THE LOCK AND KEY MANUFACTURE.
The manufacture of locks and keys, considered as a department of working
in iron, is one that requires, and indeed admits of, very little
description. The hammer, the file, the drill, the fly-press, are the
chief instruments employed; the iron itself being brought to something
like the desired state and form by rolling or casting, or both. But the
manufacture is interesting in its social features--in its relation to
the persons employed and the buildings occupied. One by one, several
departments of industry have progressed from the _handicraft_ to the
_factory_ system--from that system in which a man and a few apprentices
work in a small shop in the lockmaker’s garret or kitchen, to that in
which organisation is maintained among twenty or fifty or a hundred men.
Locks have scarcely yet passed out of the first stage, but there is no
good reason whatever why they should so remain; there are as many
reasons for progress in this as in other arts, and indications are not
wanting that some such progress will be made.
So far as England is concerned, the neighbourhood of Wolverhampton is
the great storehouse whence locks are obtained. Eminent lock-makers
reside in London and in other principal towns; but Wolverhampton is
regarded by all as the centre of the trade. This is not a modern
localisation, for we have information respecting the locks of
Wolverhampton a century and a quarter ago. Among the Harleian
Manuscripts is an account of “The Voyage of Don Manuel Gonzales (late
merchant), of the City of Lisbon in Portugal, to Great Britain:
containing an Historical, Geographical, Topographical, Political, and
Ecclesiastical Account of England and Scotland; with a Curious
Collection of things particularly rare, both in Nature and Antiquity.”
This Ms. appears to have been written about 1732; it was translated
from the Portuguese, and printed in Pinkerton’s Collection of Voyages
and Travels. With reference to Wolverhampton, Gonzales says: “The chief
manufacturers of this town are locksmiths, who are reckoned the most
expert of that trade in England. They are so curious in this art, that
they can contrive a lock so that if a servant be sent into the closet
with the master-key, or their own, it will shew how many times that
servant hath gone in at any distance of time, and how many times the
lock has been shot for a whole year; some of them being made to discover
five hundred or a thousand times. We are informed also that a very fine
lock was made in this town, sold for 20_l._, which had a set of chimes
in it that would go at any hour the owner should think fit.” If Gonzales
were correct in these descriptions, they indicate an exercise of
considerable ingenuity in lock-construction, especially in reference to
the lock which keeps a registry of the number of times it has been
opened. There is abundant evidence that the old lock-makers were very
fond of these knick-knack locks, which would do all sorts of strange and
unexpected things; and this may in part account for the great favour in
which locks have been held by amateur machinists.
The lock-manufacture in South Staffordshire is of a remarkable
character, comprised as it is within so small an area. Although
Wolverhampton is known commercially as the chief depôt of the English
lock trade, yet it is at Willenhall, three or four miles eastward of
that town, that the actual manufacture is chiefly carried on. When the
Commission was appointed a few years ago to inquire into the condition
of children employed in trades and manufactures, Mr. R. H. Horne was
deputed to examine the Wolverhampton district; and his report is too
curious, and too closely connected with our present subject, to be
passed unnoticed. We here give an abstract of such parts of his report
as bear reference to the lock-makers of Willenhall.
Almost the entire industry of Willenhall is in the three articles of
currycombs, locks and keys, and articles connected incidentally with
locks, such as bolts and latches. At the time Mr. Horne wrote, in 1841,
there were among the master manufacturers 268 locksmiths, 76 key-makers,
14 bolt-makers, and 13 latch-makers; besides many small masters living
in such out-of-the-way corners that they escaped enumeration. In the
_Post-Office Directory_ of that district, of later date, there are
entries of rather a curious character. In the first place it is
observable that different kinds of locks are made by different persons,
each manufacturer confining his operations apparently to one kind of
lock; one is a _rim-lock_ maker, another a _trunk-lock_ maker, a third a
_cabinet-lock_ maker, a fourth a _padlock_ maker, a fifth a
_mortice-lock_ maker, and so on. But a much more singular feature is,
that lock-making is combined with retail dealing of a totally different
kind; thus among the occupations put down opposite the names of
individuals are, “key-stamper and beer-retailer,” “door-lock maker and
beer-retailer,” “grocer and trunk-lock maker,” “Malt-Shovel
tavern-keeper and rim-lock maker,” “lock-maker and provision-dealer,”
“grocer and key-maker,” “cabinet-lock maker and Woolpack tavern,”
“key-stamper and registrar of births, &c.,” “Hope and Anchor and
cabinet-lock maker,” “auctioneer and locksmith,” “rim-lock and varnish
maker,” and so forth. It is probable that in some of these cases the
wife attends to the retail shop, while the husband attends to the
workshop.
Among all the lock-manufacturers of the town there are scarcely half a
dozen in what may be termed a large way of business; there are many who
employ from five to fifteen pairs of hands, but the great majority are
small masters who are themselves working mechanics, and are aided by
apprentices from one to four in number, perhaps two on an average. Mr.
Horne thinks that there were not fewer than a thousand boys at work in
the town, chiefly upon locks and keys. The children and young persons
are employed at all ages, from seven up to manhood; from the earliest
age, indeed, in which they are able to hold a file. It is a
characteristic fact, where so many of the male inhabitants are employed
at the bench from such early years, that a certain distortion of figure
is observable; the right shoulder-blade becomes displaced and projects,
and the right leg crooks and bends inwards at the knee, like the letter
K,--it is the leg which is hindermost in standing at the vice. The right
hand also has frequently a marked distortion. “Almost every thing it
holds takes the position of the file. If the poor man carries a limp
lettuce or a limper mackarel from Wolverhampton market, they are never
dangled, but always held like the file. If he carry nothing, his right
hand is in just the same position.”
The hours of labour among the small masters are scarcely brought within
any system at all; for all the work is piecework, not paid for by the
day or hour; and each man works as long as he likes, or as long as his
business impels him. Some will file away from four or five in the
morning till eleven or twelve at night. In the larger shops, where there
are many hands employed, they come to work when they like, leave when
they like, and do as much work as they like when there; this freedom of
action being spread over a working-day of perhaps sixteen hours. The
masters say that the men prefer this system, or want of system, to any
thing more precise and regular. In the beginning of the week there is
often much idleness and holiday-keeping; and the Willenhall men make up
for this by a day of sixteen, eighteen, or even twenty hours’ work
towards the end of the week. In the beginning of the week, men and boys
have defined hours and definite periods for meals; but towards the end
of the week, when hurry and drive are the order of the day, they eat
their meals while at work, and bolt their victuals standing. “You see a
locksmith and his two apprentices, with a plate before each of them,
heaped up (at the best of times, when they can get such things) with
potatoes and lumps of something or other, but seldom meat, and a large
slice of bread in one hand; your attention is called off for two
minutes, and on turning round again, you see the man and boys filing at
the vice.”
In the processes as carried on at Willenhall, they are applied chiefly
to the manufacture of mortice, box, trunk, rim, cabinet, case, bright,
dead, closet, and padlocks. Except some of the parts of the brass-work,
which are _cast_, these locks are made by _forging_, _pressing_, and
_filing_. The forging is a light kind of smith’s work, aided by a light
hammer and a small pair of bellows; children and young persons are
largely employed in this process. Pressing is a kind of work by which
certain parts of the lock are pressed or stamped out. The presses are of
various sizes, but all require much strength to work them; the press has
a horizontal lever, crossing the top of a vertical screw, and there is
generally an iron weight at the end of each arm or half of the lever to
increase the power; one of the lever arms is grasped in the right hand
of the presser, and whirled round with a jerk; while the fingers of the
left hand place the metal in its proper position, and remove it when it
has been stamped or pressed. There is, of course, a die or cutter
attached to the press, to cut the metal in the proper form. Sometimes
the press has only one arm to the lever, and no weight at the end of
this, so that the labour of working is much increased. Children and
youths are employed at this process, so far as their strength will
admit. The last process, _filing_, is that by which the separate pieces
are shaped and smoothed for adjustment in their proper places; here
children and youths are almost exclusively employed; they stand upon
blocks so as to be able to reach the vice, and then work away with the
file, unrelieved by any change in the nature of the process.
In key-making the processes may be said to comprise _forging_,
_stamping_, _piercing_, and _filing_. The forging differs very little
from that required in making the pieces for a lock. The stamping is
effected by placing the end of an iron wire, taken red-hot from the
forge, into one half of a key-mould made in a block or kind of anvil; a
heavy weight is then raised between an upright framework, in the grooves
of which it runs by means of a cord; the cord is drawn by both hands,
with the assistance of one foot in a stirrup attached to the end of the
cord; at the bottom of the weight thus raised is the other half of the
key-mould. Such being the nature of the stamping apparatus, the process
is thus conducted: the foot in the stirrup being suddenly raised, and
the cord loosed, the weight falls upon the red-hot wire, and the blow
stamps it into the two moulds or half-moulds, which are brought
accurately together by means of the slides or side-grooves in the
framework. The rough key is also trimmed and cleared by the pressing
apparatus; that is, the surplus metal all round is cut off by a single
blow; and the metal which fills up the ring or handle of the key is cut
or pressed out in the same way. This is a heavy part of the key-work,
for which the labour of men rather than that of boys is required. The
process of _piercing_ the key consists in making the pipe or barrel,
required for most keys, except those which are intended to open a lock
for both sides; the pipe is drilled by a small machine worked with the
foot like a lathe; it is a process requiring more skill than strength,
relatively to other parts of the manufacture. The _filing_ of a key is
important; for not only is the whole key made bright, but the wards are
cut by the file and chisel. Boys and youths are employed in filing the
common keys; but those of better quality are entrusted to men.
The apprenticeship system is carried on to a remarkable extent among the
lock and key makers of Willenhall. The small masters take apprentices at
any age at which they can work. Some of them employ only apprentices,
never paying wages for journeymen, but always taking on a new apprentice
as soon as a former one is out of his time. The boys are mostly procured
from other towns, and they bring with them a small apprenticeship-fee
and a suit or two of clothes. They are bound to the masters by legal
indenture or contract; and the masters board and lodge and clothe them
during their apprenticeship. One consequence of this system is, that
when the apprentice has served his time, he is almost driven to become a
small master himself from want of employment as a journeyman; and he
then takes apprentices as his master did before him. This accounts for
the fact that in Willenhall there are few large manufacturers and few
journeymen; while there is a constantly-increasing number of small
masters and of apprentices.
The Willenhall makers nearly all look to the Wolverhampton factors or
dealers for a market for their wares--so far at least as concerns locks
and keys; there are some other articles which they sell more frequently
to Birmingham houses. The master and an apprentice, or perhaps two,
generally trudge off to Wolverhampton on a Saturday, bearing the stock
of locks which he may have to sell; and the money receipts for the locks
or keys sold are usually in part spent at the large market of
Wolverhampton previous to the homeward journey. The Willenhall men take
contracts at so low a price as to prevent the competition of other
places; it is stated, that whatever be prices elsewhere, nothing can
come below the Willenhall prices for cheap locks. The men work hard for
small returns, and yet they have a strong yearning for their own town. A
Willenhall girl will seldom marry except to a townsman; and thus they
intermarry to an extent which maintains their characteristics as a
peculiar community. As an example of their disinclination to leave their
own town, Mr. Horne states the following circumstance: “Some years ago a
factor, who had projected a manufactory in Brussels, engaged some
five-and-twenty Willenhall men, whom he was at the expense of taking
over. He gave them all work, and from hard-earned wages of from 9_s._ to
15_s._ a-week, these ‘practised hands’ found themselves able to earn
3_l._ a-week and upwards. But they were not satisfied, and began to feel
uncomfortable; first one left, and returned home; then another; then one
or two; till, in the course of a few weeks, every man had returned to
Willenhall”--there to work harder and earn less.
It is just possible that the application of the factory system to
lock-making may first become important by making the _best_ locks
cheaper than they can be made by the handicraft method; for there seems
not much probability, at least for a great length of time to come, that
any new system will be able to compete with Willenhall in the common
locks--those of which more thousands are sold than there are tens of the
better locks. In this, however, it would not do to predict rashly.
Hand-loom weaving is cheap enough, unfortunately for those who practise
it; but yet the factory system comes down as low as the lowest hand-loom
weaving.
The editor of Hebert’s _Encyclopædia_, after noticing the facilities for
opening most locks by copying the key, makes the following announcement:
“It affords the editor of this work much satisfaction to state, that he
has in his possession a lock, the key of which _cannot be copied_, a
locksmith possessing no tools by which an exactly similar one can be
made; the machine by which the original one was made is so arranged as
to be deprived of the power of producing another like it. The lock is
very simple, very strong, and can be very cheaply made. The cost of a
complete machine to make them would be about 100_l._; with that they
might be manufactured at one-half the expense of any patent lock. The
inventor is desirous to have the subject brought before the public under
a patent; but want of time to devote himself to such an object at
present obliges him to lay it aside.” The invention not being patented,
the editor of course gave no diagram or engraving of the lock or
machine; nor does there appear to have been a patent obtained during the
sixteen or eighteen years which have elapsed since the above notice was
published. There are, however, mechanical principles sufficiently well
known to lead to a belief that such a machine is practicable; a
ticket-printing or numbering machine will, in printing 100,000 tickets,
produce such variations that no two impressions shall be identical; and
a key-making machine might, after fashioning a particular part of each
key, modify the arrangement of certain wheels and pinions so far as to
produce a slightly different result when the next key is to be operated
on.
In the manufacture of locks and keys generally, there is no reason why
the factory system should not, to a certain extent, be applicable. By
this will be understood, the production of similar parts by tools or
machines, graduated in respect to each other with more care than can be
done by the hand method. If we suppose that a lock of particular
construction comprises twenty screws and small pieces of metal, and that
there are required, for general disposal in the market, five sizes of
such a lock; there would thus be a hundred pieces of metal required for
the series, each one differing, either in shape or size, from every one
of the others. Now, on the factory or manufacturing system, as compared
with the handicraft system, forging, drawing, casting, stamping, and
punching, would supersede much of the filing; the drilling machine would
supersede the drill-stock and bow, and other machines would supersede
other hand-worked tools. This would be done--not merely because the work
could be accomplished more quickly or more cheaply--but because an
accuracy of adjustment would be attained, such as no hand-work could
equal, unless it be such special work as would command a high rate of
payment. For any one size in the series, and any one piece of metal in
each size of lock, a standard would be obtained which could be copied to
any extent, and all the copies would be like each other. To pursue our
illustration, the manufacturer might have a hundred boxes or drawers,
and might supply each with a hundred copies of the particular piece of
metal to which it is appropriated, all so exactly alike that any one
copy might be taken as well as any other. Ten pieces, one from each of
ten of these boxes, would together form a lock; ten, one from each of
another ten boxes, would form a second lock, and so on; and there would
be, in the whole of the boxes, materials for a thousand locks of one
construction, a hundred of each size.
Now the advantage of the machine or factory mode of producing such
articles is this, that they can be made in large numbers at one time,
whenever the steam-engine is at work; and that when so made, the pieces
are shaped so exactly alike, the screws have threads so identical, and
the holes are bored so equal in diameter, that any one of a hundred
copies would act precisely like all the others, thereby giving great
advantages to the men employed in putting the lock together.
These principles are being applied by Messrs. Hobbs and Co. in their
London establishment. A number of machines, worked by steam-power, are
employed in shaping the several pieces of metal contained in a lock; and
all the several pieces are deposited in labelled compartments, one to
each kind of piece. The machines are employed--in some cases to do
coarse work, which they can accomplish more quickly than it can be done
by men; and in other cases to do delicate work, which they can
accomplish more accurately than men; but so far is this from converting
the men into lowly-paid automatons (as some might suppose), that the
manufacturers are better able to pay good wages for the handicraft
labour necessary in putting the locks together, than for forming the
separate parts by hand; just as the “watchmaker,” as he is called, who
puts the separate parts of the watch together, is a better-paid mechanic
than the man who is engaged in fabricating any particular parts of the
watch.
It may be observed that the system of manufacturing on a large scale, by
many men engaged in one large building, is more nearly universal in the
United States than in England. The workshop system, as pursued at
Willenhall by the lock-makers, is very little practised in America.
Being comparatively a new community, and being at liberty to select for
imitation or for improvement whichever of the usages or systems in the
old country they may prefer, the Americans have preferred to adopt the
factory system rather than the workshop system, and to carry out the
former to an extent not yet equalled in England--not yet equalled, we
mean, in the number of trades to which it is applied.