THE ESKIMOS OF LABRADOR
During our stay in Ungava, and the succeeding weeks while we traveled
down the ice-bound coast, we were brought into constant and intimate
contact with the Eskimos. We saw them in almost every phase of their
winter life, eating and sleeping with them in their tupeks and igloos,
and meeting them in their hunting camps and at the Fort, when they came
to barter and to enjoy the festivities of the Christmas holiday week.
The Cree Indians used to call these people "Ashkimai," which means "raw
meat eaters," and it is from this appellation that our word Eskimo is
derived. Here in Ungava and on the coast of Hudson's Bay, they are
pretty generally known as "Huskies," a contraction of "Huskimos," the
pronunciation given to the word _Eskimos_ by the English sailors of the
trading vessels, with their well-known penchant for tacking on the "h"
where it does not belong, and leaving it off when it should be
pronounced.
The Eskimos call themselves "Innuit," [Singular, Innuk; dual, Innuek]
which means people--humans. The white visitor is a "Kablunak," or
outlander, while a breed born in the country is a "Kablunangayok," or
one partaking of the qualities of both the Innuk and the Kablunak.
Those who live in the Koksoak district are called "Koksoagmiut," * and
those of the George River district are the "Kangerlualuksoagmiut." **
The ethnologists, I believe, have never agreed upon the origin of the
Eskimo, some claiming it is Mongolian, some otherwise. In passing I
shall simply remark that in appearance they certainly resemble the
Mongolian race. If some of the men that I saw in the North were
dressed like Japanese or Chinese and placed side by side with them, the
one could not be told from the other so long as the Eskimos kept their
mouths closed.
In our old school geographies we used to see them pictured as stockily
built little fellows. In real life they compare well in stature with
the white man of the temperate zone. With a very few exceptions the
Eskimos of Ungava average over five feet eight inches in height, with
some six-footers.
* _Kok_, river; _soak_, big; _miut_, inhabitants; _Koksoagmiut_,
inhabitants of the big river.
** Literally, inhabitants of the very big bay. The George River mouth
widens into a bay which is known as the Very Big Bay.
Their legs are shorter and their bodies longer than the white man's,
and this probably is one reason why they have such wonderful capacity
for physical endurance. In this respect they are the superior of the
Indian. With plenty of food and a bush to lie under at night the
Indian will doubtless travel farther in a given time than the Eskimo.
But turn them both loose with only food enough for one meal a day for a
month on the bare rocks or ice fields of the Arctic North, and your
Indian will soon be dead, while your Eskimo will emerge from the test
practically none the worse for his experience, for it is a usual
experience with him and he has a wonderful amount of dogged
perseverance. The Eskimo knows better how to husband his food than the
Indian; and give him a snow bank and he can make himself comfortable
anywhere. The most gluttonous Indian would turn green with envy to see
the quantities of meat the Eskimo can stow away within his inner self
at a single sitting; but on the other hand he can live, and work hard
too, on a single scant meal a day, just as his dogs do.
The facial characteristics of the Eskimo are wide cheek bones and
round, full face, with a flat, broad nose. I used to look at these
flat, comfortable noses on very cold days and wish that for winter
travel I might be able to exchange the longer face projection that my
Scotch-Irish forbears have handed down to me for one of them, for they
are not so easily frosted in a forty or fifty degrees below zero
temperature. By the way, if you ever get your nose frozen do not rub
snow on it. If you do you will rub all the skin off, and have a pretty
sore member to nurse for some time afterward. Grasp it, instead, in
your bare hand. That is the Eskimo's way, and he knows. My advice is
founded upon experience.
They are not so dark-hued as the Indians--in fact, many of them are no
darker than the average white man under like conditions of exposure to
wind and storm and sun would be. The hair is straight, black, coarse
and abundant. The men usually wear it hanging below their ears, cut
straight around, with a forehead bang reaching nearly to the eyebrows.
The women wear it braided and looped up on the sides of the head.
What constitutes beauty is of course largely a question of individual
taste. My own judgment of the Eskimos is that they are very ugly,
although I have seen young women among them whom I thought actually
handsome. This was when they first arrived at the Post with dogs and
komatik and they were dressed in their native costume of deerskin
trousers and Koolutuk, their cheeks red and glowing with the exercise
of travel and the keen, frosty atmosphere. A half hour later I have
seen the same women when stringy, dirty skirts had replaced the
neat-fitting trousers, and Dr. Grenfell's description of them when thus
clad invariably came to my mind: "A bedraggled kind of mop, soaked in
oil and filth." This tendency to ape civilization by wearing civilized
garments, is happily confined to their brief sojourns at the Post.
When they are away at their camps and igloos their own costume is
almost exclusively worn, and is the best possible costume for the
climate and the country. The adikey, or koolutuk, of the women, has a
long flap or tail, reaching nearly to the heels, and a sort of apron in
front. The hood is so commodious in size that a baby can be tucked
away into it, and that is the way the small children are carried. The
men wear cloth trousers except in the very cold weather, when they don
their deer or seal skins. Their adikey or koolutuk reaches half way to
their knees, and is cut square around. The hood of course, in their
case, is only large enough to cover the head. It might be of interest
to explain that if this garment is made of cloth it is an _adikey_; if
of deerskin, a _koolutuk_, and if made of sealskin, a _netsek_--all cut
alike. If they wear two cloth garments at the same time, as is usually
the case, the inner one only is an adikey, the outer one a silapak.
Their language is the same from Greenland to Alaska. Of course
different localities have different dialects, but this is the natural
result of a different environment. Missionary Bohlman, whom I met at
Hebron, told me that before coming to Labrador he was attached to a
Greenland mission. When he came to his new field he found the language
so similar to that in Greenland that he had very little difficulty in
making himself understood. When Missionary Stecker a few years ago
went from Labrador to Alaska he was able to converse with the Alaskan
Eskimos. It is held by some authorities that Greenland was peopled by
Labrador Eskimos who crossed Hudson Strait to Baffin Land, and thence
made their way to Greenland, having originally crossed from Siberia
into Alaska, thence eastward, skirting Hudson Bay. This is entirely
feasible. I heard of one _umiak_ (skin boat) only a few years ago
having crossed to Cape Chidley from Baffin Land. Even in Labrador
there are many different dialects. The "Northerners," the people
inhabiting the northwest arm of the peninsula, have many words that the
Koksoagmiut do not understand. The intonation of the Ungava Eskimos,
particularly the women, is like a plaint. At Okak they sing their
words. Each settlement on the Atlantic coast has its own dialect. It
is a difficult language to learn. Words are compounded until they
reach a great and almost unpronounceable length.* Naturally the coming
of the trader has introduced many new words, as tobaccomik, teamik,
etc., "mik" being the accusative ending. The Eskimo in his language
cannot count beyond ten. If he wishes to express twelve, for instance,
he will say, "as many fingers as a man has and two more." To express
one hundred he would say, "five times as many fingers and toes as a man
has," and so on. It is not a written language, but the Moravians have
adapted the English alphabet to it and are teaching the Eskimos to read
and write. Mr. Stewart in his work has adapted the Cree syllabic
characters to the Eskimo, and he is teaching the Ungava people to write
by this method, which is largely phonetic. Both the Moravians and Mr.
Stewart are instructing them in the mystery of counting in German.
*The following will illustrate this; it is part of a sentence quoted
from a Moravian missionary pamphlet: "Taimailinganiarpok, illagget
Labradormiut namgminek akkilejungnalerkartinaget pijariakartamingnik
tamainik, sakkertitsijungnalerkartinagillo ajokertnijunik."
** The Eskimo numerals are as follows: 1, attansek; 2, magguk; 3,
pingasut; 4, sittamat; 5, tellimat; 6, pingasoyortut; 7, aggartut; 8,
sittamauyortut; 9, sittamartut; 10, tellimauyortut.
Cleanliness is not one of the Eskimos' virtues, and they are frequently
infested with vermin, which are wont to transfer their allegiance to
visitors, as we learned in due course, to our discomfiture. For many
months of the year the only water they have is obtained by melting snow
or ice. In sections where there is no wood for fuel this must be done
over stone lamps in which seal oil is burned, and it is so slow a
process that the water thus procured is held too precious to be wasted
in cleansing body or clothing. One of the missionaries remarked that
"the children must be very clean little creatures, for the parents
never find it necessary to wash them."
They treat the children with the greatest kindness and
consideration--not only their own, but all children, generally. I did
not once see an Eskimo punish a child, nor hear a harsh word spoken to
one, and they are the most obedient youngsters in the world. A
missionary on the Atlantic coast told me that once when he punished his
child an Eskimo standing near remarked: "You don't love you child or
you wouldn't punish it." And this is the sentiment they hold.
Love is not essential to a happy marriage among the Eskimos. When a
man wants a woman he takes her. In fact they believe that an unwilling
bride makes a good wife. Potokomik's wife was most unwilling, and he
took her, dragging her by the tail of her adikey from her father's
igloo across the river on the ice to his own, and they have "lived
happily ever after," which seems to prove the correctness of the Eskimo
theory as to unwilling brides. Of course if Potokomik's wife had not
liked him after a fair trial, she could have left him, or if she had
not come up to his expectations he could have sent her back home and
tried another. It is all quite simple, for there is no marriage
ceremony and resort to South Dakota courts for divorce is unnecessary.
If a man wants two wives, why he has them, if there are women enough.
That, too, is a very agreeable arrangement, for when he is away hunting
the women keep each other company. Small families are the rule, and I
did not hear of a case where twins had ever been born to the Eskimos.
Dancing and football are among their chief pastimes. The men enter
into the dance with zest, but the women as though they were performing
some awful penance. Both sexes play football. They have learned the
use of cards and are reckless gamblers, sometimes staking even the
garments on their backs in play.
The Eskimo is a close bargainer, and after he has agreed to do you a
service for a consideration will as likely as not change his mind at
the last moment and leave you in the lurch. At the same time he is in
many respects a child.
The dwellings are of three kinds: The _tupek_--skin tent;
_igloowiuk_--snow house; and permanent igloo, built of driftwood,
stones and turf--the larger ones are _igloosoaks_.
Flesh and fish, as is the case with the Indians, form the principal
food, but while the Indians cook everything the Eskimos as often eat
their meat and fish raw, and are not too particular as to its age or
state of decay. They are very fond of venison and seal meat, and for
variety's sake welcome dog meat. A few years ago a disease carried off
several of the dogs at Fort Chimo and every carcass was eaten. One old
fellow, in fact, as Mathewson related to me, ate nothing else during
that time, and when the epidemic was over bemoaned the fact that no
more dog meat could be had.
On the Atlantic coast where the snow houses are not used and the
Eskimos live more generally during the winter in the close, vile
igloos, there is more or less tubercular trouble. Even farther south,
where the natives have learned cleanliness, and live in comfortable log
cabins that are fairly well aired, this is the prevailing disease.
After leaving Ramah, the farther south you go the more general is the
adoption of civilized customs, food and habits of life, and with the
increase of civilization so also comes an increased death rate amongst
the Eskimos. Formerly there was a considerable number of these people
on the Straits of Belle Isle. Now there is not one there. South of
Hamilton Inlet but two full-blood Eskimos remain. Below Ramah the
deaths exceed the births, and at one settlement alone there are fifty
less people to-day than three years ago.
Civilization is responsible for this. At the present time there
remains on the Atlantic coast, between the Straits of Belle Isle and
Cape Chidley, but eleven hundred and twenty-seven full-blood Eskimos.
Five years hence there will not be a thousand. In Ungava district,
where they have as yet accepted practically nothing of civilization,
the births exceed the deaths, and I did not learn of a single
well-authenticated case of tuberculosis while I was there. There were
a few cases of rheumatism. Death comes early, however, owing to the
life of constant hardship and exposure. Usually they do not exceed
sixty or sixty-five years of age, though I saw one man that had rounded
his three score years and ten.
Formerly they encased their dead in skins and lay them out upon the
rocks with the clothing and things they had used in life. Now rough
wooden boxes are provided by the traders. The dogs in time break the
coffins open and pick the bones, which lie uncared for, to be bleached
by the frosts of winter and suns of summer. Mr. Stewart has collected
and buried many of these bones, and is endeavoring now to have all
bodies buried.
Of all the missionaries that I met in this bleak northern land, devoted
as every one of them is to his life work, none was more devoted and
none was doing a more self-sacrificing work than the Rev. Samuel
Milliken Stewart of Fort Chimo. His novitiate as a missionary was
begun in one of the little out-port fishing villages of Newfoundland.
Finally he was transferred to that fearfully barren stretch among the
heathen Eskimos north of Nachvak. Here he and his Eskimo servant
gathered together such loose driftwood as they could find, and with
this and stones and turf erected a single-roomed igloo. It was a small
affair, not over ten by twelve or fourteen feet in size, and an
imaginary line separated the missionary's quarters from his servant's.
On his knees, in an old resting place for the dead, with the bleaching
bones of heathen Eskimos strewn over the rocks about him, he
consecrated his life efforts to the conversion of this people to
Christianity. Then he went to work to accomplish this purpose in a
businesslike way. He set himself the infinite task of mastering the
difficult language. He lived their life with them, visiting and
sleeping with them in their filthy igloos--so filthy and so filled with
stench from the putrid meat and fish scraps that they permit to lie
about and decay that frequently at first, until he became accustomed to
it, he was forced to seek the open air and relieve the resulting
nausea. But Stewart is a man of iron will, and he never wavered. He
studied his people, administered medicines to the sick, and taught the
doctrines of Christianity--Love, Faith and Charity--at every
opportunity. That first winter was a trying one. All his little stock
of fuel was exhausted early. The few articles of furniture that he had
brought with him he burned to help keep out the frost demon, and before
spring suffered greatly with the cold. The winter before our arrival
he transferred his efforts to the Fort Chimo district, where his field
would be larger and he could reach a greater number of the heathens.
During the journey to Fort Chimo, which was across the upper peninsula,
with dogs, he was lost in storms that prevailed at the time, his
provisions were exhausted, and one dog had been killed to feed the
others, before he finally met Eskimos who guided him in safety to
George River. At Fort Chimo the Hudson's Bay Company set aside two
small buildings to his use, one for a chapel, the other a little cabin
in which he lives. Here we found him one day with a pot of
high-smelling seal meat cooking for his dogs and a pan of dough cakes
frying for himself. With Stewart in this cabin I spent many delightful
hours. His constant flow of well-told stories, flavored with native
Irish wit, was a sure panacea for despondency. I believe Stewart, with
his sunny temperament, is really enjoying his life amongst the heathen,
and he has made an obvious impression upon them, for every one of them
turns out to his chapel meetings, where the services are conducted in
Eskimo, and takes part with a will.
The Eskimo religion, like that of the Indian, is one of fear. Numerous
are the spirits that people the land and depths of the sea, but the
chief of them all is Torngak, the spirit of Death, who from his cavern
dwelling in the heights of the mighty Torngaeks (the mountains north of
the George River toward Cape Chidley) watches them always and rules
their fortunes with an iron hand, dealing out misfortune, or
withholding it, at his will. It is only through the medium of the
Angakok, or conjurer, that the people can learn what to do to keep
Torngak and the lesser spirits of evil, with their varying moods, in
good humor. Stewart has led some of the Eskimos to at least outwardly
renounce their heathenism and profess Christianity. In a few instances
I believe they are sincere. If he remains upon the field, as I know he
wishes to do, he will have them all professing Christianity within the
next few years, for they like him. But he has no more regard for
danger, when he believes duty calls him, than Dr. Grenfell has, and it
is predicted on the coast that some day Dr. Grenfell will take one
chance too many with the elements.
Of course, coming among the Eskimos as we did in winter, we did not see
them using their kayaks or their umiaks,* but our experience with dogs
and komatik was pretty complete. These dogs are big wolfish creatures,
which resemble wolves so closely in fact that when the dogs and wolves
are together the one can scarcely be told from the other. It sometimes
happens that a stray wolf will hobnob with the dogs, and litters of
half wolf, half dog have been born at the posts.
* A large open boat with wooden frame and sealskin covering. The women
row the umiaks while the men sit idle. It is beneath the dignity of
the latter to handle the oars when women are present to do it.
There are no better Eskimo dogs to be found anywhere in the far north
than the husky dogs of Ungava. Wonderful tales are told of long
distances covered by them in a single day, the record trip of which I
heard being one hundred and twelve miles. But this was in the spring,
when the days were long and the snow hard and firm. The farthest I
ever traveled myself in a single day with dogs and komatik was sixty
miles. When the snow is loose and the days are short, twenty to thirty
miles constitute a day's work.
From five to twelve dogs are usually driven in one team, though
sometimes a man is seen plodding along with a two-dog team, and
occasionally as many as sixteen or eighteen are harnessed to a komatik,
but these very large teams are unwieldy.
The komatiks in the Ungava district vary from ten to eighteen feet in
length. The runners are about two and one-half inches thick at the
bottom, tapering slightly toward the top to reduce friction where they
sink into the snow. They are usually placed sixteen inches apart, and
crossbars extending about an inch over the outer runner on either side
are lashed across the runners by means of thongs of sealskin or heavy
twine, which is passed through holes bored into the crossbars and the
runners. The use of lashings instead of nails or screws permits the
komatik to yield readily in passing over rough places, where metal
fastenings would be pulled out, or be snapped off by the frost. On
either side of each end of the overlapping ends of the crossbars
notches are cut, around which sealskin thongs are passed in lashing on
the load. The bottoms of the komatik runners are "mudded." During the
summer the Eskimos store up turf for this purpose, testing bits of it
by chewing it to be sure that it contains no grit. When the cold
weather comes the turf is mixed with warm water until it reaches the
consistency of mud. Then with the hands it is molded over the bottom
of the runners. The mud quickly freezes, after which it is carefully
planed smooth and round. Then it is iced by applying warm water with a
bit of hairy deerskin. These mudded runners slip very smoothly over
the soft snow, but are liable to chip off on rough ice or when they
strike rocks, as frequently happens, for the frozen mud is as brittle
as glass. On the Atlantic coast from Nachvak south, mud is never used,
and there the komatiks are wider and shorter with runners of not much
more than half the thickness, and as you go south the komatiks continue
to grow wider and shorter. In the south, too, hoop iron or whalebone
is used for runner shoeing.
A sealskin thong called a bridle, of a varying length of from twenty to
forty feet, is attached to the front of the komatik, and to the end of
this the dogs' traces are fastened. Each dog has an individual trace
which may be from eight to thirty feet in length, depending upon the
size of the team, so arranged that not more than two dogs are abreast,
the "leader" having, of course, the longest trace of the pack. This
long bridle and the long traces are made necessary by the rough
country. They permit the animals to swerve well to one side clear of
the komatik when coasting down a hillside. In the length of bridle and
trace there is also a wide variation in different sections, those used
in the south being very much shorter than those in the north. The dog
harness is made usually of polar bear or sealskin. There are no reins.
The driver controls his team by shouting directions, and with a walrus
hide whip, which is from twenty-five to thirty-five feet in length. An
expert with this whip, running after the dogs, can hit any dog he
chooses at will, and sometimes he is cruel to excess.
To start his team the driver calls "oo-isht," (in the south this
becomes "hoo-eet") to turn to the right "ouk," to the left "ra-der,
ra-der" and to stop "aw-aw." The leader responds to the shouted
directions and the pack follow.
The Ungava Eskimo never upon any account travels with komatik and dogs
without a snow knife. With this implement he can in a little while
make himself a comfortable snow igloo, where he may spend the night or
wait for a storm to pass.
In winter it is practically impossible to buy a dog in Ungava. The
people have only enough for their own use, and will not part with them,
and if they have plenty to eat it is difficult to employ them for any
purpose. This I discovered very promptly when I endeavored to induce
some of them to take us a stage on our journey homeward.