happen, appears, as already observed, to admit of some doubt; but the
antiquity, and the authenticity, of the five _king_, or classics, seem
to be sufficiently established. And considering the early periods in
which they were written, they certainly demonstrate a very superior
degree of civilization. It has been observed that, in this country, the
arts, the sciences, and literature, are not progressive; and the five
_king_ would lead one to conclude, that they have rather even been
retrograde than stationary. The names of these works are:
1. _Shoo-king._ A collection of records and annals of various
princes, commencing more than 2000 years before Christ.
2. _Shee-king._ Odes, sonnets, and maxims; most of them so abundant
in metaphor, and so obscure, that much of the sense is to be made
out by the translator.
3. _Ye-king._ The perfect and the broken lines of _Fo-shee_; the
most ancient relict in China, and perhaps the first attempt at
written language: now perfectly incomprehensible.
4. _Chung-choo._ Spring and autumn. The history of some of the kings
of _Loo_: the work principally of _Cong-foo-tse_.
5. _Lee-kee._ Ceremonies and moral duties. A compilation of
_Cong-foo-tse_.
The lines of _Fo-shee_ puzzled even the great philosopher of the
country, who declared himself dissatisfied with all the explanations of
the commentators. The learned and ingenious Leibnitz fancied he
discovered in them a system of binary arithmetic, by which all the
operations and results of numbers might be performed, with the help of
two figures only, the cypher or zero 0, and an unit 1, the former being
considered as the constant multiple of the latter, as 10 is of the unit.
Thus 1 would stand for 1, 10 for two, 11 for three, 100 for four, and so
on. It is unnecessary to observe, with how many inconveniences such a
system would be attended when reduced to practice. This discovery of the
binary series, which the mathematician, in all probability, considered
only as a philosophical plaything, was communicated to Father Bouvet the
Jesuit who, happening at that time to be engaged in decyphering the
lines of _Fo-shee_, caught the idea and in an extacy of joy proclaimed
to the world that Leibnitz had solved the _Fo-sheean_ riddle.
The missionaries of the Romish church are so accustomed to the mysteries
with which their religion abounds, that every thing they meet with, and
do not understand, among a strange people, is also resolved into a
mystery. Thus, the following figure, which the Chinese, in allusion to
the regular lines described on the back-shell of some of the tortoises,
metaphorically call the mystic tortoise, has been supposed by some of
these gentlemen to contain the most sublime doctrines of Chinese
philosophy; that they embrace a summary of all that is perfect and
imperfect, represent the numbers of heaven and earth, and such like
jargon, which, it obviously appears, is no less unintelligible to
themselves than to their readers.
These famous lines, supposed to be found on the back of a tortoise, are
the following:
[Illustration]
Who does not perceive, at a single glance, in this figure the common
schoolboy's trick of the magic square, or placing the nine digits so
that they shall make the sum of fifteen every way, thus,
+---+---+---+
| 2 | 9 | 4 |
+---+---+---+
| 7 | 5 | 3 |
+---+---+---+
| 6 | 1 | 8 |
+---+---+---+
and what are the perfect and imperfect numbers, but the odd and even
digits distinguished by open and close points? In like manner, I am
inclined to believe, the several ways of placing these open and close
points that occur in Chinese books are literally nothing more than the
different combinations of the nine numerical figures, for which they are
substituted.
Most of the other _king_ have been translated, wholly or in part, and
published in France. It may be observed, however, that all the Chinese
writings, translated by the missionaries, have undergone so great a
change in their European dress, that they ought rather to be looked upon
as originals than translations. It is true, a literal translation would
be nonsense, but there is a great difference between giving the meaning
of an author, and writing a commentary upon him. Sir William Jones
observes that the only method of doing justice to the poetical
compositions of the Asiatics, is to give first a verbal and then a
metrical version. The most barren subject, under his elegant pen,
becomes replete with beauties. The following stanza, from one of the
odes of the _Shee-king_, is an instance of this remark. It is calculated
to have been written about the age of Homer; and it consists of fifteen
characters.
1 2 3 4 5 6
The peach-tree, how fair, how graceful, its leaves, how blooming
7 8 9 10 11
how pleasant; such is a bride, when she enters her bridegroom's
12 13 14 15
house, and attends to her whole family.
This is a fair translation, as no more expletives are inserted than such
as were necessary to make up the sense, and it is thus paraphrased by
Sir William Jones.
"Gay child of Spring, the garden's queen,
Yon peach-tree charms the roving fight;
Its fragrant leaves how richly green!
Its blossoms, how divinely bright!
"So softly smiles the blooming bride,
By love and conscious virtue led,
O'er her new mansion to preside,
And placid joys around her spread."
The late Emperor _Kien-Long_ was considered among the best poets of
modern times, and the most celebrated of his compositions is an ode in
praise of Tea, which has been painted on all the teapots in the empire.
The following is a verbal translation, with such auxiliaries only as
were necessary to make the sense complete.
"On a slow fire set a tripod, whose colour and texture shew its long
use; fill it with clear snow water, boil it as long as would be
necessary to turn fish white, and crayfish red; throw it upon the
delicate leaves of choice tea, in a cup of _yooé_ (a particular sort of
porcelain). Let it remain as long as the vapour rises in a cloud, and
leaves only a thin mist floating on the surface. At your ease, drink
this precious liquor, which will chase away the five causes of trouble.
We can taste and feel, but not describe, the state of repose produced
by a liquor thus prepared."
He wrote, likewise, a long descriptive poem on the city and country of
Moukden, in Mantchoo Tartary, which has been translated by some of the
missionaries, and appears to possess much more merit than his ode on
tea, of which, however, it is difficult to judge without a thorough
knowledge of the language, as the ode may owe its chief beauties and its
fame more to the choice of the characters than to the sounds, literal
sense, or versification. To an European the Chinese language appears to
have few elegancies: it wants all the little auxiliaries that add grace
and energy to those of Europe. In the Chinese the beauty of an
expression depends entirely on the choice of the character, and not on
any selection or arrangement of the monosyllabic sounds. A character
uniting a happy association of ideas has the same effect upon the eye of
the Chinese, as a general theorem expressed in symbols has on a
mathematician; but in both cases a man must be learned to feel the
beauties of the concise expression. Even in speaking the language has
few expletives. "English good, Chinese better,"--"to-day go, to-morrow
come,"--"sea no bound, Kiang no bottom;"--"well, not well;"--are modes
of expression in which an European will not find much elegance.
In addition to the defects of the language, there is another reason why
poetry is not likely ever to become a favourite pursuit, or to be
cultivated with success, among the Chinese. The state of society we have
seen to be such as entirely to exclude the passion of love. A man, in
this country, marries only from necessity, or for the sake of obtaining
an heir to his property, who may sacrifice to his manes, or because the
maxims of the government have made it disgraceful to remain in a state
of celibacy. The fine sentiments that arise from the mutual endearment
of two persons enamoured of each other can therefore have no place in
the heart of a Chinese: and it is to the effusions of a heart thus
circumstanced, that poetry owes some of its greatest charms. Nor can
they be considered as a nation of warriors; and war, next to love, has
ever been the favourite theme of the muses.
The language is much better adapted to the concise style of ethics, than
the sublime flights of poetry. The moral precepts of Cong-foo-tse
display an excellent mind in the writer, and would do honour to any age
and nation. The following will serve as a specimen of his subjects,
style, and manner.
"There is one clear rule of conduct: to act with sincerity; and to
conform with all one's soul, and with all one's strength, to this
universal rule--do not any thing to another, that you would not wish
another should do to you."
How conformable is this sentiment as well as the words in which it is
expressed, to that of the great Author of our religion; a religion whose
"ways are ways of pleasantness, and all whose paths are peace."
"Five things ought to be well observed in the world: Justice between the
prince and the subject; affection between father and son; fidelity
between man and wife; subordination among brothers; concord among
friends."
"There are three radical virtues: prudence to discern; universal
benevolence to embrace (all mankind); courage to sustain."
"What passes in a man's mind is unknown to others: if you are wise, take
great care of what none but yourself can see."
"Examples are better for the people than precepts."
"A wise man is his own most severe censor: he is his own accuser, his
own evidence, and his own judge."
"A nation may accomplish more by bravery than by fire and water. I never
knew a people perish, who had courage for their support."
"An upright man will not pursue a crooked path; he follows the straight
road, and walks therein secure."
Having taken this short view of their language and literature, I shall
now proceed to shew the present state of the arts and sciences, as far
as the communications I had not only with the missionaries, but also
with some of the most learned Chinese, will allow me to pronounce on
these points. The observations I have to make must of course be very
general; minute particulars will not be expected in a work of this
nature. There is no branch of science which the Chinese affect to value
so much, and understand so little, as astronomy. The necessity indeed of
being able to mark, with some degree of precision, the returns of the
seasons and certain periods, in so large a community, must have directed
an early attention of the government to this subject; and accordingly we
find, that an astronomical board has formed one of the state
establishments from the earliest periods of their history. Yet so little
progress have they made in this science, that the only part of its
functions, which can be called astronomical, has long been committed to
the care of foreigners, whom they affect to hold in contempt and to
consider as barbarians. The principal object of this board is to frame
and to publish a national calendar, and to point out to the government
the suitable times and seasons for its important undertakings. Even when
the marriage of a prince or princess of the blood is about to take
place, the commissioners of astronomy must appoint a fortunate day for
the celebration of the nuptials, which is announced in form in the Pekin
Gazette.
In this important almanack, as in the Greek and Roman calendars, are
inserted all the supposed lucky and unlucky days in the year,
predictions of the weather, days proper for taking medicine, commencing
journies, taking home a wife, laying the foundation of a house, and
other matters of moment, for entering upon which particular times are
assigned. To the superintendency of the Chinese members of this august
tribunal is committed the astrological part, a committee of whom is
selected annually for the execution of this important task. Whether the
men of letters, as they call themselves, really believe in the
absurdities of judicial astrology, or whether they may think it
necessary to encourage the observance of popular superstitions, on
political considerations, I will not take upon me to decide. If,
however, they should happen to possess any such superior knowledge,
great credit is due to them for acting the farce with such apparent
earnestness, and with so much solemnity. The duration of the same system
has certainly been long enough for them to have discovered, that the
multitude are more effectually governed by opinion than by power.
The phenomena of the heavenly bodies, to an enlightened and intelligent
mind, furnish the most grand and sublime spectacle in nature; to the
ignorant and superstitious, the most awful. The common people of all
countries, and in all ages, have considered the occasional privation of
the light of the two great luminaries of heaven as the forerunners of
some extraordinary event, whilst the more intelligent part of the
community have turned these superstitious notions to their advantage.
Thales is said to have been able to calculate the returns of eclipses
six hundred years before the birth of Christ; of course, he was well
acquainted with the causes by which they were produced; yet his
countrymen were always filled with superstition and terror on the event
of an eclipse. Plutarch has observed that Pericles learned from
Anaxagoras to overcome the terrors which the various phenomena of the
heavens inspired into those who knew not their causes; and he mentions a
striking proof which he gave of this knowledge, on his expedition
against Peloponnesus, when there happened an eclipse of the sun. The
sudden darkness, being considered as an omen unfavourable to the object
of the expedition, occasioned a general consternation. Pericles,
observing the pilot of his own galley to be frightened and confused,
took his cloak and placed it before his eyes, asking him at the same
time if he found any thing alarming, or of evil presage, in what he then
did? and upon his answering in the negative: "Where then is the
difference," said Pericles, "between this covering and the other, except
that something of greater extent than my cloak deprives us of the light
of the sun?" Nor can it be doubted that Alexander when, on a like
occasion, previous to the battle of Arbêla, he commanded a sacrifice to
be made to the sun, the moon, and the earth, as being the three powers
to which eclipses were owing, did it merely to appease the superstitious
notions of his army. To suppose him ignorant of their causes, would be
paying an ill compliment to his great master. Thus it might have been
with regard to the Chinese government, which, whether through ignorance
or policy, still continues to observe with the greatest solemnity the
same ceremonies, or nearly so, on the event of an eclipse, which were in
use among the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, near two thousand years
ago. When the moon was darkened by an eclipse, their drums and clarions
and trumpets were sounded, under the notion that, by their shrill and
loud noise, they might assist in relieving the labouring goddess.
"A vast eclipse darkens the neighbouring planet,
Sound there, sound all our instruments of war;
Clarions and trumpets, silver, brass, and iron,
And beat a thousand drums to help her labour."
The brazen gong is violently beat by the Chinese on the same occasion;
and that such an event may not pass unobserved, and the luminary thereby
be deprived of the usual assistance of music, to frighten away or to
charm the dragon, which they suppose to have seized upon it, the great
officers of state in every city and principal town are instructed to
give public notice of the time it will happen, according to the
calculations of the national almanack. A rude projection of a lunar
eclipse, that happened whilst we were at _Tong-choo_, was stuck up in
the corners of the streets; all the officers were in mourning, and all
business was suspended for that day. When the Dutch Embassadors were in
Pekin, the sun was eclipsed on the 21st of January 1795, which happened
to be the first day of their new year: a day observed through the whole
empire with the greatest festivity and rejoicing; and almost the only
day on which the bulk of the people refrain from their respective
occupations. The Embassador and his suite were summoned to court at the
usual hour of three in the morning. On arriving at the palace they were
told that, in consequence of an eclipse of the sun, which was about to
happen on that day and which was a most unfortunate event, portending an
unhappy year to their country, the Emperor would not be visible for
three days, during which time the whole court would go into mourning;
that the amusements, feasts, and entertainments usual on this
particular day would be suspended from one end of the empire to the
other.
Before an eclipse happens, the members of the mathematical board and
other learned men in office assemble near the palace, each having in his
hand a sketch of the obscuration, in order to witness the truth of the
astronomer's calculation. But if these people were not all interested in
making the calculation to agree with the time and other circumstances of
the eclipse, the astronomers would run no great hazard of being detected
in an error, provided it was not a very glaring one, as they have no
instruments for measuring time with any tolerable degree of accuracy.
The moment the eclipse begins, they all fall down on their knees, and
bow their heads nine times to the ground, during which is struck up a
horrible crash of gongs, kettle-drums, trumpets, and other noisy
instruments, intended to scare the devouring dragon.
From the observance of such extravagant ceremonies it would not be fair
to infer their total ignorance of the principles of astronomy; but that
such is really the case, the latter part of their history furnishes
abundant testimony. In the thirteenth century, when Gengis-Khan the
Mongul Tartar first entered China, and his successor Kublai-Khan
effected the conquest of the country, the greatest disorder and
confusion prevailed in their chronology. They were neither able to
regulate the reckoning of time, nor to settle the limits of the
different provinces, nor even to ascertain the divisions of lands as
allotted to the several districts. Kublai, according to their own
annals, held out encouragement for learned men to frequent his court
from every part of the world, and through the means of the missionaries,
both of the Christian and Mahomedan faith, but principally the latter,
and perhaps still more through the descendants of the Greeks, who
anciently settled in Bactriana, many important improvements were then
introduced into China. He caused a regular survey to be taken of the
whole empire. He adjusted their chronology, and corrected the errors of
their astronomical observations; he imported various mathematical and
astronomical instruments from Balk and Samarcand; such as were then in
use among the Chinese being of a rude construction, and unfit to make
observations of the heavenly bodies with any tolerable degree of
accuracy; and he repaired the grand communication by water that connects
the northern with the southern extremities of the empire, a work, in the
contemplation of which the mind is not more strongly impressed with the
grandeur and magnitude of the object, than with the pleasing sense of
its important utility.
In some of the early accounts of China, published in Europe, we find the
description of certain instruments, said to have been discovered on a
mountain near the city of Nankin, and afterwards placed by the Chinese
partly in that capital and partly in Pekin. On a more accurate
examination of those instruments it appeared, that they had all been
constructed for some particular place lying under the 37th parallel of
latitude; from whence it followed, that all the observations made with
them at Pekin, which is in 39° 55'. north, as well as all those made at
Nankin in 32° 4'. north, must have been entirely false: and the very
act of placing them so distant from the parallel for which they were
constructed, is in itself a sufficient proof of the ignorance of the
Chinese in matters of this kind. Mr. Pauw has given the most probable
conjecture respecting those instruments. He supposes them to have been
made at Balk, in Bactriana, by some of those Greeks who obtained the
government of that province under the successors of Alexander, and that
they had passed into China during the period of the Mongul government.
The death of Kublai-Khan was speedily followed by the total expulsion of
the Tartars from China; and most probably, at the same time, of all
those learned men they had been the means of introducing into the
country; for when the empire was again subdued by the Mantchoo Tartars,
whose race now fills the throne, _Sun-chee_, the first Emperor of the
present dynasty, observes in an edict published by him in 1650, that
since the expulsion of the Monguls, the Chinese had not been able to
make a correct almanack; and that error had been accumulating on error
in their astronomical observations and chronology. At this time, some
Mahomedans were again found to superintend the construction of the
calendar; but the office devolving, at length, upon a Chinese, the
unfortunate almanack-maker happened to insert a false intercalation,
assigning thirteen months to the year 1670, when it should have
contained no more than twelve. This mistake was an event too fortunate
to be overlooked by some Catholic missionaries who, at that time,
happened to be in the capital. They saw the advantages to be derived
from convincing the Tartars of the ignorance of the Chinese in a matter
of the last importance to the government, and they had little doubt of
success, where prejudice was already operating in their favour. In
short, the Europeans succeeded; the almanacks of that year were declared
defective, were called in, a new edition printed off, and the poor
almanack-maker is said to have been strangled.
Four German Jesuits were then appointed to fill the vacant places in the
tribunal of mathematics; and, being men of learning, they proved of no
small use at court. After these the Portuguese succeeded to the
appointments of regulating the calendar, three of whom, as already
observed, are now entrusted with this important office. Fortunately for
these gentlemen, the Chinese have no means of detecting any little
inaccuracies that may happen in their calculations. I saw, and conversed
with, numbers of their learned men at the palace of _Yuen-min-yuen_, but
I can safely say, that not a single Chinese, nor a Tartar, who shewed
themselves there, were possessed of the slightest knowledge of
astronomy, nor one who could explain any of the various phenomena of the
heavenly bodies. Astronomy with them consists entirely in a certain
jargon of judicial astrology; and they remain firmly attached to the
belief of the doctrines of their great philosopher, delivered more than
two thousand years ago, which teach them that "the heaven is round, the
earth a square fixed in the middle; the other four elements placed at
its four sides: water to the north; fire to the south; wood to the east;
and metal to the west:" and they believe the stars to be stuck, like so
many nails, at equal distances from the earth, in the blue vault of
heaven.
As to the numerous eclipses taken notice of in the records of the
country, they are mere registers, noted down whenever they happened, and
not predictions or the result of calculations. It does not appear,
indeed, that the Chinese were, at any time, able to predict an eclipse,
notwithstanding all that has been said in their favour on this subject.
The reputed Chinese tables, published by Father Couplet, have been
detected to be those of Tycho Brahe; and Cassini found the chronology of
their eclipses, published by Martinus, to be erroneous, and their
returns impossible. It could not indeed be otherwise; the defectiveness
of the calendar must necessarily falsify all their records as to time.