THERAPHOSID SPIDERS
It is quite impossible in a work like the present to deal with the
classification of spiders. About forty families have been established,
some of them of vast extent, the Attidae, for example, including some
four thousand species. The great French arachnologist, M. E. Simon,
has occupied 2,000 quarto pages in defining the families, sub-families
and genera, without concerning himself with the species at all! It is,
however, desirable, that the attention of the reader should be called
to the primary division of the group, according to which all spiders
are either _Araneae verae_ (true spiders) or _Araneae theraphosae_
(theraphosid spiders.)
Now these two kinds of spider may readily be distinguished by a single
easily observable characteristic, the nature of the mandibles or
_chelicerae_; but it is necessary to describe the spider’s mandibles
before the difference can be appreciated.
Their nature is perhaps best explained by saying that each mandible
is not unlike a penknife with a single small blade, rather more than
half open when in use, closed when at rest. The handle of the penknife
is certainly in most cases very short and thick, and the blade not
really a blade at all, for it has no cutting edge, but is a “fang” or
piercing instrument generally somewhat curved, and with a sharp point.
The “blade” is, moreover, perforated by a tube which comes from the
poison-gland, situated in the thickened “handle,” or in the spider’s
head, so that poison can be forced into the wound which it inflicts.
Now take two penknives with the blades half open and hold them so that
they hang with the hinge downward and with the blades directed towards
each other; it is clear that the blades may be made to pierce an object
situated between them by moving the handles laterally, the object being
attacked simultaneously on either side. This is the arrangement in the
true spiders, whose jaws move sideways, though they do not always hang
perpendicularly, but are more often somewhat slanted forwards.
To represent the jaws of a theraphosid spider the penknives must be
arranged differently. Place the handles horizontally and parallel to
each other, with the blades directed downwards and also parallel. They
will now work not sideways, but up and down, and both fangs will pierce
the victim from above. In a word, the true spiders have jaws which can
be separated or brought together, and which tend to meet in the object
into which they are plunged, while the jaws of theraphosid spiders work
in parallel vertical planes, and strike downwards.
All the spiders which have so far concerned us are _Araneae verae_,
and we have incidentally had occasion to note some of the principal
families of that division—Epeiridae (or Argiopidae as some prefer to
call them), Theridiidae, Agelenidae, Thomisidae, Lycosidae and Attidae.
Indeed there is only one theraphosid spider that there is the least
likelihood of our coming across in this country. Their true home is
in hotter climes, and though stragglers from their army are not rare
in the warmer portions of temperate regions, they abound only in
tropical countries. They include the “Trap-door” spiders, common in
the Mediterranean region and in many other widely distant parts of the
world, and the great “Bird-eating” spiders of the tropics—the spiders
which are quite wrongly but universally alluded to in America as
Tarantulas.
The single British example is well worth the study of any reader who is
fortunate enough to come across it. But he must first catch his hare,
for _Atypus affinis_ (or _piceus_ as it used to be called) does not
grow in every hedge-row, nor is it easy to find it where it does occur.
Most of the localities recorded are in the south of England. It is a
thick-set dark-coloured spider about half an inch in length, and with
very thick, powerful mandibles, which, as we have seen, work vertically.
Its nest is a loosely-woven tubular structure, which partly lines a
more or less vertical hole in the ground and partly lies exposed on the
surface, but which does not present any obvious opening for entrance
and exit.
The situation chosen is generally a sloping sandy bank covered with
vegetation. The burrow is about eight inches in depth and about three
quarters of an inch in diameter. Near the bottom it narrows and then
expands into a somewhat wider chamber where the spider lives and
constructs its egg-cocoon. The portion of the tube above the ground is
sometimes longer but more often shorter than the buried portion, and it
tapers to a closed end.
Mr Joshua Brown, who first found this spider near Hastings in 1856,
took home several of the tubes with the spiders inside. He could find
no opening, and though the spiders moved up and down the tubes they
did not emerge. On tearing a tube open he found no remains of insects
inside, but in one case he came across a worm, partly within, and
partly outside the lower part of the tube, and apparently partially
devoured by the spider.
The same species is not rare in France and M. Simon’s observations on
it closely agreed with those of Mr Brown. He believed that the spider
chiefly depended for its food on earthworms which, in the course of
their burrowings, came casually into its neighbourhood. Since these
observations, however, considerable light has been thrown on the habits
of the spider by Enock, who found colonies on Hampstead Heath and near
Woking. His investigations extended over several years, and wonderful
patience was needed before the secrets of this curious animal were
divulged.
It appears that the female, when once established, never leaves the
nest at all! The aerial portion of the web was always a puzzle, but now
we know, thanks to Enock, that it constitutes the whole hunting ground
of the spider. Like promises and pie-crust it is apparently made to
be broken. If it is accidentally brushed against by a passing insect
the spider is instantly aware of the fact, rushes to the spot, and
transfixes the intruder with its powerful mandibles. It turns on its
back to do this, and strikes the insect from behind, afterwards pulling
its prey through the weft and into the tube by main force. It drags it
to the bottom of the tunnel, makes sure of its death, and immediately
returns and repairs the rent.
Insects were held against the tube, and the spider, if hungry, accepted
them at once; if replete however, it always gave a tug at the tube,
which retracted a portion of it into the burrow—a curious action
which Enock quite learnt to interpret as the “I don’t want any more”
movement.
The males made nests exactly like the females, but shallower, and they
left them to search for their mates, leaving the ends open. On finding
a female nest, they “serenaded” by tapping with their palps, and after
some delay, tore open the web and entered. By and by the female came
up and repaired the rent, first pulling the edges together with her
jaws and then uniting them with silk from her spinnerets. In one case
nothing more was seen of the male for nine months, when his empty skin
was observed at the end of the tube. After nine months of connubial
bliss his consort had devoured him!
In the autumn and spring, eggs and newly-hatched young were often found
in the nests. Late in March a small hole, 1/16 inch in diameter, was
noticed at the end of some of the webs, and presently the young began
to emerge—never to return to the nest. They immediately climbed the
highest objects at hand, and some were seen to be carried off by the
breeze.
Enock found, by an ingenious experiment, that the sand which is
incorporated in the aerial part of the tube—no doubt to render it
inconspicuous—is obtained from within, and not from outside the nest.
Carefully covering the exposed web, he powdered the ground all round
it with red brick-dust, but the particles which the spider embedded
in the web were of brown sand, evidently obtained from the bottom of
the burrow and not from the surrounding surface. But in the case of
some newly-dispersed young spiders he was able to see this operation
performed. The first part of the nest to be made was the aërial
portion, at the foot of which the digging was commenced. Particles of
sand were brought up in the jaws of the young spider and pushed into
the weft of the tube. Occasionally the jaws were thrust through the
delicate web and particles from without were seized and _pulled_ into
the silken fabric.
It is sad to have to relate that such young spiders as did not emerge
from the web within a reasonable time were devoured by their unnatural
parent. It sometimes happened that a change of weather rendered it
unsuitable for the departure of the young, and in this case the mother
closed up the exit-hole, and retired to feed upon her offspring! Thus,
though there were as many as a hundred and forty in a brood, a good
many perished at the outset, and the ants in the surrounding soil
accounted for some of the rest.
The Atypidae form a small outlying group of the Theraphosid spiders and
are able to live in colder regions than most of their relatives. The
great bulk of the division belong to the family Aviculariidae.
Some of the Aviculariidae are not unlike Agelena in their mode of life,
spinning a dense sheet-web terminating in a tube, and entrapping
their prey. Far the greater number, however, as far as their habits
are known at all, are earth dwellers, either inhabiting more or less
complex burrows of their own, or sheltering under stones or in chance
cavities by day and emerging at night to seek food in the immediate
neighbourhood of their hiding-places. Some of them are quite small, but
the majority are large robust spiders, of formidable appearance. The
largest known spider, _Theraphosa leblondi_, is found in South America,
and its body measures more than three and a half inches in length.
Few spiders have attracted more attention than the fabricators of the
curious “trap-door” nests, which are common in the Riviera, and indeed
in all the countries bordering the Mediterranean. But abundant though
they are, they are extremely difficult to find, and it is generally
only by chance that their existence is detected.
The Tarantula occasionally closes the mouth of her tunnel with a sheet
of silk in which are encrusted the _débris_ of insects or particles of
soil. She does this at the time when she is spinning her cocoon and
any intrusion is particularly inopportune, but she does it also on
other occasions which are not so easily accounted for. A reason which
would naturally occur to us would be the exclusion of excessive rain or
excessive sunshine, but the facts, unfortunately, do not accord with
this explanation.
Now, however desirable occasional closure may be, a permanent door
would hamper the tarantula in her hunting operations, but the habits
of the trap-door spider are different, and she closes her retreat
with a wonderful hinged lid or “trap-door.” And the commonest form
of trap-door is also the most perfect, being thick and tapering, and
fitting accurately into the bevelled mouth of the tube like a stopper
in the mouth of a bottle. It is made of alternate layers of spider
silk and earth, and is free for more than half its circumference, the
remaining portion of the surface disc being attached to the side of the
tube by a flexible hinge of silk. Moggridge dissected the door of a
full-sized tunnel into fourteen graduated discs. The smallest—and of
course the lowest—represented the first door ever made by the spider,
and the successively larger discs indicated the stages at which its
increasing size rendered an enlargement of the tube—and therefore of
the door—necessary.
The spider always interweaves vegetable matter from the
neighbourhood into each new disc, so that, as a rule, it is entirely
indistinguishable from its surroundings when closed; and not only
_dead_ vegetable matter, for if the tube is situated amongst moss, moss
grows upon the lid. From our previous experience, however, we shall
not be surprised to find that blind instinct and not forethought is
responsible for this action. Moggridge removed the lid of a tunnel
and also cleared the ground immediately round it of all vegetation;
nevertheless, when the spider made a new door, it covered it with moss
taken from the undisturbed vegetation beyond, so that the trap-door
was now conspicuous as a green oasis in a sandy desert! And on another
occasion a spider interwove fragments of scarlet fabric left purposely
at hand into the lid of its tunnel. It is clear, therefore, that the
decoration of the door is due to an instinct which impels the spider
to utilise any material of the neighbourhood without any regard to the
effect produced.
The tube is densely lined with silk, which affords its architect a
secure foot-hold, and if any enemy attempts to open the lid from
without, the spider resists with all its strength—which is not
inconsiderable—clinging on to its under surface with its front legs
and jaws, while the claws of its other feet grasp the silken walls of
the tube.
The other type of trap-door is less interesting and much more
elementary, consisting simply of a wafer-like sheet of silk mixed with
earth and vegetable matter, but it is a curious fact that while all
known trap-door nests of the cork type are simple tubes, the burrows
with wafer doors are often much more complex. In some cases there
is a branch tube, like that constructed by _Lycosa picta_, leaving
the main tunnel at a depth of some three inches, and reaching the
surface perhaps two inches away from the trap-door, so that the whole
excavation is +Y+-shaped. This branch tube is permanently closed
by a thin sheet of silk and earth, which, however, it would not be
difficult to break through if it were urgent for the spider to escape
while the enemy was exploring the main tunnel.
But a more interesting case is the occurrence of another trap-door
some way down the tube. If the tube is unbranched, this forms merely a
second line of defence if the outer door is forced, but in the case of
a branched tube the additional door hangs at the fork of the +Y+,
and is so shaped as to form a perfect valve, so that the spider, by
holding it against one or the other side of the tunnel, can connect the
bottom limb of the +Y+ with either fork at will, leaving to the
intruder a beautifully smooth-lined tube to explore, with no hint of
the possibility of escape in other directions.
There are sometimes other complications in the ramification of the
tube, but these need not detain us. Each species of spider adheres to
its own particular type of architecture, and may safely—in a given
neighbourhood—be identified by its nest.
As with the Lycosidae, the burrowing is all done by the mandibles,
but here the first joint—the handle of the penknife—is of more
importance than the blade or fang. Indeed the burrowing species of the
Aviculariidae may be distinguished from the rest by their mandibles,
which are provided in front with a _rastellum_, or row of teeth for
digging. A trap-door spider, then, does not go to work like a rabbit,
or a terrier, scratching and kicking away the earth as it digs; it
laboriously dislodges particles of soil with its powerful mandibles,
and carries away the loosened fragments to deposit them at a distance.
The trap-door spiders of the Mediterranean region are nocturnal
creatures, and little is known of their habits. Erber relates that a
species found in the island of Tinos comes out at night, fixes open the
trap-door with a few threads, and spins a web near its nest to entrap
passing insects, clearing away any trace of it before the dawn. In the
case of some Chinese and also some Australian species observers allege
that they frequently wander from their nests in the day-time.
A Californian species was able to leave its nest when the trap-door was
weighted with three ounces of lead. On re-entering, it seized the edge
of the door with its mandibles, and, raising it slightly, inserted its
front legs. It then turned round and slipped backwards into the tube.
It always resisted the forcible opening of its door to the last moment,
when it let go and slid into the tube “as though going down a well.”
The larger Aviculariidae have acquired a reputation for feeding on
birds, and this has given rise both to their scientific and their
popular name—bird-eating spiders. Several travellers have stated that
they have observed them with birds in their grasp, and there is no
doubt of their ability to kill any small bird or mammal, though it is
probable that they seldom have the opportunity, for they spin no snare
in which birds may be caught. Even without the aid of their poison,
their jaws are so large and powerful that they may easily attain the
vital organs of small animals. Probably their staple food consists of
the larger insects.
They live in holes in the ground or in trees, or sometimes in the
fork of a tree-branch. In such hiding places they spend the hours of
day-light, emerging at night in search of food. Their large size and
uncanny appearance have attracted the attention of the collector, and
a great many species are known, but the fact that they chiefly inhabit
tropical countries has militated against any very extended study of
their habits, and the few items of information we possess are best
related with regard to the particular spider observed, and not taken as
necessarily characteristic of the whole tribe. There is little doubt
that they live for several years. McCook kept a specimen of _Dugesiella
hentzi_ in captivity for five and a half years, and he considered that
when it reached him it was at least a year and a half old, and probably
more. The same species has recently been made the subject of some very
interesting observations by Petrunkewitch, who obtained numerous living
specimens from Texas and kept them in captivity; unless carefully
packed, they bore the railway journey badly, and it was above all
things necessary to supply them with water.
The captives were fed on grass-hoppers, crickets, cockroaches and
wolf-spiders, but they ate sparingly, one grass-hopper sufficing for
three days in the summer, while in the winter hardly any food at all
was taken.
The sense of touch is extremely well developed in these spiders, but
in sight, hearing and smell they are strangely deficient. No response
whatever, was obtained to either high or low notes. A cricket sang for
hours quite close to a spider which had been kept hungry for several
days, without attracting any attention. It is very remarkable, by
the way, that insects show no instinctive dread of these formidable
creatures, not attempting to keep at a distance, and indeed frequently
running over them in trying to find a way out of the cage. Nor do the
spiders seem to be at all guided by smell; they evince no knowledge of
the presence of insects which emit a strong odour, nor do they react
to such tests as those to which the garden-spider was subjected unless
strong irritants such as chlorine are employed, in the perception of
which it is perhaps unnecessary that smell in the strict sense should
take any part.
They have eight eyes—two of them round and rather business-like in
appearance, and the others oval or pear-shaped—and they are very
sensitive to light, retreating at once from the direct rays of the
sun or from a light flashed on them, but they do not appear to _see_
anything at all, recognising neither friends nor enemies by sight,
however close at hand. It was far otherwise with a wolf-spider in the
same cage. Running towards the Dugesiella it was clearly aware of it at
a distance of several inches, and could not be persuaded to approach
nearer. But the supremacy of the sense of touch is most striking when
the spiders are courting. When the male is seeking the female he seems
quite unaware of her proximity unless he accidentally brushes up
against her. If he loses contact for a moment he is quite at sea and
wanders blindly about, turning, perhaps, to the left when the least
motion to the right would bring them together again. This frequently
happens when he has accidentally touched the female with one of the
hind legs. He immediately turns about, and if she is still there, all
is well, but if she has chanced to move out of reach, he is quite at a
loss. Neither sight nor sound nor smell guide him, but touch only. The
delicacy of this sense, however, is quite remarkable. He seems to be
aware at once of the nature of the object which touches him, assuming
a threatening attitude if the touch is hostile, or pouncing instantly
if hungry and the touch is that of a passing insect. If, however, the
insect is lucky enough to escape, it is in no danger of pursuit.
As in the case of many spiders—though by no means of all—his courting
is not unattended with peril. The tragic fate which sometimes overtakes
the male spider has so hit the popular imagination that there is a
general impression that the female spider is a confirmed misanthrope
and desires the life of any suitor bold enough to approach her. Not at
all! We have simply to remember that spiders are carnivorous and prone
to cannibalism. If the female happens to be hungry she makes no nice
discrimination between an amorous male and a succulent grass-hopper;
if replete, she may find time for the play of softer emotions. The
male of _D. hentzi_ appears to be more or less prepared for a hostile
reception on the part of the female, for the thighs of his front legs
are furnished with spurs at their extremity and with these he holds
back and renders powerless her threatening fangs.
There is no doubt that the spider’s delicate sense of touch resides in
the hairs with which both body and limbs are thickly clothed. They are
of various kinds—fine hairs, bristles, and stout spines—and many
of them are supplied with nerve-fibres at the base. The finer hairs
are probably not sensory, and they are, in the case of some Avicularid
spiders very easily shed, and have a strongly irritant action on the
hand that touches them, not unlike the sting of a nettle.
It is not at all unusual for one large Avicularid spider, _Psalmopoeus
cambridgii_, to be brought over to England in cases of bananas from
the W. Indies. Mr James Adams of Dunfermline has kept two specimens
alive for a considerable time. The first specimen lived in captivity
for two years and nine months, during which it moulted five times but
grew very little in size. Arriving in September, it was at first fed
on flies, and in a few weeks, when these began to fail, it accepted
beetles, consuming about three a day. In November, even these insects
were difficult to obtain, and recourse was had to cockroaches. At first
about three cockroaches a week were eaten but the number decreased
until, in the middle of March it ceased feeding altogether, and on
April 13 it cast its skin. It moulted again in October, and twice a
year for the rest of its life—in spring and autumn. During six months
it took no food at all, and very little for four months previously. At
the last moult but one it lost a limb, which however, reappeared when
the spider again changed its skin, though it never attained the proper
size.
With spiders, as with insects, moulting is a very serious matter,
involving much more than the mere casting off of an external coat. If
all does not go well limbs may easily be lost in the operation, nor is
it rare to meet with instances in which the animal has perished in its
unsuccessful attempt to discard the old integument.
Mr Adams’ second specimen was kept alive for three years and ten
months. It moulted only once each year—in June or July—and it died in
the act of casting its skin. In the case of these spiders, also, it was
noted that insects supplied to them as food displayed no fear whatever.
There were always a few cockroaches in the same box, and they were
often observed actually with the spider in its nest, but no notice was
taken of them unless their host chanced to be hungry. A photograph of
this spider is given in the Frontispiece.
It is an interesting fact that many of the Aviculariidae of Southern
Asia and Australia possess a sound-producing apparatus which is
entirely lacking in African and American forms, but this is a subject
which deserves a chapter to itself.