantities, as may be gathered from the following table [710]:
ANNUAL AVERAGE IMPORTS OF WHEAT AND FLOUR FOR
THE SEVEN YEARS 1859-1865.
Cwt.
Russia 5,350,861
Denmark and the Duchies 969,890
Germany 6,358,229
France 3,828,691
Spain 331,463
Wallachia and Moldavia 295,475
Turkish dominions, not otherwise specified 528,568
Egypt 1,423,193
Canada 2,223,809
United States 10,080,911
Other countries 1,036,968
In the years 1871-5 the United States held the first place, Russia
came next, and Germany third with only about one-sixth of the
American imports, and Canada was running Germany close. Other
formidable competitors were now arising, and by 1901 the chief
importing countries[711] were:
Cwt.
Argentina 8,309,706
Russia[712] 2,580,805
United States of America 66,855,025
Australia 6,197,019
Canada 8,577,960
India 3,341,500
Since then the imports of wheat and flour from the United States have
decreased, and in 1904 India took the first place, Russia the second,
Argentina the third, and the United States the fourth. However, in
1907 the United States sent more than any other country, followed by
Argentina, India, Canada, Russia, and Australia, in the order named.
It is probable in the near future that the imports from the United
States will decline considerably, for in the last quarter of a
century its population has increased 68 per cent. and its wheat area
only 25 per cent. On the other hand, the population of Canada
increased 33 per cent. and her wheat area 158 per cent. in the same
time; while in Argentina an addition of 70 per cent. to the
population has been accompanied by an increase of the wheat area from
half a million to fourteen million acres. It is probable also that
India and Australia will continue to send large supplies, and there
are said to be vast wheat-growing tracts opened up by the Siberian
Railway, so that there seems little chance of wheat rising very much
in price for many years to come, apart from exceptional causes such
as bad seasons and 'corners'.
McCulloch, writing in 1843,[713] says that, except Denmark and
Ireland, no country of Western Europe 'has been in the habit of
exporting cattle'. Danish cattle, however, could rarely be sold in
London at a profit, and Irish cattle alone disturbed the equanimity
of the English farmer.
For a few years after the repeal of the corn laws and of the
prohibition of imports of live stock, the imports of live stock, meat,
and dairy produce were, except from Ireland, almost nil[714]; since
then they have increased enormously, and in 1907 the value of live
cattle, sheep, and pigs imported was £8,273,640, not so great,
however, as some years before, owing to restrictions imposed; but this
decrease has been made up by the increase in the imports of meat,
which in 1907 touched their highest figure of 18.751,555 cwt, valued
at the large sum of £41,697,905.[715]
Forty years ago hardly any foreign butter or cheese was imported;
to-day it is perhaps no exaggeration to say that not one hundredth
part of the butter eaten in London is British; in 1907 the amount of
butter imported was 4,310,156 cwt., and of cheese, 2,372,233 cwt. The
increase in the imports was largely assisted by the fact that in the
last half of the nineteenth century English farmers had directed their
attention chiefly to meat-producing animals and neglected the milch
cow. However, of late years great efforts have been made to recover
lost ground, and in England the number of cows and heifers in milk or
in calf has increased from 1,567,789 in 1878 to 2,020,340 in 1906.
The regulation of the imports and exports of live stock did not
concern the legislature so early as those of corn. One of the earliest
statutes on the subject is II Hen. VII, c. 13, which forbade the
export of horses and of mares worth more than 6s. 8d., because many
had been conveyed out of the land, so that there were few left for its
defence and the price of horses had been thereby increased. A
subsequent statute, 22 Hen. VIII, c. 7, says this law was disobeyed by
many who secretly exported horses, so it was enacted that no one
should export a horse without a licence; and 1 Edw. VI, c. 5,
continued this. But after this date the export of horses does not seem
to have occupied the attention of Parliament.
22 Hen. VIII, c. 7, also forbade the export of cattle and sheep
without a licence because so many had been carried out of the realm
that victual was scarce and cattle dear. By 22 Car. II, c. 13, oxen
might be exported on payment of a duty of 1s. each, the last statute
on the subject.
As for sheep, their export without the king's licence had been
forbidden by 3 Hen. VI, c. 2, because men had been in the habit of
taking them to Flanders and other countries, where they sheared them
and sold the wool and the mutton. 8 Eliz., c. 3, forbade their export,
and 13 and 14 Car. II, c. 18, declared the export of sheep and wool a
felony.
The importation of cattle was forbidden by 15 Car. II, c. 7, which
stated that the 'comeing in of late of vast numbers of cattle already
fatted' had caused 'a very great part of the land of this kingdom to
be much fallen and like dayly to fall more in their rents and values';
therefore every head of great cattle imported was to pay 20s. to the
king, 10s. to the informer, and 10s. to the poor after July 1, 1664.
By 18 Car. II, c. 2, the importation of cattle was declared a common
nuisance, and if any cattle, sheep, or swine were imported they were
to be seized and forfeited. By 32 Car. II, c. 2, this was made
perpetual and continued in force till 1842, though it was repealed as
to Ireland, as we have seen.[716]
It appears from the laws dealing with the matter that in the time of
the Plantagenets England exported butter and cheese. In the reign of
Edward III they were merchandise of the staple, and therefore when
exported had to go to Calais when the staple was fixed there. This
caused great damage, it is said, to divers persons in England, for the
butter and cheese would not keep until buyers came; therefore 3 Hen.
VI, c 4, enacted that the chancellor might grant licence to export
butter and cheese to other places than to the staple.
The regulation of the export of wool frequently occupied the attention
of Parliament It has been noticed[717] that the laws of Edgar fixed
its price for export, and Henry of Huntingdon mentions its export in
the twelfth century, while during the reign of Edward I it was for
some time forbidden except by licence, which led to its being smuggled
out in wine casks.[718] The _Hundred Rolls_ give the names of several
Italian merchants who were engaged in buying wool for export, the
ecclesiastical houses, especially the Cistercians, furnishing a great
quantity, and the chief port then for the wool trade was Boston, The
export was again prohibited in 1337, the great object being to make
the foreigner pay dearly for our staple product: an object which was
certainly effected, for when Queen Philippa redeemed her crown from
pawn at Cologne in 1342 by a quantity of English wool, 1s. 3-1/2d. a
lb. was the price, and it was even said to sell in Flanders at 3s. a
lb., a price which, expressed in modern money, seems fabulous.[719]
However, in the next reign English wool began to decline in price,
owing probably to changes in fashion, but the long wools maintained
their superiority and their export was forbidden by Henry VI and
Elizabeth.[720]
In the reign of James I it was confessed 'that the cloth of this
kingdom hath wanted both estimation and vent in foreign parts, and
that the wools are fallen from their stated values', so that export
was prohibited entirely; and 13 and 14 Car. II, c. 18, declared the
export of wool a felony, though 7 and 8 Will. III, c. 28, says this
did not deter people from exporting it, so that the law was made more
stringent on the subject, and export continued to be forbidden until
1825.[721] In a letter written in 1677 the fall of rents in England,
which had caused the value of estates to sink from twenty-one to
sixteen or seventeen years' purchase, is ascribed mainly to the low
price of wool,[722] owing to the prohibition of export and increased
imports from Ireland and Spain. It was now, said the writer, worth 7d.
instead of 12d., and a great quantity of Spanish wool was being sold
in England at low rates. These 'low rates' were 2s. and 2s. 2d. a lb.
for the best wool, whereas in 1660 the best Spanish wool was 4s. and
4s. 2d. a lb.
We have seen[723] that Spanish wool was imported into England in the
Middle Ages. In 1677, according to Smith,[724] England imported 2,000
bags of 200 lb. each from Spain[725]; in the three years 1709-11,
14,000 bags; in the three years 1713-14, 20,000 bags; and about 1730
some came from Jamaica, Maryland, and Virginia, and down to 1802
imports were free.[726] In that year a duty of 5s. 3d. a cwt. was
imposed, which in 1819 was raised to 56s. a cwt., which, however, was
reduced to 1d. a lb. on 1s. wool and 1/2d. a lb. on wool under 1s. in
1824. In 1825 colonial wool was admitted free, and in 1844 the duty
taken off altogether, and imports from our colonies and foreign
countries soon assumed enormous proportions. Down to 1814 nearly all
our imports of wool came from Spain; after that the greater part came
from Germany and the East Indies; but Russia and India soon began to
send large quantities, and in recent times Australasia has been our
chief importer, in 1907 sending 321,470,554 lb., while New Zealand
sent 158,406,255 lb. out of a total import of 764,286,625 lb. About
1800 our imports of wool were 8,609,368 lb.![727] Of our enormous
imports of wool, however, a very large quantity is re-exported.
In 1828 it was stated before the House of Lords that English wool had
deteriorated considerably during the previous thirty years, owing
chiefly to the farmer increasing the weight of the carcase and the
quantity of wool, so that fineness of fleece was injured. The great
extension of turnips and the introduction of a large breed of sheep
also appeared to have lessened the value of the fleece, yet English
wool to-day still commands a high price in comparison with that of
other countries, though the price in recent years has declined
greatly; in 1871 it was 1s. 5-1/2d. a lb., in 1872 1s. 9-1/2d., in
1873 1s. 7d. In 1907 Leicester wool was 12-1/2d., Southdown 14d. to
15d., and Lincoln 12d. a lb.; Australian at the same date being 11d.,
and New Zealand 11-1/2d.
The fruit-grower has also had to contend with an enormous foreign
supply, which nearly always has a better appearance than that grown in
these islands, though the quality is often inferior. In 1860 apples
were included with other raw fruits in the returns, so that the exact
figures are not given, but apparently about 500,000 cwt. came in; by
1903 this had increased to 4,569,546 bushels, and in 1907 3,526,232
bushels arrived. Enormous foreign supplies of grapes, pears, plums,
cherries, and even strawberries have also combined to keep the home
price down.
The decrease in the acreage of hops, from its maximum of 71,789 acres
in 1878 to 44,938 in 1907, was ascribed by the recent Commission to
the lessening demand for beer in England, the demand for lighter kinds
of beer, and the use of hop substitutes, and not to increase in
foreign competition; which the following figures seem to bear out:
IMPORTS OF HOPS.
Cwt.
1861 149,176
1867 296,117
1869 322,515
1870 127,853
1875 256,444
1877 (the year before the record acreage planted) 250,039
1879 262,765
1903 113,998
1904 313,667
1905 108,953
1906 232,619
1907 202,324
In recent years they have been a loss to the grower; as the average
crop is a little under 9 cwt. per acre, and the total cost of growing
and marketing from £35 to £45 an acre, it is obvious that prices of
about £3 per cwt., which have ruled lately, are unremunerative.
However disastrous to the farmer and landowner, the increased
quantities and low prices of food thus obtained have been of
inestimable benefit to the crowded population of England. In 1851 the
whole corn supply, both English and foreign, afforded 317 lb. per
annum per head of the population of 27 millions. In 1889 the total
supply gave 400 lb. per head to a population of 37-1/2 millions at a
greatly reduced cost.[728] The supply of animal food presents similar
contrasts; in 1851 each person obtained 90 lb., in 1889 115 lb. The
average value of the imports of food per head in the period 1859-65
was about 25s.; in the period 1901-7, 65s.[729] The products which
have stood best against foreign competition are fresh milk, hay and
straw, the softer kinds of fruit that will not bear carriage well, and
stock of the finest quality. These islands still maintain their great
reputation for the excellent quality of their live stock, and exports,
chiefly of pedigree animals, touched their highest figure in 1906:
Average per
No. Total Value. head.
£ £
Cattle 5,616 327,335 58
Sheep 12,716 204,061 16
Pigs 2,221 20,292 9
1877.[730]
Acreage under crops and
grass in England 24,312,033
_Corn crops._
Wheat 2,987,129
Barley or bere 2,000,531
Oats 1,489,999
Rye 48,604
Beans 470,153
Peas 306,356
---------
Total 7,302,772
_Green crops._
Potatoes 303,964
Turnips and swedes 1,495,885
Mangels 348,289
Carrots 14,445
Cabbage, kohl rabi, and rape 176,218
Vetches and other green crops 420,373
---------
Total 2,759,174
Flax 7,210
Hops 71,239
Barefallow or uncropped arable 576,235
Clover, sainfoin, and
grasses under rotation 2,737,387
----------
Total arable 13,454,017
Permanent grass, exclusive
of mountain or heath land 10,858,016
----------
24,312,033
1907.
Total acreage under
crops and grass 24,585,455
_Corn crops._
Wheat 1,537,208
Barley 1,411,163
Oats 1,967,682
Rye 53,837
Beans 296,186
Peas 164,326
-----------
Total 5,430,402
Potatoes 381,891
Turnips and swedes 1,058,292
Mangels 436,193
Cabbage 65,262
Kohl rabi 20,572
Rape 79,913
Vetches or tares 145,067
Lucerne 63,379
Hops 44,938
Small fruit 73,372
Clover, sainfoin, and
grasses under rotation 2,611,722
Other crops 117,914
Bare fallow 248,678
----------
Total arable 10,777,595
Permanent grass 13,807,860
----------
24,585,455
The small fruit was divided into:
Strawberries 23,623
Raspberries 6,479-1/2
Currants and gooseberries 24,178-3/4
Others 19,090
---------------
73,371-1/4
As arable land has suffered much more than grass from foreign
imports, it was inevitable that this country should become more
pastoral; in 1877 the arable land of England amounted to 13,454,017
acres, and permanent grass to 10,858,016. By 1907 this was
practically reversed, the permanent grass amounting to 13,807,860
acres and the arable to 10,777,595. In corn crops the great decrease
has been in the acreage of wheat, but barley, beans, and peas have
also diminished, while oats have increased. In green crops there has
been a great decrease in turnips and swedes, compensated to some
extent by an increase in mangels, and a sad decrease in hops. The
changes in thirty years can be gathered from the tables of the Board
of Agriculture given on p. 331.
In 1877 no separate return of small fruit was made, but in 1878 the
orchards of England, including fruit trees of any kind, covered
161,228 acres, which by 1907 had grown to a total area under fruit of
294,910 acres, among which were 168,576 acres of apples, 8,365 of
pears, 11,952 of cherries, and 14,571 of plums. Much of the small
fruit is included in the orchards.
'Other crops' were further divided into:
Acres.
Carrots 11,897
Onions 3,416
Buckwheat 5,226
Flax 355
Others 97,020
-------
117,914
The average yield per acre of various crops in England for the ten
years 1897-1906 was:
Bushels.
Wheat 31.1[731]
Barley 32.88
Oats 41.38
Beans 29.28
Peas 27.15
Tons.
Potatoes 5.74
Turnips and swedes 12.19
Mangels 19.24
Cwt.
Hay from clover, and grasses under rotation 29.40
Hay from permanent grass 24.33
Hops 8.81
The live stock in 1877 consisted of:
Horses used solely for purposes of agriculture 761,089
Unbroken horses and mares kept solely for breeding 309,119
---------
1,070,208
---------
Cattle. Cows and heifers in milk or in calf 1,557,574
Two years old and over 1,072,407
Under two years of age 1,349,669
---------
3,979,650
---------
Sheep 18,330,377
Pigs 2,114,751
In 1907:
Horses used solely for agriculture 863,817
Unbroken 325,330
---------
1,189,147
---------
Cattle. Cows and heifers in milk or in calf 2,032,284
Two years old and over 1,043,034
Under two years of age 1,912,413
---------
4,987,731
---------
Sheep[732] 15,098,928
Pigs 2,257,136
The decrease in sheep and the increase in cattle and horses (though
of late years the latter have shown a tendency to decrease) are to be
noted.
The number of live stock per 1,000 acres of cultivated land in the
United Kingdom and other countries is:
Country. Cattle. Sheep. Pigs. Total.
United Kingdom 247 619 76 942
Belgium 411 54 240 705
Denmark 264 126 209 599
France 167 207 88 462
Germany 221 90 216 527
Holland 322 116 164 602
It will be observed that in cattle the United Kingdom comes out
badly, but is pre-eminent in sheep and has the largest total; though,
as cattle require more acreage, Belgium nearly equals its aggregate
produce for 1,000 acres.
As regards prices at the two periods 1871-5 and 1906-7, if we take
100 as the price at the former the following are the prices at the
latter:
Beef 71
Mutton 93
Bacon 121
Wheat 56
Butter 97
Cheese 100
Turning once more to the occupation of land, the percentage of land
occupied by owners in 1907 in England was 12.4, the rest being
occupied by tenants, and the following is a statement of the number
of agricultural holdings of various sizes in 1875 and 1907:
1875.[733]
50 acres 50 to 100 to 300 to 500 to Above
and 100 300 500 1,000 1,000
under. acres. acres. acres. acres. acres.
293,469 44,842 58,450 11,245 3,871 463
1907.
Above 1 and Above 5 and Above 50 and Above
not exceeding not exceeding not exceeding 300
5 acres. 50 acres. 300 acres. acres.
80,921 165,975 109,927 14,652
FOOTNOTES:
[710] McCulloch, _Commercial Dictionary_ (1882), p. 449.
[711] See _Returns of the Board of Agriculture_.
[712] The imports from Russia were that year exceptionally small.
[713] McCulloch, _Commercial Dictionary_ (1852), p. 274.
[714] In 1860 the number of live cattle imported was 104,569; in 1897,
618,321; in 1907, 472,015.
[715] In 1860 the quantity of beef imported was 283,332 cwt.; in 1907,
6,033,736 cwt.
[716] See above.
[717] Supra, p. 38.
[718] Cunningham, _Industry and Commerce_, i. 176, 192; _Hundred
Rolls_, i. 405, 414.
[719] Burnley, _History of Wool_, p. 65.
[720] Ibid. p. 70.
[721] Cf. supra, p. 172.
[722] Smith, _Memoirs of Wool_, i. 222.
[723] See above.
[724] Smith, _Memoirs of Wool_, ii. 252.
[725] McPherson, _Annals of Commerce_, iii. 156.
[726] McCulloch, _Commercial Dictionary_, p. 1431. For imports see
Appendix, p. 354.
[727] Of which 6,000,000 lb. came from Spain. The first Spanish Merino
sheep were introduced into Australia in 1797. See Cunningham,
_Industry and Commerce_, ii. 538, and cf. below.
[728] _R.A.S.E. Journal_ (1890), p. 29.
[729] _Board of Agriculture Returns_ (1907), p. 187.
[730] Cf. Appendix IV.
[731] In 1907 the average wheat crop was 33.96 bushels per acre in
England and 39.18 in Scotland. The average yield per acre of wheat in
Holland is 34.1 bushels; Belgium, 34; Germany, 30.3; Denmark, 28.2
France, 197.
[732] The total number of sheep in Great Britain in 1877 was
28,161,164; in 1907, 26,115,455. In 1688 Youatt estimates it at
12,000,000; In 1741, 17,000,000; in 1800 26,000,000; in 1830
32,000,000.
[733] Unfortunately the class 50 acres and under at this time included
holdings _under_ one acre, so that it is useless for the comparison of
the number of small holdings at the two dates, for in 1907 none appear
under one acre.