THE BEGINNINGS OF THE GREAT WAR
GERMANY'S RESPONSIBILITY.--Germany's tremendous increase of armaments,
her opposition to arbitration, her hostility to the purpose of the Hague
Conferences, her building up of the Triple Alliance, her challenge to
England's naval supremacy and her refusal to accept England's suggestion
that both nations should limit their expenditures on naval armaments,
the glorification of war on the part of her teachers and writers,--all
make it clear that the present Great War was of her planning. For years
she prepared herself to inflict a crushing blow with all the weight of
her powerful army and navy and establish herself as the mistress of the
world. On this she was willing to stake her very existence. To use a
phrase made famous by one of her leading military writers, Germany had
decided upon "world power or downfall."
German militarists all looked forward to the day when her years of
preparation would at last reap their reward through the crushing of
Germany's rivals. England particularly, with her vast trade, her
colonial empire, and her control of the sea, they planned to lower to a
subordinate position in the world. "_Der Tag_" (dĕr tahkh), "the day"
when the long-awaited war should burst upon the world, was a favorite
toast in the German army and navy. As long ago as the end of the
Spanish-American War, a German diplomat said to an American army
officer: "About fifteen years from now my country will start her great
war. She will be in Paris in about two months after the commencement of
hostilities. Her move on Paris will be but a step to her real
object--the crushing of England. Everything will move like clockwork. We
will be prepared and others will not be prepared."
FINAL PREPARATIONS.--In 1913 the German government decided upon a
large increase in her already tremendous standing army. Immense sums
were also appropriated for aircraft and for huge guns powerful enough to
batter to pieces the strongest fortresses. To pay for this extra
equipment additional heavy taxes were voted. The new arrangements were
all to be completed by the fall of 1914. Alterations were also hurried
on the Kiel Canal. This waterway, connecting the Baltic with the North
Sea, had been opened in 1895 and was of great naval importance. The new
German battleships, however, were so large that the canal was not large
enough to admit them. The work of widening and deepening the passage was
undertaken by the government, and was finally completed on July 1, 1914.
Preparations for the Great War were complete at last, both on land and
sea. The gunpowder was ready. All that was needed was a spark to bring
about the explosion.
THE AUSTRO-SERBIAN QUESTION.--For years before the war the Serbs and
other Jugo-Slavs in the southern provinces of Austria-Hungary had been
dissatisfied with Austrian rule. The Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina
(hĕr-tsĕ-go-vee´nah) were especially aroused when those provinces, after
a long temporary government by Austria-Hungary, were formally annexed by
that power in 1908. Their wish was for union with the adjoining Serbian
kingdom. Their aspirations did not cause very much trouble while Serbia
was small and weak; but when, as a result of the Balkan wars, Serbia was
revealed to the world as a warlike nation with extended boundaries and
growing national ambitions, the Austrian Serbs grew restless. There is
little doubt that Serbs of Serbia had much to do with the anti-Austrian
activities that rapidly spread among their brothers within the Austrian
Empire. The Austrian government, much disturbed by a movement that
threatened to spread among her other subject populations, began to seek
a pretext for crushing her southern neighbor and so settling the
troublesome Serbian question once for all.
In 1913, at the close of the second Balkan war, Austria-Hungary informed
her allies, Italy and Germany, of her intention to make war upon Serbia,
and asked for the support of those countries. Italy refused to have any
part in the matter. Germany, realizing that Russia would probably come
to the assistance of Serbia and that a general European war might
follow, no doubt prevailed upon Austria to stay her hand. Germany's
preparations at that time were not quite complete.
THE ASSASSINATION OF FRANCIS FERDINAND.--In the early summer of 1914
occurred the event that was destined to plunge the world into war.
Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, made
a visit to the southern provinces of the monarchy. On June 28, while he
and his wife were driving through the streets of Serajevo (sĕr´a-yā-vo),
in Bosnia, three pistol shots were fired into the carriage, mortally
wounding the archduke and his wife. The assassin was an Austrian Serb, a
member of a Serbian secret society which had for its aim the separation
of the Serb provinces from Austria-Hungary and their annexation to the
kingdom of Serbia. The crime caused great excitement and horror
throughout Europe. But the deed had given Austria the opportunity to
settle its account with Serbia and thus put an end to the Serb plottings
within the Austrian borders.
THE DECISION FOR WAR.--There is evidence that on July 5, one week
after the murder at Serajevo, a secret meeting of German and Austrian
statesmen and generals took place in the German emperor's palace at
Potsdam, a suburb of Berlin. Probably at this conference it was
definitely decided that the assassination of the Austrian crown prince
should be used as a pretext for crushing Serbia. Austria, it was
expected, would thus permanently settle her Serbian problem. Germany
must have known that this action would probably lead to a general
European war, since Russia would come to the rescue of Serbia and France
would stand by Russia. But Germany was ready at last, and so the
terrible decision was made.
THE AUSTRIAN ULTIMATUM.--On July 23, the Austro-Hungarian government
sent a note to the government of Serbia holding her accountable for the
Serajevo murder and making a number of humiliating demands. Serbia was
told she must suppress all newspapers inciting enmity to Austria, that
she must dissolve all societies that were working toward "Pan-Serbism,"
that she must dismiss from the Serbian public service all officials whom
the Austrian government should officially accuse of plotting against
Austria, that she must accept the help of Austrian officials in Serbia
in the putting down of anti-Austrian activities and in searching out
accessories to the plot of June 28, that she must arrest two Serbian
officials who had been implicated by the trial in Serajevo, and that she
must put a stop to the smuggling of arms from Serbia into Austria.
The demand that Serbia admit Austrian officials into Serbia to take part
in the work of investigation and suppression was an intolerable invasion
of Serbia's sovereignty within her own borders. But the most threatening
part of the note was its conclusion: "The Austro-Hungarian government
expects the reply of the royal [Serbian] government at the latest by 6
o'clock on Saturday evening, the 25th of July." In other words, the note
was an ultimatum giving Serbia a period of only forty-eight hours in
which to agree to the Austrian demands.
SERBIA'S REPLY.--Serbia's answer to the Austrian ultimatum was
delivered within a few minutes of the time set. She agreed, practically,
to all the Austrian demands except those which required that Austrian
officials should conduct investigations and suppress conspiracies in
Serbia, and she even went part way toward accepting those. Serbia went
on to suggest that if Austria was not entirely satisfied with the reply,
the points still in dispute should be referred to the international
tribunal at The Hague. This reply the Austrian government considered
unsatisfactory. Forty-five minutes after the Serbian note had been
placed in the hands of the Austrian minister to Serbia that official
handed a notice to the Serbian government stating "that not having
received a satisfactory answer within the time limit set, he was leaving
Belgrade" (the Serbian capital). Austria-Hungary made immediate
preparations for the invasion of Serbia and on July 28 declared war.
EFFORTS FOR PEACE.--Meanwhile Great Britain, France, and Italy were
putting forth every effort to preserve the peace of Europe. In these
efforts the lead was taken by Sir Edward Grey, the British foreign
minister. As early as July 26 he urged a conference at London of the
representatives of France, Germany, Italy, and Great Britain to find
some solution of the problem which might be satisfactory to both Austria
and Russia. Italy and France agreed at once, but Germany raised
objections. Germany's only suggestion for preserving the general peace
of Europe was that Austria should be permitted to deal with Serbia as
she pleased, without interference from any other power. And so it
continued through those critical days. Every effort made by England
looking toward a peaceful settlement of the quarrel was baffled by
Germany's refusal to coöperate. This is not difficult to understand in
the light of our later knowledge of the plans and aims of the German
government.
THE DECLARATIONS OF WAR.--Austria's declaration of war on Serbia (July
28) was followed by the general mobilization of Austria's troops.
Austria maintained that all her armies were for the war on Serbia, but
her preparations were so extensive that it was clear she was getting
ready to fight Russia also. In reply Russia began to mobilize her
troops, partly to prevent the destruction of Serbia, but also to defend
herself from possible Austrian attacks. Russia definitely notified
Germany that her mobilization was directed against Austria only.
Meanwhile England continued her efforts to bring about a conference of
the powers, a plan which Germany continued to foil. The Czar in a formal
telegram to the Kaiser on July 29 suggested that the Austro-Serbian
problem be given over to the Hague Tribunal, a suggestion which would
have led to peace. Nothing came of this proposal.
On July 31 the German government, on the ground that Russia's
mobilization was a threat of war, sent ultimatums to both Russia and
France. The ultimatum to Russia gave that government twelve hours in
which to stop all war preparations against both Germany and Austria. The
ultimatum to France informed that government of the message just sent to
Russia, and demanded a reply within eighteen hours as to whether France
would remain neutral in case of war between Germany and Russia. The
crowds in the streets of Berlin went wild with joy over the news of the
two ultimatums. There were cries of "On to Paris" and "On to St.
Petersburg." The Kaiser addressed his people from the balcony of his
palace. In the course of his speech, he said, "The sword is being forced
into our hand." The government of Germany had decided to make its people
believe that they were about to fight in self-defense.
Russia would not demobilize her armies under a German threat.
Consequently the next day, August 1, Germany declared war upon Russia.
Two days later, August 3, Germany declared war on France because that
country had refused to desert her ally in this time of danger. The
greatest war of all history had begun.
GREAT BRITAIN ENTERS THE WAR.--The German military leaders felt sure
that Great Britain would remain neutral in case of a general European
war. They based this belief on the peaceful temper of the English
people, upon the serious domestic problems she was facing, such as the
question of woman suffrage, Irish Home Rule, and the threatening labor
situation. Germany regarded England as a nation of shopkeepers who would
not fight unless they were attacked. After Germany had made herself
supreme on the Continent England's turn would come.
Great Britain's agreement with France and Russia, the other members of
the Triple Entente, did not go so far as to require her to join them in
case they should be involved in war. It is difficult to say whether or
not Great Britain would have decided to enter the conflict at this time
if a new element had not been introduced into the question by Germany's
invasion of Belgium. Of this invasion more will be said in the following
chapter. All that need be mentioned here is that Germany, in spite of a
long-standing treaty to observe Belgium's neutrality, had decided on
marching through that country as the best route to Paris. Great Britain,
as one of the nations which had promised to protect the neutrality of
Belgium, immediately demanded of the German government that it withdraw
its plan of invasion. Germany refused, and on August 4 Great Britain
declared war. So one week after Austria's declaration of war against
Serbia all the powers of the Triple Entente--commonly called the
Allies--were in arms against Germany and Austria. Italy, the third
member of the Triple Alliance, on August 1 declared herself neutral,
much to the disappointment and anger of the Central Powers, her former
allies. Her treaty with them provided that she should come to their aid
only in case they were attacked, and so did not apply to the present
war, in which Germany and Austria were the aggressors.
SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY.--1. Locate the Kiel Canal. What is
its other name? When and why was it constructed? 2. Locate
Potsdam, Belgrade, Serajevo. 3. Define ultimatum;
mobilization; "Der Tag"; Jugo-Slavs. 4. What is the meaning
of the prefix "pan" in Pan-Slavism, Pan-Germanism,
Pan-Serbism? What do you know about each of these movements?
5. What is a declaration of war? Who has the power to declare
war in the United States? In Germany? 6. Where are the
provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina? How were they governed
before 1878? Between 1878 and 1908? Since 1908? 7. Review the
efforts for peace made by the British government between the
Austrian ultimatum and Germany's final declarations of war.
Explain the attitude of Austria, Russia, France, and Germany
during these days.
REFERENCES.--_War Cyclopedia_ (C.P.I.); _Study of the Great
War_ (C.P.I.); _The Government of Germany_ (C.P.I.); Davis,
_The Roots of the War_.