[1] _Piers Plowman_ has been so long attributed as a whole to
Langland (q.v.), that in spite of modern analytical criticism it is
most conveniently discussed under that name.
ENGLISHRY (_Englescherie_), a legal name given, in the reign of William
the Conqueror, to the presentment of the fact that a person slain was an
Englishman. If an unknown man was found slain, he was presumed to be a
Norman, and the hundred was fined accordingly, unless it could be proved
that he was English. Englishry, if established, excused the hundred. Dr
W. Stubbs (_Constitutional History_, i. 196) says that possibly similar
measures were taken by King Canute. Englishry was abolished in 1340.
See _Select Cases from the Coroners' Rolls, 1265-1413_, ed. C. Gross,
Selden Society (London, 1896).
ENGRAVING, the process or result of the action implied by the verb "to
engrave" or mark by incision, the marks (whether for inscriptive,
pictorial or decorative purposes) being produced, not by simply staining
or discolouring the material (as with paint, pen or pencil), but by
cutting into or otherwise removing a portion of the substance. In the
case of pictures, the engraved surface is reproduced by printing; but
this is only one restricted sense of "engraving," since the term
includes seal-engraving (where a cast is taken), and also the chased
ornamentation of plate or gems, &c.
The word itself is derived from an O. Fr. _engraver_ (not to be confused
with the same modern French word used for the running of a boat's keel
into the beach, or for the sticking of a cart's wheels in the mud,--from
_greve_, Provencal _grava_, sands of the sea or river shore; cf. Eng.
"gravel"); it was at one time supposed that the Gr. _[Greek: graphein]_,
to write, was etymologically connected, but this view is not now
accepted, and (together with "grave," meaning either to engrave, or the
place where the dead are buried) the derivation is referred to a common
Teutonic form signifying "to dig" (O. Eng. _grafan_, Ger. _graben_). The
modern French _graver_, to engrave, is a later adoption. The idea of a
furrow, by digging or cutting, is thus historically associated with an
engraving, which may properly include the rudest marks cut into any
substance. In old English literature it included carving and sculpture,
from which it has become convenient to differentiate the terminology;
and the ancients who chiselled their writing on slabs of stone were
really "engraving." The word is not applicable, therefore, either
strictly to lithography (q.v.), nor to any of the photographic processes
(see PROCESS), except those in which the surface of the plate is
actually eaten into or lowered. In the latter case, too, it is
convenient to mark a distinction and to ignore the strict analogy. In
modern times the term is, therefore, practically restricted--outside the
spheres of gem-engraving and seal-engraving (see GEM), or the inscribing
or ornamenting of stone, plate, glass, &c.--to the art of making
original pictures (i.e. by the draughtsman himself, whether copies of
an original painting or not), either by incised lines on metal plates
(see LINE-ENGRAVING), or by the corrosion of the lines with acid (see
ETCHING), or by the roughening of a metal surface without actual lines
(see MEZZOTINT), or by cutting a wood surface away so as to leave lines
in relief (see WOOD-ENGRAVING); the result in each case may be called
generically an engraving, and in common parlance the term is applied,
though incorrectly, to the printed reproduction or "print."
Of these four varieties of engraving--line-engraving, etching, mezzotint
or wood-engraving--the woodcut is historically the earliest.
Line-engraving is now practically obsolete, while etching and mezzotint
have recently come more and more to the front. To the draughtsman the
difference in technical handling in each case has in most cases some
relation to his own artistic impulse, and to his own feeling for beauty.
A line engraver, as P.G. Hamerton said, will not see or think like an
etcher, nor an etcher like an engraver in mezzotint. Each kind, with its
own sub-varieties, has its peculiar effect and attraction. A real
knowledge of engraving can only be attained by a careful study and
comparison of the prints themselves, or of accurate facsimiles, so that
books are of little use except as guides to prints when the reader
happens to be unaware of their existence, or else for their explanation
of technical processes. The value of the prints varies not only
according to the artist, but also according to the fineness of the
impression, and the "state" (or stage) in the making of the plate, which
may be altered from time to time. "Proofs" may also be taken from the
plate, and even touched up by the artist, in various stages and various
degrees of fineness of impression.
The department of art-literature which classifies prints is called
_Iconography_, and the classifications adopted by iconographers are of
the most various kinds. For example, if a complete book were written on
Shakespearian iconography it would contain full information about all
prints illustrating the life and works of Shakespeare, and in the same
way there may be the iconography of a locality or of a single event.
The history of engraving is a part of iconography, and various
histories of the art exist in different languages. In England W.Y.
Ottley wrote an _Early History of Engraving_, published in two volumes
4to (1816), and began what was intended to be a series of notices on
engravers and their works. The facilities for the reproduction of
engravings by the photographic processes have of late years given an
impetus to iconography. One of the best modern writers on the subject
was Georges Duplessis, the keeper of prints in the national library of
France. He wrote a _History of Engraving in France_ (1888), and
published many notices of engravers to accompany the reproductions by
M. Amand Durand. He is also the author of a useful little manual
entitled _Les Merveilles de la gravure_ (1871). Jansen's work on the
origin of wood and plate engraving, and on the knowledge of prints of
the 15th and 16th centuries, was published at Paris in two volumes 8vo
in 1808. Among general works see Adam Bartsch, _Le Peintre-graveur_
(1803-1843); J.D. Passavant, _Le Peintre-graveur_ (1860-1864); P.G.
Hamerton, _Graphic Arts_ (1882); William Gilpin, _Essay on Prints_
(1781); J. Maberly, _The Print Collector_ (1844); W.H. Wiltshire,
_Introduction to the Study and Collection of Ancient Prints_ (1874);
F. Wedmore, _Fine Prints_ (1897). See also the lists of works given
under the separate headings for LINE-ENGRAVING, ETCHING, MEZZOTINT and
WOOD-ENGRAVING.
ENGROSSING, a term used in two legal senses: (1) the writing or copying
of a legal or other document in a fair large hand (_en gros_), and (2)
the buying up of goods wholesale in order to sell at a higher price so
as to establish a monopoly. The word "engross" has come into English
ultimately from the Late Lat. _grossus_, thick, stout, large, through
the A. Fr. _engrosser_, Med. Lat. _ingrossare_, to write in a large
hand, and the French phrase _en gros_, in gross, wholesale. Engrossing
and the kindred practices of forestalling and regrating were early
regarded as serious offences in restraint of trade, and were punishable
both at common law and by statute. They were of more particular
importance in relation to the distribution of corn supplies. The statute
of 1552 defines engrossing as "buying corn growing, or any other corn,
grain, butter, cheese, fish or other dead victual, with _intent to sell
the same again_." The law forbade all dealing in corn as an article of
ordinary merchandise, apart from questions of foreign import or export.
The theory was that when corn was plentiful in any district it should be
consumed at what it would bring, without much respect to whether the
next harvest might be equally abundant, or to what the immediate wants
of an adjoining province of the same country might be. The first statute
on the subject appears to have been passed in the reign of Henry III.,
though the general policy had prevailed before that time both in popular
prejudice and in the feudal custom. The statute of Edward VI. (1552) was
the most important, and in it the offences were elaborately defined; by
this statute any one who bought corn to sell it again was made liable to
two months' imprisonment with forfeit of the corn. A second offence was
punished by six months' imprisonment and forfeit of double the value of
the corn, and a third by the pillory and utter ruin. Severe as this
statute was, liberty was given by it to transport corn from one part of
the country under licence to men of approved probity, which implied that
there was to be some buying of corn to sell it again and elsewhere.
Practically "engrossing" came to be considered buying wholesale to sell
again wholesale. "Forestalling" was different, and the statutes were
directed against a class of dealers who went forward and bought or
contracted for corn and other provisions, and spread false rumours in
derogation of the public and open markets appointed by law, to which our
ancestors appear to have attached much importance, and probably in these
times not without reason. The statute of Edward VI. was modified by many
subsequent enactments, particularly by the statute of 1663, by which it
was declared that there could be no "engrossing" of corn when the price
did not exceed 48s. per quarter, and which Adam Smith recognized, though
it adhered to the variable and unsatisfactory element of price, as
having contributed more to the progress of agriculture than any previous
law in the statute book. In 1773 these injurious statutes were
abolished, but the penal character of "engrossing" and "forestalling"
had a root in the common law of England, as well as in the popular
prejudice, which kept the evil alive to a later period. As the public
enlightenment increased the judges were at no loss to give
interpretations of the common law consistent with public policy.
Subsequent to the act of 1773, for example, there was a case of
conviction and punishment for engrossing hops, _R._ v. _Waddington_,
1800, 1 East, 143, but though this was deemed a sound and proper
judgment at the time, yet it was soon afterwards overthrown in other
cases, on the ground that buying wholesale to sell wholesale was not in
"restraint of trade" as the former judges had assumed.
In 1800, one John Rusby was indicted for having bought ninety quarters
of oats at 41s. per quarter and selling thirty of them at 43s. the same
day. Lord Kenyon, the presiding judge, animadverted strongly against the
repealing act of 1773, and addressed the jury strongly against the
accused. Rusby was heavily fined, but, on appeal, the court was equally
divided as to whether engrossing, forestalling and regrating were still
offences at common law. In 1844, all the statutes, English, Irish and
Scottish, defining the offences, were repealed and with them the
supposed common law foundation. In the United States there have been
strong endeavours by the government to suppress trusts and combinations
for engrossing. (See also TRUSTS; MONOPOLY.)
AUTHORITIES.--D. Macpherson, _Annals of Commerce_ (1805); J.S.
Girdler, _Observations on Forestalling, Regrating and Ingrossing_
(1800); W. Cunningham, _Growth of English Industry and Commerce_; W.J.
Ashley, _Economic History_; Sir J. Stephen, _History of Criminal Law_;
Murray, _New English Dictionary_.
ENGYON, an ancient town of the interior of Sicily, a Cretan colony,
according to legend, and famous for an ancient temple of the Matres
which aroused the greed of Verres. Its site is uncertain; some
topographers have identified it with Gangi, a town 20 m. S.S.E. of
Cefalu, but only on the ground of the similarity of the two names.
See C. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, v. 2568.
ENID, a city and the county-seat of Garfield county, Oklahoma, U.S.A.,
about 55 m. N.W. of Guthrie. Pop. (1900) 3444; (1907) 10,087 (355 of
negro descent); (1910) 13,799. Enid is served by the St Louis & San
Francisco, the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, and the Chicago, Rock Island
& Pacific railways, and by several branch lines, and is an important
railway centre. It is the seat of the Oklahoma Christian University
(1907; co-educational). Enid is situated in a flourishing agricultural
and stock-raising region, of which it is the commercial centre, and has
various manufactures, including lumber, brick, tile and flour. Natural
gas was discovered near the city in 1907. Enid was founded in 1893 and
was chartered as a city in the same year.
ENIGMA (Gr. [Greek: ainigma]), a riddle or puzzle, especially a form of
verse or prose composition in which the answer is concealed by means of
metaphors. Such were the famous riddle of the Sphinx and the riddling
answers of the ancient oracles. The composition of enigmas was a
favourite amusement in Greece and prizes were often given at banquets
for the best solution of them (Athen. x. 457). In France during the 17th
century enigma-making became fashionable. Boileau, Charles Riviere
Dufresny and J.J. Rousseau did not consider it beneath their literary
dignity. In 1646 the abbe Charles Cotier (1604-1682) published a
_Recueil des enigmes de ce temps_. The word is applied figuratively to
anything inexplicable or difficult of understanding.
ENKHUIZEN, a seaport of Holland in the province of North Holland, on the
Zuider Zee, and a railway terminus, 11-1/2 m. N.E. by E. of Hoorn, with
which it is also connected by steam tramway. In conjunction with the
railway service there is a steamboat ferry to Stavoren in Friesland.
Pop. (1900) 6865. Enkhuizen, like its neighbour Hoorn, exhibits many
interesting examples of domestic architecture dating from the 16th and
17th centuries, when it was an important and flourishing city. The
facades of the houses are usually built in courses of brick and stone,
and adorned with carvings, sculptures and inscriptions. Some ruined
gateways belonging to the old city walls are still standing; among them
being the tower-gateway called the Dromedary (1540), which overlooks the
harbour. The tower contains several rooms, one of which was formerly
used as a prison. Among the churches mention must be made of the
Zuiderkerk, or South church, with a conspicuous tower (1450-1525); and
the Westerkerk, or West church, which possesses a beautifully carved
Renaissance screen and pulpit of the middle of the 16th century, and a
quaint wooden bell-house (1519) built for use before the completion of
the bell-tower. There are also a Roman Catholic church and a synagogue.
The picturesque town hall (1688) contains some finely decorated rooms
with paintings by Johan van Neck, a collection of local antiquities and
the archives. Other interesting buildings are the orphanage (1616),
containing some 17th and 18th century portraits and ancient leather
hangings; the weigh-house (1559), the upper story of which was once used
by the Surgeons' Gild, several of the window-panes (dating chiefly from
about 1640), being decorated with the arms of various members; the
former mint (1611); and the ancient assembly-house of the dike-reeves of
Holland and West Friesland. Enkhuizen possesses a considerable fishing
fleet and has some shipbuilding and rope-making, as well as market
traffic.
ENNEKING, JOHN JOSEPH (1841- ), American landscape painter, was born,
of German ancestry, in Minster, Ohio, on the 4th of October 1841. He was
educated at Mount St Mary's College, Cincinnati, served in the American
Civil War in 1861-1862, studied art in New York and Boston, and gave it
up because his eyes were weak, only to return to it after failing in the
manufacture of tinware. In 1873-1876 he studied in Munich under Schleich
and Leier, and in Paris under Daubigny and Bonnat; and in 1878-1879 he
studied in Paris again and sketched in Holland. Enneking is a
"plein-airist," and his favourite subject is the "November twilight" of
New England, and more generally the half lights of early spring, late
autumn, and winter dawn and evening.
ENNIS (Gaelic, _Innis_, an island; Irish, _Ennis_ and _Inish_), the
county town of Co. Clare, Ireland, in the east parliamentary division,
on the river Fergus, 25 m. W.N.W. from Limerick by the Great Southern &
Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5093. It is the junction
for the West Clare line. Ennis has breweries, distilleries and extensive
flour-mills; and in the neighbourhood limestone is quarried. The
principal buildings are the Roman Catholic church, which is the
pro-cathedral of the diocese of Killaloe; the parish church formed out
of the ruins of the Franciscan Abbey, founded in 1240 by Donough Carbrac
O'Brien; a school on the foundation of Erasmus Smith, and various county
buildings. The abbey, though greatly mutilated, is full of interesting
details, and includes a lofty tower, a marble screen, a chapter-house, a
notable east window, several fine tombs and an altar of St Francis. On
the site of the old court-house a colossal statue in white limestone of
Daniel O'Connell was erected in 1865. The interesting ruins of Clare
Abbey, founded in 1194 by Donnell O'Brien, king of Munster, are half-way
between Ennis and the village of Clare Castle. O'Brien also founded
Killone Abbey, beautifully situated on the lough of the same name, 3 m.
S. of the town, possessing the unusual feature of a crypt and a holy
well. Five miles N.W. of Ennis is Dysert O'Dea, with interesting
ecclesiastical remains, a cross, a round tower and a castle. Ennis was
incorporated in 1612, and returned two members to the Irish parliament
until the Union, and thereafter one to the Imperial parliament until
1885.
ENNISCORTHY, a market town of Co. Wexford, Ireland, in the north
parliamentary division, on the side of a steep hill above the Slaney,
which here becomes navigable for barges of large size. Pop. of urban
district (1901) 5458. It is 77-1/2 m. S. by W. from Dublin by the Dublin
& South-Eastern railway. There are breweries and flour-mills; tanning,
distilling and woollen manufactures are also prosecuted to some extent,
and the town is the centre of the agricultural trade for the district,
which is aided by the water communication with Wexford. There are
important fowl markets and horse-fairs. Enniscorthy was taken by
Cromwell in 1649, and in 1798 was stormed and burned by the rebels,
whose main forces encamped on an eminence called Vinegar Hill, which
overlooks the town from the east. The old castle of Enniscorthy, a
massive square pile with a round tower at each corner, is one of the
earliest military structures of the Anglo-Norman invaders, founded by
Raymond le Gros (1176). Ferns, the next station to Enniscorthy on the
railway towards Dublin, was the seat of a former bishopric, and the
modernized cathedral, and ruins of a church, an Augustinian monastery
founded by Dermod Mac-Morrough about 1160, and a castle of the Norman
period, are still to be seen. Enniscorthy was incorporated by James I.,
and sent two members to the Irish parliament until the Union.
ENNISKILLEN, WILLIAM WILLOUGHBY COLE, 3RD EARL OF (1807-1886), British
palaeontologist, was born on the 25th of January 1807, and educated at
Harrow and Christ Church, Oxford. As Lord Cole he early began to devote
his leisure to the study and collection of fossil fishes, with his
friend Sir Philip de M.G. Egerton, and he amassed a fine collection at
Florence Court, Enniskillen--including many specimens that were
described and figured by Agassiz and Egerton. This collection was
subsequently acquired by the British Museum. He died on the 21st of
November 1886, being succeeded by his son (b. 1845) as 4th earl.
The first of the Coles (an old Devonshire and Cornwall family) to settle
in Ireland was Sir William Cole (d. 1653), who was "undertaker" of the
northern plantation and received a grant of a large property in
Fermanagh in 1611, and became provost and later governor of Enniskillen.
In 1760 his descendant John Cole (d. 1767) was created Baron
Mountflorence, and the latter's son, William Willoughby Cole
(1736-1803), was in 1776 created Viscount Enniskillen and in 1789 earl.
The 1st earl's second son, Sir Galbraith Lowry Cole (1772-1842), was a
prominent general in the Peninsular War, and colonel of the 27th
Inniskillings, the Irish regiment with whose name the family was
associated.
ENNISKILLEN [INNISKILLING], a market town and the county town of county
Fermanagh, Ireland, in the north parliamentary division, picturesquely
situated on an island in the river connecting the upper and lower loughs
Erne, 116 m. N.W. from Dublin by the Great Northern railway. Pop. of
urban district (1901) 5412. The town occupies the whole island, and is
connected with two suburbs on the mainland on each side by two bridges.
It has a brewery, tanneries and a small manufactory of cutlery, and a
considerable trade in corn, pork and flax. In 1689 Enniskillen defeated
a superior force sent against it by James II. at the battle of Crom; and
part of the defenders of the town were subsequently formed into a
regiment of cavalry, which still retains the name of the Inniskilling
Dragoons. The town was incorporated by James I., and returned two
members to the Irish parliament until the Union; thereafter it returned
one to the Imperial parliament until 1885. There are wide communications
by water by the river and the upper and lower loughs Erne, and by the
Ulster canal to Belfast. The loughs contain trout, large pike and other
coarse fish. Two miles from Enniskillen in the lower lough is Devenish
Island, with its celebrated monastic remains. The abbey of St Mary here
was founded by St Molaise (Laserian) in the 6th century; here too are a
fine round tower 85 ft. high, remains of domestic buildings, a holed
stone and a tall well-preserved cross. The whole is carefully preserved
by the commissioners of public works under the Irish Church Act of 1869.
Steamers ply between Enniskillen and Belleek on the lower lake, and
between Enniskillen and Knockninny on the upper lake.
ENNIUS, QUINTUS (239-170 B.C.), ancient Latin poet, was born at Rudiae
in Calabria. Familiar with Greek as the language in common use among the
cultivated classes of his district, and with Oscan, the prevailing
dialect of lower Italy, he further acquired a knowledge of Latin; to use
his own expression (Gellius xvii. 17), he had three "hearts" (_corda_),
the Latin word being used to signify the seat of intelligence. He is
said (Servius on _Aen._ vii. 691) to have claimed descent from one of
the legendary kings of his native district, Messapus the eponymous hero
of Messapia, and this consciousness of ancient lineage is in accordance
with the high self-confident tone of his mind, with his sympathy with
the dominant genius of the Roman republic, and with his personal
relations to the members of her great families. Of his early years
nothing is directly known, and we first hear of him in middle life as
serving during the Second Punic War, with the rank of centurion, in
Sardinia, in the year 204, where he attracted the attention of Cato the
elder, and was taken by him to Rome in the same year. Here he taught
Greek and adapted Greek plays for a livelihood, and by his poetical
compositions gained the friendship of the greatest men in Rome. Amongst
these were the elder Scipio and Fulvius Nobilior, whom he accompanied on
his Aetolian campaign (189). Through the influence of Nobilior's son,
Ennius subsequently obtained the privilege of Roman citizenship (Cicero,
_Brutus_, 20. 79). He lived plainly and simply on the Aventine with the
poet Caecilius Statius. He died at the age of 70, immediately after
producing his tragedy _Thyestes_. In the last book of his epic poem, in
which he seems to have given various details of his personal history, he
mentions that he was in his 67th year at the date of its composition. He
compared himself, in contemplation of the close of the great work of his
life, to a gallant horse which, after having often won the prize at the
Olympic games, obtained his rest when weary with age. A similar feeling
of pride at the completion of a great career is expressed in the
memorial lines which he composed to be placed under his bust after
death,--"Let no one weep for me, or celebrate my funeral with mourning;
for I still live, as I pass to and fro through the mouths of men." From
the impression stamped on his remains, and from the testimony of his
countrymen, we think of him as a man of a robust, sagacious and cheerful
nature (Hor. _Epp._ ii. 1. 50; Cic. _De sen._ 5); of great industry and
versatility; combining imaginative enthusiasm and a vein of religious
mysticism with a sceptical indifference to popular beliefs and a scorn
of religious imposture; and tempering the grave seriousness of a Roman
with a genial capacity for enjoyment (Hor. _Epp._ i. 19. 7).
Till the appearance of Ennius, Roman literature, although it had
produced the epic poem of Naevius and some adaptations of Greek tragedy,
had been most successful in comedy. Naevius and Plautus were men of
thoroughly popular fibre. Naevius suffered for his attacks on members of
the aristocracy, and, although Plautus carefully avoids any direct
notice of public matters, yet the bias of his sympathies is indicated in
several passages of his extant plays. Ennius, on the other hand, was by
temperament in thorough sympathy with the dominant aristocratic element
in Roman life and institutions. Under his influence literature became
less suited to the popular taste, more especially addressed to a limited
and cultivated class, but at the same time more truly expressive of what
was greatest and most worthy to endure in the national sentiment and
traditions. He was a man of many-sided activity. He devoted attention to
questions of Latin orthography, and is said to have been the first to
introduce shorthand writing in Latin. He attempted comedy, but with so
little success that in the canon of Volcacius Sedigitus he is mentioned,
solely as a mark of respect "for his antiquity," tenth and last in the
list of comic poets. He may be regarded also as the inventor of Roman
satire, in its original sense of a "medley" or "miscellany," although it
was by Lucilius that the character of aggressive and censorious
criticism of men and manners was first imparted to that form of
literature. The word _satura_ was originally applied to a rude scenic
and musical performance, exhibited at Rome before the introduction of
the regular drama. The _saturae_ of Ennius were collections of writings
on various subjects, written in various metres and contained in four (or
six) books. Among these were included metrical versions of the physical
speculations of Epicharmus, of the gastronomic researches of
Archestratus of Gela (_Hedyphagetica_), and, probably, of the
rationalistic doctrines of Euhemerus. It may be noticed that all these
writers whose works were thus introduced to the Romans were Sicilian
Greeks. Original compositions were also contained in these _saturae_,
and among them the panegyric on Scipio, unless this was a drama. The
satire of Ennius seems to have resembled the more artistic satire of
Horace in its record of personal experiences, in the occasional
introduction of dialogue, in the use made of fables with a moral
application, and in the didactic office which it assumed.
But the chief distinction of Ennius was gained in tragic and narrative
poetry. He was the first to impart to the Roman adaptations of Greek
tragedy the masculine dignity, pathos and oratorical fervour which
continued to animate them in the hands of Pacuvius and Accius, and, when
set off by the acting of Aesopus, called forth vehement applause in the
age of Cicero. The titles of about twenty-five of his tragedies are
known to us, and a considerable number of fragments, varying in length
from a few words to about fifteen lines, have been preserved. These
tragedies were for the most part adaptations and, in some cases,
translations from Euripides. One or two were original dramas, of the
class called _praetextae_, i.e. dramas founded on Roman history or
legend; thus, the _Ambracia_ treated of the capture of that city by his
patron Nobilior, the _Sabinae_ of the rape of the Sabine women. The
heroes and heroines of the Trojan cycle, such as Achilles, Ajax,
Telamon, Cassandra, Andromache, were prominent figures in some of the
dramas adapted from the Greek. Several of the more important fragments
are found in Cicero, who expresses a great admiration for their manly
fortitude and dignified pathos. In these remains of the tragedies of
Ennius we can trace indications of strong sympathy with the nobler and
bolder elements of character, of vivid realization of impassioned
situations, and of sagacious observation of life. The frank bearing,
fortitude and self-sacrificing heroism of the best type of the soldierly
character find expression in the persons of Achilles, Telamon and
Eurypylus; and a dignified and passionate tenderness of feeling makes
itself heard in the lyrical utterances of Cassandra and Andromache. The
language is generally nervous and vigorous, occasionally vivified with
imaginative energy. But it flows less smoothly and easily than that of
the dialogue of Latin comedy. It shows the same tendency to aim at
effect by alliterations, assonances and plays on words. The rudeness of
early art is most apparent in the inequality of the metres in which both
the dialogue and the "recitative" are composed.
But the work which gained him his reputation as the Homer of Rome, and
which called forth the admiration of Cicero and Lucretius and frequent
imitation from Virgil, was the _Annales_, a long narrative poem in
eighteen books, containing the record of the national story from
mythical times to his own. Although the whole conception of the work
implies that confusion of the provinces of poetry and history which was
perpetuated by later writers, and especially by Lucan and Silius
Italicus, yet it was a true instinct of genius to discern in the idea of
the national destiny the only possible motive of a Roman epic. The
execution of the poem (to judge from the fragments, amounting to about
six hundred lines), although rough, unequal and often prosaic, seems to
have combined the realistic fidelity and freshness of feeling of a
contemporary chronicle with the vivifying and idealizing power of
genius. Ennius prided himself especially on being the first to form the
strong speech of Latium into the mould of the Homeric hexameter in place
of the old Saturnian metre. And although it took several generations of
poets to beat their music out to the perfection of the Virgilian
cadences, yet in the rude adaptation of Ennius the secret of what
ultimately became one of the grandest organs of literary expression was
first discovered and revealed. The inspiring idea of the poem was
accepted, purified of all alien material, and realized in artistic shape
by Virgil in his national epic. He deliberately imparted to that poem
the charm of antique associations by incorporating with it much of the
phraseology and sentiment of Ennius. The occasional references to Roman
history in Lucretius are evidently reminiscences of the _Annales_. He as
well as Cicero speaks of him with pride and affection as "Ennius
noster." Of the great Roman writers Horace had least sympathy with him;
yet he testifies to the high esteem in which he was held during the
Augustan age. Ovid expresses the grounds of that esteem when he
characterizes him as
"Ingenio maximus, arte rudis."
A sentence of Quintilian expresses the feeling of reverence for his
genius and character, mixed with distaste for his rude workmanship, with
which the Romans of the early empire regarded him: "Let us revere Ennius
as we revere the sacred groves, hallowed by antiquity, whose massive and
venerable oak trees are not so remarkable for beauty as for the
religious awe which they inspire" (_Inst. or._ x. 1. 88).
Editions of the fragments by L. Muller (1884), L. Valmaggi (1900, with
notes), J. Vahlen (1903); monographs by L. Muller (1884 and 1893), C.
Pascal, _Studi sugli scrittori Latini_ (1900); see also Mommsen,
_History of Rome_, bk. iii. ch. 14. On Virgil's indebtedness to Ennius
see V. Crivellari, _Quae praecipue hausit Vergilius ex Naevio et
Ennio_ (1889).
ENNODIUS, MAGNUS FELIX (A.D. 474-521), bishop of Pavia, Latin
rhetorician and poet. He was born at Arelate (Arles) and belonged to a
distinguished but impecunious family. Having lost his parents at an
early age, he was brought up by an aunt at Ticinum (Pavia); according to
some, at Mediolanum (Milan). After her death he was received into the
family of a pious and wealthy young lady, to whom he was betrothed. It
is not certain whether he actually married this lady; she seems to have
lost her money and retired to a convent, whereupon Ennodius entered the
Church, and was ordained deacon (about 493) by Epiphanius, bishop of
Pavia. From Pavia he went to Milan, where he continued to reside until
his elevation to the see of Pavia about 515. During his stay at Milan he
visited Rome and other places, where he gained a reputation as a teacher
of rhetoric. As bishop of Pavia he played a considerable part in
ecclesiastical affairs. On two occasions (in 515 and 517) he was sent to
Constantinople by Theodoric on an embassy to the emperor Anastasius, to
endeavour to bring about a reconciliation between the Eastern and
Western churches. He died on the 17th of July 521; his epitaph still
exists in the basilica of St Michael at Pavia (_Corpus Inscriptionum
Latinarum_, v. pt. ii. No. 6464).
Ennodius is one of the best representatives of the twofold (pagan and
Christian) tendency of 5th-century literature, and of the Gallo-Roman
clergy who upheld the cause of civilization and classical literature
against the inroads of barbarism. But his anxiety not to fall behind his
classical models--the chief of whom was Virgil--his striving after
elegance and grammatical correctness, and a desire to avoid the
commonplace have produced a turgid and affected style, which, aggravated
by rhetorical exaggerations and popular barbarisms, makes his works
difficult to understand. It has been remarked that his poetry is less
unintelligible than his prose.
The numerous writings of this versatile ecclesiastic may be divided
into (1) letters, (2) miscellanies, (3) discourses, (4) poems. The
letters on a variety of subjects, addressed to high church and state
officials, are valuable for the religious and political history of the
period. Of the miscellanies, the most important are: _The Panegyric of
Theodoric_, written to thank the Arian prince for his tolerance of
Catholicism and support of Pope Symmachus (probably delivered before
the king on the occasion of his entry into Ravenna or Milan); like all
similar works, it is full of flattery and exaggeration, but if used
with caution is a valuable authority; _The Life of St Epiphanius_,
bishop of Pavia, the best written and perhaps the most important of
all his writings, an interesting picture of the political activity and
influence of the church; _Eucharisticon de Vita Sua_, a sort of
"confessions," after the manner of St Augustine; the description of
the enfranchisement of a slave with religious formalities in the
presence of a bishop; _Paraenesis didascalica_, an educational guide,
in which the claims of grammar as a preparation for the study of
rhetoric, the mother of all the sciences, are strongly insisted on.
The discourses (_Dictiones_) are sacred, scholastic, controversial and
ethical. The discourse on the anniversary of Laurentius, bishop of
Milan, is the chief authority for the life of that prelate; the
scholastic discourses, rhetorical exercises for the schools, contain
eulogies of classical learning, distinguished professors and pupils;
the controversial deal with imaginary charges, the subjects being
chiefly borrowed from the _Controversiae_ of the elder Seneca; the
ethical harangues are put into the mouth of mythological personages
(e.g. the speech of Thetis over the body of Achilles). Amongst the
poems mention may be made of two _Itineraria_, descriptions of a
journey from Milan to Brigantium (Briancon) and of a trip on the Po;
an apology for the study of profane literature; an epithalamium, in
which Love is introduced as execrating Christianity; a dozen hymns,
after the manner of St Ambrose, probably intended for church use;
epigrams on various subjects, some being epigrams proper--inscriptions
for tombs, basilicas, baptisteries--others imitations of Martial,
satiric pieces and descriptions of scenery.
There are two excellent editions of Ennodius by G. Hartel (vol. vi. of
_Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Latinorum_, Vienna, 1882) and F.
Vogel (vol. vii. of _Monumenta Germaniae historica_, 1885, with
exhaustive prolegomena). On Ennodius generally consult M. Fertig,
_Ennodius und seine Zeit_ (1855-1860); A. Dubois, _La Latinite
d'Ennodius_ (1903); F. Magani, _Ennodio_ (Pavia, 1886); A. Ebert,
_Allgemeine Geschichte der Litt. des Mittelalters im Abendlande_, i.
(1889); M. Manitius, Geschichte der christlich-lateinischen Poesie
(1891); Teuffel, _Hist. of Roman Literature_, S 479 (Eng. tr., 1892).
French translation by the abbe S. Leglise (Paris, 1906 foll.).
ENNS, a town of Austria, in upper Austria, 11 m. by rail S.E. of Linz.
Pop. (1900) 4371. It is situated on the Enns near its confluence with
the Danube and possesses a 15th-century castle, an old Gothic church,
and a town hall erected in 1565. Three miles to the S.W. lies the
Augustinian monastery of St Florian, one of the oldest and largest
religious houses of Austria. Founded in the 7th century, it was occupied
by the Benedictines till the middle of the 11th century. It was
established on a firm basis in 1071, when it passed into the hands of
the Augustinians. The actual buildings, which are among the most
magnificent in Austria, were constructed between 1686 and 1745. Its
library, with over 70,000 volumes, contains valuable manuscripts and
also a fine collection of coins. Enns is one of the oldest towns in
Austria, and stands near the site of the Roman _Laureacum_. The nucleus
of the actual town was formed by a castle, called Anasiburg or Anesburg,
erected in 900 by the Bavarians as a post against the incursions of the
Hungarians. It soon attained commercial prosperity, and by a charter of
1212 was made a free town. In 1275 it passed into the hands of Rudolph
of Habsburg. An encounter between the French and the Austrian troops
took place here on the 5th of November 1805.
ENOCH ([Hebrew: hanockh, hanockh], Hanokh, Teaching or Dedication). (1)
In Gen. iv. 17, 18 (J), the eldest son of Cain, born while Cain was
building a city, which he named after Enoch; nothing is known of the
city. (2) In Gen. v. 24, &c. (P), _seventh_ in descent from Adam in the
line of Seth; he "walked with God," and after 365 years "was not for God
took him." [(1) and (2) are often regarded as both corruptions of the
_seventh_ primitive king Evedorachos (Enmeduranki in cuneiform
inscriptions), the two genealogies, Gen. iv. 16-24, v. 12-17, being
variant forms of the Babylonian list of primitive kings. Enmeduranki is
the favourite of the sun-god, cf. Enoch's 365 years.[1]] Heb. xi. 5 says
Enoch "was not found, because God _translated_ him." Later Jewish
legends represented him as receiving revelations on astronomy, &c., and
as the first author; apparently following the Babylonian account which
makes Enmeduranki receive instruction in all wisdom from the sun-god.[1]
Two apocryphal works written in the name of Enoch are extant, the _Book
of Enoch_, compiled from documents written 200-50 B.C., quoted as the
work of Enoch, Jude 14 and 15; and the _Book of the Secrets of Enoch_,
A.D. 1-50. Cf. 1 Chron. i. 3; Luke iii. 37; Wisdom iv. 7-14; Ecclus.
xliv. 16, xlix. 14. (3) Son, i.e. clan, of Midian, in Gen. xxv. 4; 1
Chron. i. 33. (4) Son, i.e. clan, of Reuben, E.V. _Hanoch_, _Henoch_, in
Gen. xlvi. 9; Exod. vi. 14; Num. xxvi. 5; 1 Chron. v. 3. There may have
been some historical connexion between these two clans with identical
names.