The Pioneers
1847
Revelation to President Brigham Young
January 14, 1847, the word of the Lord came to President Brigham
Young, at Winter Quarters, giving instructions for the guidance of
the camps of Israel on their journeyings to the west. The Saints were
to be organized into companies, with captains over hundreds, fifties
and tens, as the case had been while journeying across Iowa. These
companies were to be presided over by a president and two counselors,
under the direction of the Twelve Apostles, who were at the head of
all the camps of Israel. The Saints were to enter into a covenant "to
keep all the commandments and statutes of the Lord," and each company
was to bear an equal proportion of the responsibility in the care of
the widows, the fatherless, and the families of those who had gone into
the army. Every man was commanded to use his influence and property
to remove the body of the people to the place the Lord had designated
as a stake of Zion; and if they would do this they were to be blessed
abundantly in their substance and in their families. Moreover, they
were to prepare houses and fields for those who were to remain behind
that season, that they might prepare also for the journey.
Cheerfulness Commanded
"If thou art merry," the revelation read (Doc. and Cov. Sec. 136),
"praise the Lord with singing, with music, with dancing, and with
prayer of praise and thanksgiving. If thou art sorrowful, call on the
Lord thy God with supplication, that your souls may be joyful." During
their travels in the wilderness the exiled Saints had many hardships to
endure. The lack of necessary food, of clothing and other substance,
was lamentable. Yet, in the midst of poverty and distress, they were
happy for they were free from enemies and the persecutions of mobs.
They were going to a land of promise where they could dwell in peace,
and worship the Lord without fear of men. The Lord desired that they
should be cheerful and promised to bless them with his Spirit, in the
hour of their sorrow, if they would call upon him. That they might be
light of heart and filled with joy, the Lord commended music, singing
and dancing, if done in the spirit of reverence and prayer. It was the
custom, at the close of the day's journey, for the Saints to assemble
in the dance, or to have an informal concert; to relate reminiscences
and otherwise employ their time, that the cares and hardships of their
travel might be forgotten, and their burdens lessened which they were
forced to bear.[1] At the sound of the bugle, night and morning, all
assembled for prayer. The Sabbath day was strictly kept, and undue
levity was discountenanced in all the camps. They were commanded to be
honest, sober, unselfish and to "contend not one with another," but
always speak with edifying words.
The Pioneers
It was commanded in the revelation that a company be organized to
depart early in the spring, composed of a sufficient number of
able-bodied and experienced men, with teams, seeds and farming
utensils, to prepare for the planting of spring crops. As spring
approached preparations were under way for the departure of this
pioneer band, and for other companies, as the Saints were able, to
follow after. February 26, 1847, President Brigham Young met in council
with the members of the twelve who were at Winter Quarters and Bishop
Newel K. Whitney, William Clayton and Jedediah M. Grant. The object of
this meeting was to consider the appointment of a pioneer company and
their requirements for the journey. The matter of constructing boats,
the carrying of seeds, scientific investigations, the location of a
site for a city, the irrigation, cultivation and seeding of the land,
were all fully discussed. This is the first reference, so far as the
records show, of the discussion of irrigation, which President Young
and the brethren felt would be necessary for their sustenance in their
new home.
The Departure for the West
Elder Heber C. Kimball, under instructions from President Brigham
Young, moved out of Winter Quarters, April 5, 1847, with six wagons,
which he had equipped as a part of the pioneer company. They traveled
about six miles and camped, awaiting the arrival of the rest of the
company. On the 6th of April, the general conference was held in
Winter Quarters, and the following day President Young, with about
twenty-five wagons, traveled some ten miles and camped. From this
point the company which had assembled, continued their journey to the
Elkhorn River, where the information reached them that Elder Parley
P. Pratt had arrived at Winter Quarters from his mission to England,
and that Elder John Taylor was on the way. President Young decided to
return, with other members of the twelve, to receive Elder Pratt's
report of conditions in that foreign field.[2] A few days later Elder
John Taylor also arrived, bringing with him two thousand dollars in
gold, contributed by the Saints in Great Britain, to help the exiles
on their westward journey. He also had with him a number of scientific
instruments of great value, including two sextants, one circle of
reflection, two artificial horizons, and a number of barometers,
thermometers and telescopes.
Organization of the Pioneer Camp
Leaving Elders Pratt and Taylor--and later Orson Hyde who joined them
from England--in charge of the Saints at Winter Quarters, President
Young, with the other apostles, returned to the pioneer camp, which
had journeyed to a position twelve miles west of the Elkhorn, and some
forty-seven miles west of Winter Quarters. President Young's departure
from Winter Quarters was on the morning of April 14, 1847, and on the
16th, the pioneer camp was organized with captains of hundreds, fifties
and tens, as follows:
Captains of Hundreds: Stephen Markham and Albert P. Rockwood.
Captains of Fifties: Addison Everett, Tarlton Lewis, James Case, John
Pack, Shadrack Roundy.
Captains of Tens: Wilford Woodruff, Ezra T. Benson, Phineas H. Young,
Luke S. Johnson,[3] Stephen G. Goddard, Charles Shumway, James Case,
Seth Taft, Howard Egan, Appleton M. Harmon, John S. Higbee, Norton
Jacobs, John Brown, and Joseph Matthews.
The total number of souls in the camp was one hundred and forty-eight,
of whom three were women and two were children. The women were: Harriet
Page Wheeler Young, wife of Lorenzo D. Young; Clarissa Decker Young,
wife of Brigham Young; and Ellen Saunders Kimball, wife of Heber C.
Kimball. Three of the company were colored: Hark Lay, Oscar Crosby and
Green Flake, who had come west with the emigrants from Mississippi,
under command of John Brown in the summer of 1846. Originally the
pioneer company was composed of one hundred and forty-four men, but
one, Ellis Ames, was taken sick and returned to Winter Quarters soon
after the start. Two of the pioneers were not members of the Church.
Military Organization
In addition to the organization mentioned, on April 17, they were
also organized into a military camp with President Brigham Young as
lieutenant-general; Stephen Markham, colonel; John Pack and Shadrack
Roundy, majors; and the captains of tens, as formerly organized, to
hold similar rank in the military organization. Thomas Bullock was
appointed clerk of the camp, with some assistants, and Thomas Tanner,
captain of the cannon, with the privilege of choosing eight men to
assist him.
Division of the Watch
The captains of tens selected forty-eight men for a constant night
guard. They were divided into four watches to serve half a night at a
time. President Young and others of the twelve were among the members
of this guard. As there was danger of Indian raids, orders were given
that every man should keep by the side of his wagon and not leave it
except by permission, and he should carry a loaded gun always ready for
instant use.
Regulations of the Camp
Sunday, April 18, 1847, in the afternoon, President Young met with the
captains of the camp and decided on the details for the government of
the camp as follows:
"At 5 o'clock in the morning the bugle is to be sounded as a signal
for every man to arise and attend prayers before he leaves his
wagon. Then the people will engage in cooking, eating, feeding
teams, etc., until 7 o'clock, at which time the train is to move at
the sound of the bugle. Each teamster is to keep beside his team
with loaded gun in hand or within easy reach, while the extra men,
observing the same rule regarding their weapons, are to walk by
the side of their particular wagons to which they belong; and no
man may leave his post without permission of his officer. In case
of an attack or any hostile demonstration by Indians, the wagons
will travel in double file--the order of encampment to be in a
circle, with the mouth of each wagon to the outside and the horses
and cattle tied inside the circle. At 8:30 p.m., the bugles are to
be sounded again, upon which signal all will hold prayers in their
wagons, and be retired to rest by 9 o'clock."
The Route of Travel
The line of travel taken by the pioneers was along the north bank of
the Platte River to Fort Laramie, and from there they crossed the
river, and continued over the Oregon trail up the Sweetwater and over
the Continental divide through the South Pass across Green River to
Fort Bridger. They then traveled to the southwest through Echo Canyon,
and East Canyon over Big and Little Mountain into Emigration Canyon,
and then to the valley of the Great Salt Lake.
On the south side of the Platte was the Oregon trail, but the pioneers
remained on the north bank where there was no trail, for reasons
expressed by Elder Wilford Woodruff as follows:
"We were convinced that it would be better for us as a company to cross
the river and take the old traveled road to Laramie as there was good
grass all the way on that side, while the Indians were burning it all
off on the north of the river where we were traveling. But when we took
into consideration the situation of the next company, and the thousands
that would follow, and as we were the Pioneers and had not our wives
and children with us--we thought it best to keep on the north side of
the river and brave the difficulties of burning prairies to make a road
that should stand as a permanent route for the Saints, independent of
the then immigrant road, and let the river separate the emigrating
companies that they need not quarrel for wood, grass, or water; and
when our next company came along, the grass would be much better for
them than it would be on the south side, as it would grow up by the
time they would get along; and the vote was called and it was unanimous
to go on the north side of the river; so the camp again moved on."
Measuring the Distance
The pioneers were anxious to know the distance of each day's travel and
the length of the entire journey. In order to obtain this information
they first resorted to guesswork, but this proved unsatisfactory.
They then tied a piece of cloth to a wheel of one of the wagons and
a man was placed on duty to count the revolutions. However, this was
tedious though accurate if the count was correctly kept. April 19
William Clayton suggested to Orson Pratt that a set of wooden cog
wheels might be attached to the wheel of a wagon to record the distance
automatically. The result was that an odometer was constructed on "the
principle of the endless screw" and was installed during the month of
May, after they were well along on the journey.
Dangers on the Way
The pioneers were under the necessity of keeping constantly on
the alert to protect themselves from attacks by Indians. They had
considerable anxiety while passing through the Pawnee tribes. At times
the brethren were fired upon. The Indians made several attempts at
night to creep into the camp, evidently to plunder and steal animals.
At one time before the camp was organized for the night they were
successful in stealing two of the best horses belonging to Dr. Willard
Richards and Jesse C. Little. The following day, April 27, a party was
sent out to search for the missing animals. They encountered a number
of Indians who endeavored to decoy them to a point where the brethren
would be in their power, but they were on the alert and well armed,
so the Indians dared not make an attack. As the brethren prepared to
return to camp the Indians fired upon them, whereupon the searching
party turned upon their foe, and the Indians hastily fled.
Not all of the Indians, however, were hostile. Generally they showed a
friendly spirit, but were ever ready to commit theft. The brethren at
times gave them a few articles such as powder, lead, flour and salt.
Correspondence on the Plains
On the 4th of May, after the camp had proceeded about two miles on
their way, they were met by a Frenchman, Charles Beaumont, a trapper
and fur trader, who was traveling eastward over the Oregon road with
a camp consisting of three wagons and nine men. He crossed the river
to find out who the pioneers were. During his interview he cheerfully
consented to carry letters back to the Saints, so the brethren wrote
some fifty or sixty letters and left them in his care. Other means of
communication with the later companies on the plains were adopted.
Posts were placed at prominent points along the road with writing on
them and letters were placed in improvised boxes with a notice on the
box. At other times they used whitened skulls of the buffalo. Over a
portion of the journey, especially from Fort Laramie, the pioneers
planted mile posts every ten miles as the distance was measured by
their odometer.
Scientific Observations
Astronomical observations were constantly taken. The temperature was
recorded daily, also the altitude as shown by barometrical pressure.
This was done under the able direction of Elder Orson Pratt, one of the
great scientists of his time.
Crossing of the Platte
At Fort Laramie the pioneers were forced to cross the Platte owing to
the fact that the north side of the river was impassable. They hired a
flatboat from a Frenchman, Mr. James Bordeaux, who was in charge of the
post. They paid him fifteen dollars for the accommodation. Mr. Bordeaux
treated the brethren very kindly, and informed them that Lilburn W.
Boggs, with a company of Missourians en route to Oregon, left the fort
but a short time before. These emigrants had endeavored to embitter
him against the "Mormons." The Missourians, he said, were constantly
quarreling and were great thieves. Bordeaux gave the pioneers
information regarding the route before them and said the Crow Indians
were troublesome and had lately run off all the horses and mules from
the fort.
The Mississippi Emigrants
Soon after the pioneers arrived at Fort Laramie they were joined by
a company of seventeen emigrants of the Mississippi Saints who had
wintered at Pueblo, where the sick detachments of the Mormon Battalion,
under command of Captains Brown and Higgins, were also stationed. They
had been at the fort two weeks awaiting the arrival of the pioneers.
These emigrants consisted of the members of the Crow and Therlkill
families, others being Archibald Little, James Chesney and Lewis B.
Myers. They had five wagons, one cart, eleven horses, twenty-four
oxen, twenty-two cows, three bulls and seven calves. From these
Mississippi Saints the pioneers obtained their first knowledge in many
months, of the battalion. Four of the pioneers, Amasa M. Lyman, Thomas
Woolsey, John H. Tippits, and Roswell Stevens, were sent to Pueblo on
horse-back and with mules, to take charge of the remaining body of the
Mississippians and conduct them to the Salt Lake Valley.
The Ferry at the Black Hills
From Winter Quarters to Fort Laramie the Pioneers had broken a new road
over the plains, which was destined to be traveled by the emigrating
Saints for many years. Subsequently the Union Pacific Railroad was
built along a great portion of the trail. Continuing their journey, the
pioneers arrived, Saturday, June 12, 1847, at the Black Hills, where
the Oregon road crossed the Platte, some one hundred and forty-two
miles from Fort Laramie. Here they overtook the Oregon emigrants,
including the Missourians. The pioneers had sent an advance company
three days before to prepare for the crossing of the river, with a
sole-leather skiff capable of carrying eighteen hundred pounds. These
brethren were employed in ferrying the emigrants over the river at the
rate of $1.50 for each wagon load, receiving their pay in flour, meal
and bacon, at Missouri prices. Their stock of provisions at this time
was in need of replenishing, and to have the privilege of ferrying
their old enemies from Missouri over the river at this price, gave them
some satisfaction. "It looked as much of a miracle to me," said Elder
Wilford Woodruff, "to see our flour and meal bags replenished in the
Black Hills, as it did to have the children of Israel fed with manna
in the wilderness. But the Lord has been truly with us on our journey,
and has wonderfully blessed and preserved us." The Missourians kept on
their way, quarreling, cursing and fighting among themselves, while the
brethren camped, as was their custom, on the Sabbath day. Monday, June
14, they commenced crossing the river, taking their wagons on light
rafts made of poles. It was concluded to leave several brethren at this
ferry, to help the oncoming emigrant trains for Oregon, in the hope
of earning enough to supply the pioneer company with provisions. For
this purpose Thomas Grover, John S. Higbee, Luke S. Johnson, Appleton
M. Harmon, Edmund Ellsworth, Francis M. Pomeroy, William Empey, James
Davenport and Benjamin F. Stewart, were detailed to remain.
Discouraging Reports
In this region of the country the pioneers were constantly meeting with
trappers and traders who were familiar with the Salt Lake Valley. They
all gave discouraging reports of that region and advised the Saints
to locate elsewhere. They spoke more favorably of the Cache, the Bear
and other valleys to the north. Among those giving this adverse advice
were Major Moses Harris, Thomas L. Smith and Colonel James Bridger.
The latter informed President Young that he deemed it unwise to bring
a large colony into the Great Basin until it was demonstrated that it
would be possible to raise grain there. He stated that he would give
a thousand dollars if he knew an ear of corn could ripen in Salt Lake
Valley. Undaunted by these unfavorable reports President Young with his
band of pioneers pushed on with great vigor.
The Meeting with Samuel Brannan
Wednesday, June 30, 1847, the pioneers arrived at the Green River.
The water was very high, with a swift current. After dinner the
brethren commenced making two rafts with which to cross the stream.
While they were at work Samuel Brannan came into the camp, having
come from San Francisco. He had traveled around Cape Horn, from New
York to California, with a company of emigrating Saints in the year
1846. Brannan and two others had braved the dangers of the mountains
through deep snows to reach the camp of the pioneers, having left on
the 4th of April. He brought with him several numbers of his paper,
_The California Star_, and the latest news of the Mormon Battalion. He
labored diligently to get President Young to continue on to California
and not remain in the barren wastes of the Rocky Mountains. President
Young, however, was following the inspiration of the Lord, and not
the wisdom of man. The Lord had pointed out to him--as he had to the
Prophet Joseph Smith in 1842--that the place of settlement for the
Latter-day Saints was in the "midst of the Rocky Mountains."
An Uninviting Country
It should be remembered that in 1847, the Salt Lake Valley was desolate
and uninviting. There was little vegetation save the stubby growth of
salt-grass, grease-wood and sage that covered the valley, and the few
willows and cottonwood trees that stood on the banks of the canyon
streams. At that time the Rocky Mountain region and a large part of the
plains to the east were little known. The few emigrants who had passed
through the Great Basin had made haste to get beyond and into the more
inviting parts on the Pacific coast. This vast inter-mountain country
was the haunt of the trapper and the hunter, to whom the possibilities
and resources of the arid west were not even a dream. The valleys of
the mountains had been occupied for upwards of twenty years by these
nomads of the desert, who wandered from place to place hunting and
trapping, content in the belief that the wild and primitive condition
which then prevailed must so remain forever.
As late as 1843, two years before the exodus, the opinion held by the
majority in the United States was that the whole territory of the Rocky
Mountains was not worth a "pinch of snuff." Such was the expression
made by Senator George H. McDuffie, of South Carolina, in the senate
that year. Discussing the settlement of Oregon, he said: "Who are to
go there, along the line of military posts, and take possession of the
only part of the territory fit to occupy--that part upon the sea coast,
a strip less than one hundred miles in width. Why, sir, of what use
will this be for agricultural purposes? I would not for that purpose
give a pinch of snuff for the whole territory. I wish to God we did not
own it."[4]
The inspiration which came to the Prophet Joseph Smith in 1842--and
even earlier and which was converted into reality by Brigham
Young--shines forth with increased lustre when placed in contrast with
the united opinions of all those who were familiar with the land in the
year 1847.
Arrival of the Battalion Members from Pueblo
July 1, 1847, the men commenced ferrying over Green River which was
continued until Saturday the 3rd. In the evening of Saturday, the
camp was called together and the men who desired to journey back
to meet their families who were on the plains and supposed to be
several hundred miles in the rear, were given that privilege. Five
volunteered to return. President Young, Heber C. Kimball and Willard
Richards accompanied the five brethren back to the ferry on Green
River. Here they saw a group of thirteen men, with horses and baggage
on the opposite side of the river ready to be ferried across. They
were members of the Mormon Battalion journeying from Pueblo. They
were given three cheers and President Young "led out in exclaiming
Hosannah! Hosannah! Give glory to God and the Lamb, Amen!" These
men were in pursuit of horse thieves who had stolen several of the
battalion horses, of which they had recovered all but one or two. They
reported to President Young that the Pueblo detachment of the battalion
was within seven days' march of the Green River. It was decided that
as the members of the battalion had not been discharged nor had they
received their pay, Samuel Brannan and Thomas S. Williams should return
with them to California to pilot them on the way. Brannan was greatly
disappointed at the decision of President Young to locate in the Salt
Lake Valley.
President Young and companions returned to the pioneer camp with twelve
of the members of the battalion, Sunday afternoon, July 4. One of the
soldiers, William Walker, had decided to accompany the five brethren
back to the camps of the Saints. Sunday was spent by the pioneers in
religious service under the direction of the bishops.
Orson Pratt's Vanguard
Monday, July 5, 1847, the company took up their march and arrived
at Fort Bridger on the 7th, where they camped. Here they repaired
the wagons and shod their horses, preparatory for the rough mountain
travel which would lead them to the end of their journey. July 9, they
continued on to the head of Echo Canyon, which was reached on the 12th.
At this place President Young was taken ill with mountain fever. He
ordered Elder Orson Pratt to take a company and precede the main body
of pioneers into the Salt Lake Valley. This advance company, consisting
of twenty-five wagons and forty-two men, traveled down Echo Canyon,
with instructions to look for the trail of the Reed-Donner party.[5]
This they found after some difficulty, for it was almost obliterated.
It was necessary for a detachment with proper tools to go on ahead
and construct a road for the wagons. From this point on to their
destination, they encountered the most difficult portion of the road
over which they traveled. They passed down into East Canyon and over
Big and Little Mountains into Emigration Canyon, which they named "Last
Creek." July 21, President Brigham Young sent Erastus Snow to meet
Orson Pratt with a message for him to bear northward after entering the
valley, and select the first convenient place for plowing and planting
seed. The reason for this apparent haste was that the season was well
advanced and every moment counted in the growing of their seed. Elder
Snow overtook Orson Pratt on the afternoon of the 21st and together
they entered the valley, with one horse between them. Seeing what
looked like a field of waving grain to the south, they first journeyed
in that direction only to find that they saw canes growing near the
banks of what is known today as Mill Creek. Remembering the words of
President Young, they retraced their steps and passed on to the north.
When near the mouth of Emigration Canyon, Erastus Snow discovered he
had lost his coat which was thrown over the saddle and he went back to
find it, while Orson Pratt continued on to the north to the present
site of Salt Lake City. The following day others of the advance company
entered the valley.
The Land Dedicated
July 23, they moved north and camped on what was subsequently known as
the Eighth ward square, now occupied by the Salt Lake City and County
Building. Orson Pratt called the camp together, dedicated the land and
invoked a blessing on the seed they were about to plant. The ground
was found so hard that the first attempt to plow was unsuccessful, and
several plow-points were broken. By placing a dam in the stream (City
Creek) they soaked the ground and in the course of a few days several
acres were plowed and planted. The season being so late nothing came of
their planting, save the garnering of potatoes about the size of a pea
or a walnut, which served for seed the following year and produced a
good crop.
"This is the Place"
On the 24th of July, 1847, President Brigham Young with the main body
of the pioneers, entered the valley. He was resting in a carriage
driven by Elder Wilford Woodruff and as they emerged from the canyon
and pulled up onto a ridge President Young, who was ill, requested
Elder Woodruff to turn his carriage around so that he could look upon
the valley. This was done, and President Young gazed in silence for a
few moments. Then with an expression of satisfaction, he said, "This
is the place, drive on." They entered into the valley and camped with
the members who had preceded them. They had found the promised land
and a resting place for their weary feet, where they could fulfil the
predictions of the Prophet Joseph Smith, and become a mighty people in
the midst of the Rocky Mountains.
Notes
1. Outcasts from "civilization," with little to eat and little to wear;
with few expressions of sympathy, and less help extended in their
direction, it was only natural that the Saints on the plains at times
would be despondent. President Young constantly labored to cheer and
strengthen them. Shortly before the departure of the Pioneer band, he
requested Elder William Clayton to write something that would encourage
the people. Within two hours Elder Clayton had written the following
remarkable hymn, and set it to the music of "All is Well," an old
English tune:
Come, come, ye Saints, no toil nor labor fear; But with joy wend your
way. Though hard to you this journey may appear, Grace shall be as your
day. 'Tis better far for us to strive Our useless cares from us to
drive; Do this, and joy your hearts will swell--All is well! All is
well!
. . .
And should we die before our journey's through, Happy day! All is well!
We then are free from toil and sorrow, too; With the just we shall
dwell! But if our lives are spared again To see the Saints their rest
obtain, Oh, how we'll make this chorus swell--All is well! All is well!
2. Elders Orson Hyde, Parley P. Pratt and John Taylor had been sent to
England, after the exodus from Nauvoo, to set the British Mission in
order. Elders Reuben Hedlock and Thomas Ward, who were in charge, had
misappropriated the funds of "The Joint Stock Company," an organization
which had been formed for the purpose of assisting the Saints of the
British Isles to emigrate. The three apostles took charge of affairs
and soon had the mission again in a flourishing condition. Early in
1847, they again returned to the United States, Elders Pratt and Taylor
preceding Elder Hyde, who remained to install Elder Orson Spencer as
president of that mission. Elder Orson Spencer, a man of culture and
superior education, performed an excellent work and under his ministry
the mission flourished.
3. Luke S. Johnson, formerly of the council of the apostles, came to
Nauvoo in 1846 in a repentant spirit, and asked to be reinstated in the
Church. He was baptized and was forced to leave that place with the
body of the Saints. He was chosen as one of the pioneer band to come in
advance to the Salt Lake Valley. In the year 1858, he settled at St.
Johns, Tooele County, where he was ordained a bishop. He died in Salt
Lake City, December 9, 1861.
4. Congressional Globe, 27th Congress, 3rd Session, pp. 198-201.
5. The Reed-Donner party, comprised seventy-eight men, women and
children, under the direction of James F. Reed and George Donner, who
left Independence in May, 1846, for California. They came via Fort
Bridger, Echo and East Canyons through Emigration and westward through
the Salt Lake and Tooele Valleys, around the south end of Salt Lake.
Delayed by many misfortunes, they were caught in the snows in the
Sierras in the winter of 1846, where many of them perished. Near the
close of that year several of the ill-fated party put on snowshoes and
crossed to the Sacramento Valley for relief. A relief expedition was
sent back and found that the survivors had been living for weeks on
the flesh of their dead, like cannibals. Thirty-nine of the original
company had perished.