Transcriber’s Note: The spelling, accents and hyphenation of given
names are inconsistent and have been retained as printed.
SCANDINAVIAN RELATIONS
WITH IRELAND DURING
THE VIKING PERIOD
BY
A. WALSH
[Illustration]
DUBLIN
THE TALBOT PRESS LIMITED
LONDON
T. FISHER UNWIN LIMITED
1922
PREFACE
This short study was written during my tenure of a Travelling
Studentship from the National University of Ireland, and in March,
1920, was accepted for the Research Degree Certificate of Cambridge
University.
A glance at the bibliography shows that comparatively little has
been written in English on this interesting period of our history.
On the other hand modern Scandinavian scholars--Alexander Bugge,
Marstrander, and Vogt--have thrown a good deal of light on the subject,
but unfortunately very few of their books have been translated into
English. The present dissertation is based principally upon the Old and
Middle Irish annals and chronicles and the Icelandic sagas; reference
has also been made to the work of Scandinavian, English and Irish
scholars on the subject.
I should like to acknowledge my debt to Professor Chadwick, who
directed my work: those who have had the privilege of working under
him will readily understand how much is due to his encouragement and
stimulating criticism. I wish also to express my thanks to my friends,
Miss N. Kershaw and Mr. E. J. Thomas, for many kindnesses while the
book was in preparation; to Miss Eleanor Hull and Professor Ó’Máille,
University College, Galway, for the loan of books; and to the Librarian
and staff of Cambridge University Library, the National Library,
Dublin, and T.C.D. Library.
A. W.
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE
Chap.
I. THE VIKINGS IN IRELAND (795-1014) 1
II. INTERCOURSE BETWEEN THE GAILL AND THE GAEDHIL DURING THE
VIKING PERIOD 10
III. THE GROWTH OF THE SEAPORT TOWNS 21
IV. THE EXPANSION OF IRISH TRADE 29
V. SHIPBUILDING AND SEAFARING 35
VI. LINGUISTIC INFLUENCES 40
(_a_) Loan-words from Old Norse in Irish.
(_b_) Gaelic Words in Old Norse Literature.
(_c_) Irish Influence on Icelandic Place-nomenclature.
VII. THE VIKINGS AND THE CELTIC CHURCH 47
VIII. LITERARY INFLUENCE. THE SAGAS OF ICELAND AND IRELAND 57
BIBLIOGRAPHY 77
Scandinavian Relations with Ireland during the Viking Period.
CHAPTER I.
THE VIKINGS IN IRELAND (795-1014).
The Vikings made their first appearance[1] on the Irish coasts in 795
A.D., when they plundered and burned the church on Recru, or Lambay
Island, near Dublin. During the next ten or twelve years Ireland
seems to have been almost free from further attacks, but in 807 they
descended on Inis Murray, off the Sligo coast, and from there made
their way inland to Roscommon.[2] After that the raids ceased for a few
years, then began again with renewed vigour on Connacht and Munster, on
some of the inland counties of Leinster, and on several places along
the east coast.[3]
The arrival of Turgeis[4] (O.N. Thorgestr) in Armagh, about 832, marks
a new phase of the invasions. Hitherto the Vikings had come in isolated
parties solely for purposes of plunder; now, however, “great sea-cast
floods of foreigners” landed in every harbour, and began to form
settlements in various parts of the island. Dublin was first occupied
in 836, and four years later the Norsemen strengthened their position
there considerably by the erection of a _longphort_ or fortress. From
their _longphort_ at Linn Duachaill (between Drogheda and Dundalk)
built in the same year, they made their way to the West and plundered
Clonmacnois, while settlers from Cael-uisce, near Newry, went south and
laid waste County Kildare.[5]
The power of Turgeis was not confined to the north of Ireland. His
fleets were stationed on Loch Ree, the centre from which Meath and
Connacht were devastated. His wife, Ota (O.N. Authr), desecrated
the monastery of Clonmacnois by giving her oracular responses (_a
frecartha_) from the high altar.[6] The tyranny of Turgeis came to
an end in 845, when he was captured by Maelsechnaill, who afterwards
became _árd-rí_, and was drowned in Lough Owel.[7]
After his death the tide of battle turned in favour of the Irish,
and the Norsemen were defeated in several battles. Weakened by
warfare, they had to contend in 849 with an enemy from without--the
Dubh-Gaill[8] or Danes who had sailed round the south coast of England
and landed in Ireland “to exercise authority over the foreigners who
were there before them.” Two years after their arrival the newcomers
plundered the fortresses at Dublin and Dundalk, but were attacked in
the following year on Carlingford Loch by the Norsemen. In this great
naval battle, which lasted three days and three nights, the Danes were
finally victorious.[9]
“Amhlaoibh Conung, son of the King of Lochlann,” known in Icelandic
sources as Olaf the White, came to Ireland about 852 to rule over his
countrymen, and to exact tribute from the Irish.[10] According to the
_Fragments of Annals_, he left suddenly and returned a few years later
accompanied by his “younger brother, Imhar,” who may be identified
with Ivarr Beinlausi (_i.e._, “the Boneless”) son of Ragnarr Lothbrók.
Both kings ruled from Dublin, which town now gained a new importance
as the seat of the Scandinavian Kings in Ireland. In 865 the Vikings
extended their activities to Scotland, whence they carried off much
plunder and many captives. An expedition on a larger scale was made by
Olaf and Ivarr in 869, when Dumbarton, after a four months’ siege, fell
into their hands. They returned in triumph to Ireland in the following
year with a large number of English, British, and Pictish prisoners
and ended their victorious march by the capture of Dunseverick (Co.
Antrim).[11]
Olaf returned to Norway some time after this to take part in the wars
there,[12] and we hear no more of him in the Irish Annals. “Imhar, King
of the Norsemen of all Ireland and Britain,” did not long survive him;
his death is recorded under the year 873.[13]
During the years which followed Ivarr’s death the country was
comparatively peaceful, and the Irish began to enjoy a rest from fresh
invasions, which lasted about forty years.[14] The Danes and the
Norsemen again began to quarrel among themselves, and once more their
opposing fleets met on Carlingford Lough;[15] in this battle Albann
(O.N. Halfdanr), brother of Ivarr, a well-known leader of the Vikings
in England, was slain. Dissensions also spread among the ranks of the
Dublin Norsemen, dividing them into two hostile parties, one siding
with Sitriucc, son of Ivarr, the other with a certain Sighfrith.[16]
This internal strife so weakened Norse power that the Irish captured
the fortress at Dublin in 902, and drove the Vikings across the sea
with great slaughter.
The forty years’ rest terminated abruptly in 913, when several fleets
arrived at Waterford and proceeded to ravage all Munster and Leinster.
In 916 Raghnall (O.N. Rögnvaldr), grandson of Ivarr, assumed command
while his brother or cousin, Sihtric Gale (also nicknamed Caoch, ‘the
Blind’) came with a fleet to Cenn Fuaid, in the east of Leinster, and
built a fortification there.[17] Both chiefs united forces against the
_árd-rí_ Niall Glundubh, and having defeated him in battle Sihtric
entered Dublin and became king (918). In the following year the Irish
under Niall made a brave stand at Kilmashogue, near Dublin, but Sihtric
won a decisive victory, and Niall and twelve other kings were among the
slain.[18]
Scandinavian power in Ireland was now at its height. Large fleets
occupied all the lakes in Ulster, so that no part of the surrounding
territory was safe from their attacks.[19] The Vikings also retained
their grip of the coast towns, and successfully withstood the efforts
made by the Irish leaders to dislodge them. Between the years 920
and 950 the importance of Dublin increased considerably through its
connection with the Scandinavian Kingdom of Northumbria. Raghnall,
grandson of Ivarr, captured York about 919[20] and reigned there until
his death in 921.[21] He was succeeded by Sihtric Gale, who had
been expelled from Dublin in the preceding year,[22] probably by his
brother, Guthfrith. After Sihtric’s death in 927 Guthfrith, King of
Dublin (d. 934), with the Vikings of Dundalk, left Ireland in order
to secure his own succession in York, but he would seem to have been
driven out by Aethelstan, for the Irish Annals mention his return to
Dublin after an absence of six months.[23]
Guthfrith’s son, Olaf, came forward about this time. Supported by the
Norsemen of Strangford Lough he plundered Armagh, but his subsequent
attacks on Ulster were checked by Muirchertach MacNeill, son of
Niall Glundubh. Olaf fought in alliance with Constantine in the
battle of Brunanburh (937), and after the defeat inflicted on them by
Aethelstan’s forces he fled to Dublin.[24] He is probably the “Anlaf of
Ireland” who was chosen King by the Northumbrians in 941,[25] but he
died about a year later.[26]
Another Olaf, the famous Olaf Cuaran, also called Sihtricsson to
distinguish between them, also played an important part in campaigns in
Ireland and England. He went to York about 941, and was elected king
by the Northumbrians, but was expelled after a few years along with
Raegenald, son of Guthfrith.[27] He then took the Dublin Kingdom under
his rule, and in the following year was defeated in battle by the Irish
at Slaine (Co. Meath). Leaving his brother Guthfrith to govern in his
stead, he departed to York, where he became king a second time; but the
Northumbrians drove him out after three years and placed “Yric, son of
Harald” (_i.e._, Eric Bloodaxe, late King of Norway) on the throne.[28]
Henceforward Olaf limited his activities to Ireland, where he reigned,
the most famous of the Dublin Kings, for some thirty years. In 980,
having summoned auxiliaries from the Scottish isles and Man, he
prepared to attack the _árd-rí_, Maelsechnaill II. A fierce battle was
fought between them at Tara in which the Norse armies were completely
routed, Olaf’s son Raghnall being among the slain. Maelsechnaill
followed up this victory by a three days’ siege of Dublin, after
which he carried off a number of hostages from the Norsemen, and also
obtained from them 2,000 kine, together with jewels and various other
treasures.[29] Olaf himself, utterly disheartened by his defeat, went
on pilgrimage to Iona, where he died soon after.
Some fifteen years before, a severe blow had been struck at the
power of the Limerick Vikings under Ivarr, grandson of Ivarr and his
sons. The attack made on them at Sulcoit (968) by two princes of the
Dal Cais, the brothers Mathgamain and Brian, resulted in victory
for the Irish, who took Limerick shortly after.[30] Mathgamain was
treacherously murdered in 976, and Brian then became King of Thomond.
He soon brought the Kingdoms of Ossory and Leinster under his control,
and by the terms of a treaty made in 998 Maelsechnaill consented
to leave Brian master of Leth Mogha (_i.e._, the southern half of
Ireland). The Leinstermen under King Maelmordha, dissatisfied with
this arrangement, began to make trouble and revolted, assisted by the
Dublin Norsemen. An important victory was gained over their combined
armies at Gleann Mama (Co. Wicklow) in the year 1000 by Brian, who
after the battle captured Dublin. King Sihtric (O.N. Sigtryggr), son of
Olaf Cuaran, had to submit to Brian’s authority. Having accepted his
allegiance Brian married Gormflaith, mother of Sihtric and sister of
Maelmordha, and at the same time gave his own daughter to Sihtric in
marriage.[31]
Brian became _árd-rí_ in 1002, and after that for about twelve years
there was peace. Towards the end of that time Gormflaith, who had
meanwhile separated from her husband, incited her brother Maelmordha to
make war on Brian. Maelmordha and Sihtric began to gather forces for
the coming struggle. Sihtric at his mother’s command sought the aid of
Sigurthr, Earl of Orkney and of Brodar,[32] a Viking whose fleet then
lay off the west coast of Man. Fleets also came from Norway[33] and
Iceland to help their kinsmen. The armies under Brian and Maelsechnaill
marched towards Dublin, and having encamped near Kilmainham set fire
to the district of Fingal (_i.e._, _Fine Gall_, “the Foreigners’
territory”) north of the city. The two armies met at Clontarf on Good
Friday morning and the battle, one of the most famous ever fought on
Irish soil, raged all that day. The Norsemen suffered a severe defeat,
and in attempting to fly for refuge to their ships were slaughtered by
Maelsechnaill at Dubhgall’s Bridge, near the Four Courts. Brian himself
did not take part in the fight, but he was slain in his tent by Brodar
after the battle.[34]
After the Battle of Clontarf the Norsemen became gradually absorbed
in the general population except in a few coast towns, where they
continued to live more or less distinct and governed by petty kings
until the English Invasion (1169). In the chronicles of the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries they are generally alluded to as “_Ostmen_”
(corruptly _Houstmanni_, _Nosmani_, etc.),[35] and it would seem that
when Dublin, Limerick, and Waterford were captured by the English the
“Ostmen” had to withdraw to certain districts outside the walls of
these towns. Thus, near Dublin, north of the River Liffey, we hear of
Ostmaneby[36] (_i.e._, _Austmannabyr_) afterwards called Ostmanstonry,
and now known as Oxmanstown. Mention is also made (c. 1200) of a
“‘cantred’ of the Ostmen and holy isle,” near Limerick and (c. 1282)
of a “vill of the Ostmen”[37] near Waterford.[38] In the records of
the fourteenth century, however, there is an almost total absence of
references to the “Ostmen” in Ireland.[39]
FOOTNOTES
[1] Zimmer was of the opinion that the Norsemen made their way to
Ireland as early as the seventh century. He bases his theory on an
entry in the _Annals of Ulster_ and in certain other Irish annals
(under the year 617) recording “the devastation of Tory Island by
a marine fleet.” (_über die frühesten Berührungen der Iren mit den
Nordgermanen_, p. 279 ff. in _Sitzungsberichte der kgl. preussischen
Akademie der Wissenschaften_. 1891. Bd. I., pp. 279-317.) But this
attack is likely to have been due to Saxon or Pictish raiders rather
than to the Norsemen.
[2] _Annals of the Four Masters_, A.D. 807.
[3] _Annals of Ulster_, A.D. 811, 820-824, 827, 830.
[4] Some writers would identify Turgeis with Thorgils, son of Harold
Fairhair, who with his brother Frothi went on a viking expedition to
Ireland. They captured Dublin, and Thorgils reigned there for a long
time as king. In the end, however, he was betrayed by the Irish and was
killed. (_Heimskringla: Haralds saga hins hárfagra_, ch. 35.)
This account of Thorgils certainly bears a resemblance to that of
Turgeis contained in the Irish chronicles and Giraldus Cambrensis (cf.
Todd: Introduction to _War of the Gaedhil with the Gaill_, I., ii.),
but it is of course incorrect to say that Turgeis was a son of Harold
Fairhair.
[5] _Annals of Ulster_, A.D. 841.
[6] _War of the Gaedhil with the Gaill_, p. 13.
[7] _Ib._, p. 15.
[8] The Irish chroniclers use a variety of names for the Scandinavians:
_Dibearccai_ (outlaws), _Gaill_ (foreigners), _Gennti_ (Gentiles), and
_Pagánaigh_ (Pagans). They also distinguish between Danes and Norsemen.
The Danes were known as _Danair_, _Danmarcaigh_, _Dubh Gennti_ (Black
Gentiles), and _Dubh-Gaill_. The word _Dubh-Gaill_ (Black Foreigners)
still survives in the personal names _Doyle_ and _MacDowell_ and in
the place-name _Baldoyle_. The Norsemen were called _Finn-Gaill_
(Fair Foreigners), _Finn-Genti_, _Nortmannai_ (Lat. Northmanni) and
_Lochlannaigh_ (_i.e._, men of _Lochlann_ or Norway).
[9] _Annals of Ulster_, A.D. 851 (= 852).
[10] _Three Fragments of Annals_, p. 127.
Vogt (_Dublin som Norsk By_, p. 66) suggests that Olaf was related to
Turgeis, the first Norse King of Ireland, and to Earl Tomrair (O.N.
Thórarr), “_tanist_ of the King of Lochlann,” who fell in the battle of
Scaith Neachtain (847). On the other hand it may be noted here that the
Annalist errs in making Olaf a brother of Ivarr the Boneless.
[11] _Annals of Ulster_, A.D. 870.
[12] _Three Fragments of Annals_, p. 195. The _Landnámabók_, II., ch.
15 says that “Olaf fell in battle in Ireland,” but this is surely a
mistake.
[13] _Annals of Ulster_, _sub anno_, 872 (= 873).
[14] Cf. _War of the Gaedhil with the Gaill_, p. 27. Cf. also the
entries in the _Annals of Ulster_:
“Ruaidhri, son of Muirmenn King of the Britons came to Ireland, fleeing
before the Black Foreigners” (an. 876).
“The shrine of Colum-Cille and all his relics were brought to Ireland
to escape the Foreigners” (an. 877).
[15] The _War of the Gaedhil with the Gaill_ (p. 27) mentions another
battle between Fair and Black Gentiles, in which many of the latter
were killed.
[16] It is extremely difficult to identify these two princes owing
to the similarity between their names. It has been suggested that
Sighfrith is the Siefredus or Sievert who ruled jointly with
Guthred-Cnut (d. c. 894) as King of Northumbria, while Sitriucc son
of Ivarr is probably the “Sitric comes” whose name appears on a coin
dating from this period. (See A. Mawer: _The Scandinavian Kingdom of
Northumbria_, pp. 11-13. Saga-book of the Viking Club, VII. Part I.)
[17] _Annals of Ulster_, A.D. 916.
[18] _Annals of Ulster_, A.D. 918. _War of the Gaedhil with the Gaill_,
p. 37. An entry in the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_ (A.D. 921), referring
to the result of this battle, runs:--“In this year King Sihtric slew
his brother Niel.” There is, however, no evidence in Irish sources that
Sihtric and Niall were brothers, or even half-brothers.
[19] _Annals of Ulster_, A.D. 920, 921, 923, 925.
[20] _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, A.D. 923.
[21] _Annals of Ulster_, A.D. 920.
[22] _Annals of Ulster_, A.D. 919.
[23] _Ib._, A.D. 927.
[24] _Ib._, A.D. 937. _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, A. Annal, 937.
[25] _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, D. Annal 941.
[26] _Ib._, E. Annal 942; _Annals of Clonmacnoise_, A.D. 934.
[27] _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, A. Annal 944.
[28] _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, E. Annals 949, 952.
[29] _Annals of the Four Masters_, A.D. 978, 979; _Annals of Ulster_,
A.D. 979 (= 980).
[30] _War of the Gaedhil with the Gaill_, p. 77.
[31] _War of the Gaedhil with the Gaill_, p. 115; _Annals of the Four
Masters_, A.D. 997.
[32] _War of the Gaedhil with the Gaill_, p. 153. _Njáls Saga_, ch.
155. In the _Annals of Loch Cé_ (A.D. 1014) Brodar is called the earl
of York (_iarla Caoire Eabhroigh_).
[33] _War of the Gaedhil with the Gaill_, p. 151.
[34] _Ib._, pp. 151-191; _Njáls Saga_, chs. 155-157, _Annals of Loch
Cé_, A.D. 1014; _Annals of the Four Masters_, A.D. 1013.
[35] _Calendar of the Ancient Records of Dublin_ (ed. by J. T.
Gilbert), II. 81; _Chartularies of St. Mary’s Abbey, Dublin_ (ed.
by Gilbert), I. 258; II. 251; Giraldus Cambrensis: _Topographia
Hibernica_, V. 187.
The name “Ostmen” is generally supposed to have been first given
to them by the English, but the word is Norse (_i.e._, _Austmenn_,
plural of _Austmathr_, “a man living in the East”) and therefore must
have been current in Ireland before the English invasion. It may be
suggested that the name was applied to the original Scandinavian
settlers in Ireland, to merchants and other later comers from Norway,
Sweden, and Denmark. Cf. the nickname _Austmathr_, given to a certain
Eyvindr by the Scandinavian settlers in the Hebrides because he had
come there from Sweden.
[36] _Chartularies of St. Mary’s Abbey_, I. 267; _ib._, I. 227, 234,
etc.; _Calendar of the Ancient Records of Dublin_, I. 55; II. 96.
[37] _A Calendar of Documents Relating to Ireland_ (ed. by H. S.
Sweetman), I. 24.
[38] _Ib._, II. p. 426.
[39] For interesting articles on the Ostmen in Ireland see A. Bugge:
_Sidste Afsnit af Nordboernes Historie i Irland_, pp. 248-315 (Aarb ger
for nord. Oldk. 1900); and E. Curtis: _The English and the Ostmen in
Ireland_ (English Historical Review, XXIII., p. 209 ff.).