THE FIRST CHINA WAR, 1839-1842.
Captain Elliot despatches his only ship to India with a
report of the situation -- The helplessness of the British
community and persecutions by the Chinese during three
months -- Arrival of two ships -- The Chinese attack them
and are defeated -- Expedition from India and England
arrives -- Canton river blockaded -- Attempts to appeal to
Central Government rebuffed -- Squadron sent to the Peiho
-- Kishen appointed to treat -- Expedition returns south --
Negotiations opened near Canton -- Bogue forts destroyed by
British ships -- Illusory negotiations -- River blockaded,
but commerce partially resumed -- Extensive war
preparations by Chinese -- Captain Elliot's confidence in
the Chinese -- Hostilities carried on -- Canton commanded
and ransomed -- Triumph of the populace -- Operations
extended to northern coasts -- Agreement between Captain
Elliot and Kishen repudiated by both sovereigns -- Arrival
of Vice-Admiral Sir William Parker -- War vigorously
prosecuted -- Towns and forts taken -- Nanking threatened
-- Commissioners Ilipu and Kiying appointed to treat --
Treaty concluded at Nanking, August 29, 1842 -- The
character of Ilipu.
Captain Elliot, after the severities to which he and his countrymen
had been subjected, despatched a vessel to Calcutta with a report on
the situation to the Governor-General of India, making a corresponding
report at the same time to London. The departure of this, the only
vessel at the disposal of the British agent, left him and the
mercantile community in a helpless predicament during three critical
months, and it was natural that the Chinese should take advantage of
so favourable an opportunity to fill the cup of their cruelties fuller
than ever. The only form of reprisal which was left to the
unfortunate Captain Elliot was his intimation to the merchants that he
had moved both the British and Indian Governments to forbid the
admission of tea and other Chinese produce into their territories--an
announcement which is said to have irritated Commissioner Lin
excessively. On September 11, 1839, however, her Majesty's ship Volage
appeared on the scene. Her commander, Captain Smith, considered that
the least he could do in defence of his countrymen was to blockade the
Canton river by way of retaliation for "the stoppage of the supplies
of food by order of the Chinese Government, and for the Chinese people
having been ordered to fire upon and seize her Majesty's subjects
wherever they went; and that certain of them had been actually cut
off."
This slight evidence of vitality on the part of the English produced
an immediate effect on the Chinese: their violent proclamations
against Elliot were withdrawn; provisions were no longer prohibited;
and certain negotiations were inaugurated for the resumption of trade
_outside_ the Barrier; whereupon Captain Smith promptly raised the
blockade.
Before long, however, the Chinese resumed their offensive attitude,
endeavoured to compel British trading ships to enter within the Bogue,
and renewed their demands for the murderer of a Chinaman, failing
which the foreign ships were ordered to depart within three days on
pain of immediate destruction. They accordingly withdrew to the
anchorage of Tongku, which became the rendezvous of all the ships of
war. Difficulties continued to increase on both sides, without
prospect of any solution, until the 29th of October, when another
British man-of-war, the Hyacinth, arrived and joined the Volage. These
vessels proceeded to Chuenpee, with Captain Elliot on board, for the
purpose of eliciting from the Commissioner some explicit declaration
of his intentions. They were at once attacked by the Chinese admiral
with a fleet of twenty-nine war-junks, which they beat off; and thus
occurred the first hostile encounter between the armed forces of the
two nations.
[Illustration: MAP OF CANTON WATERS.]
Of the operations which followed, extending over nearly three years,
full accounts were given at the time, none better than the 'Narrative
of the Voyages and Services of the Nemesis from 1840-43,' by W. D.
Bernard, with which may be profitably compared Dr Eitel's concise
history,[9] published forty years later, with all the documents before
him.
The British Government came to the conclusion that the limits of
forbearance had been overstepped. The action of the Chinese
authorities during 1839 forced on it the choice of two alternatives,
to abandon British subjects and their interests or to exact reasonable
treatment for them from the Chinese. The latter was selected, and it
was resolved to demand a commercial treaty under which foreign trade
might be carried on with security to person and property. In support
of this decision military and naval forces, equipped in England and in
India, assembled on the coast of China during the spring of 1840.
Among the novelties of this equipment were a number of small
light-draught iron steamers, the most famous of which was the Nemesis,
built for the Honourable Company by Mr Laird of Birkenhead, drawing
only six feet laden. This exceedingly mobile little craft, under her
energetic commander, W. H. Hall, performed almost incredible services
as the maid-of-all-work of the expedition. The blockade of the Canton
river, which had been established and withdrawn several times, was
finally declared on the 28th of June 1840, as a first step in the
regular war programme, by Commodore Sir Gordon Bremer. A few days
later the command of the fleet was assumed by Rear-Admiral the Hon.
George Elliot, who was also appointed joint-plenipotentiary with
Captain Charles Elliot.
Before commencing a general war upon the Emperor of China every
resource was exhausted for opening communications with the Imperial
Government through other channels than that of Canton. The frigate
Blonde was despatched for this purpose to the harbour of Amoy, where
the local officials not only refused to receive a letter from the
English admiral, but ordered an attack upon the boat conveying it on
shore. The frigate retaliated for this insult by opening fire upon the
Chinese batteries and war-junks, after which she returned to Hongkong
to report proceedings to the admiral. About this time, early in July
1840, the island of Chusan was taken and occupied. The attempt to
deliver a letter from Lord Palmerston addressed to the Cabinet at
Peking, by way of Ningpo, having been frustrated by the authorities at
that port, a blockade was established of Hangchow Bay and the mouth of
the Yangtze. It had been Captain Elliot's favourite device, as it came
to be that of all his successors, to apply pressure to the Court of
Peking by means of a blockade of this the main artery of the Chinese
empire, and it was by following up this scheme that the war thus
commenced in 1840 was actually brought to a successful issue in 1842.
The attempts to gain access to the Court through the southern seaports
having failed, the venue was shifted to the neighbourhood of the
capital itself. A heavy squadron of ships accordingly anchored off the
mouth of the Peiho--a demonstration which was sufficiently menacing to
the capital to induce the Court to appoint an official to parley with
Captain Elliot, and also to receive the undelivered letter from Lord
Palmerston. Kishen, a Manchu of high rank, was chosen for this service
by the emperor. The first, perhaps the sole, object of Kishen's
diplomacy was to relieve the apprehensions of the Court by procuring
the prompt withdrawal of the foreign forces. This end was achieved in
one short conference with Captain Elliot, when Tientsin was pronounced
to be too near the emperor's palace for negotiations, and it was
decided that the scene should be shifted back to Canton, a new
commissioner being appointed to supersede Lin, the impracticable. The
squadron thereupon, about the end of September, withdrew to Chusan. It
was generally believed that an armistice had been arranged pending
negotiations, but it was soon discovered that the only truce made
applied exclusively to the island of Chusan, where it had been
declared. The two English plenipotentiaries repaired to Macao in
November.
All this while extensive preparations for hostilities were vigorously
prosecuted in the neighbourhood of Canton. Attempts to communicate
under flag of truce were repelled by force, and it was remarked that
the Chinese were sufficiently well versed in the significance of the
white flag to make free use of it for their own protection, while
disregarding its employment by the other side. The Imperial
Commissioner, Kishen, reached Canton at the end of November, his
arrival coinciding in point of time with the invaliding of Admiral
Elliot, the co-plenipotentiary, thus leaving the British negotiations
once more in the sole hands of Captain Elliot until such time as Sir
Gordon Bremer was appointed as his associate.
Of the two diplomatists who had now to confront each other it would
be difficult to say whether the English or Chinese was the more
anxious to avert hostilities. To avoid precipitating a conflict
negotiations were not pressed home by either party, nor were any steps
taken to give effect to the conference which had been held between
them at Tientsin.
The hostile demonstrations of the Chinese, and the extraordinary
exertions they were putting forth to place themselves in a position to
bar the entrance to the river, compelled the British naval
commander-in-chief to assume the offensive by attacking the outer
defences at its mouth. The forts and guns were destroyed as well as
the Chinese fleet of war-junks, native Indian troops and Royal Marines
forming an important part of the attacking force. There remained
extensive fortifications within the embouchure, and every preparation
was made on both sides for resuming the contest on the following
morning; but just as the British guns were about to open fire a small
sampan, with an old woman and a man on board, was sent off by the
Chinese admiral proposing a cessation of hostilities. This unpromising
overture did actually eventuate in an armistice, holding out the
prospect of a treaty of peace, but with the details as usual carefully
kept in the background. During the period of truce granted by Captain
Elliot the Chinese continued as active as ever in strengthening and
extending their defences. This necessitated continued precautions on
the British side, for it is to be noted throughout all the proceedings
that the naval and military commanders never shared the illusions of
Captain Elliot as regards the conciliatory intentions of the Chinese.
They formed their opinions upon what they saw with their eyes, and
not by what any Chinese official professed with his lips.
On January 20, thirteen days after the attack on Chuenpee forts,
Captain Elliot announced from Macao that "preliminary arrangements had
been concluded. Hongkong was to be ceded, and an indemnity of
$6,000,000 to be paid by the Chinese; direct official intercourse on
terms of equality, and trade to be resumed, within ten days." This
good effect, he added, was "due to the scrupulous good faith of every
eminent person with whom negotiations are still pending." The British
plenipotentiary did not lose an hour in carrying out his part of the
incomplete compact, which was the substantial one of rendering back to
the Chinese their captured forts. The ceremony of the rendition of the
Chuenpee forts was performed on the 21st, when the British flag was
formally struck and the Chinese hoisted in its place under a salute
from the flagship. On the other side the occupation of Hongkong by the
British forces proceeded just as if the arrangements between the
plenipotentiaries had been definitive.
Serious conferences then ensued between the British and Chinese
plenipotentiaries within the river, at a point known as the Second
Bar. The blockade was nevertheless maintained, so that a French
corvette which arrived to watch the course of events was unable to
enter the river. Captain Elliot, however, invited her commander to
accompany him and "assist" at his interview with Kishen. In the
meanwhile the conciliatory attitude of the Chinese commissioner was
severely denounced from the throne, and while these conferences were
proceeding, messengers of war were on their way from Peking charged
with nothing less than the extermination of the barbarians. Kishen was
degraded, and instead of peaceable negotiations, a proclamation was
placarded on the walls of Canton offering $50,000 each for the heads
of the British plenipotentiary and the commodore.
After the expiration of this one-sided truce open hostilities were
re-entered upon. The Bogue forts had to be once more captured, and the
British flag re-hoisted. That accomplished, the blockade of the river
was raised. This somewhat remarkable step was no doubt due to the
overmastering anxiety shown throughout by Captain Elliot for the
immediate resumption of trade, he having learnt in the Company's
school to place the current season's business above every other
consideration. It appears certain that the quite disproportionate
value attached by him to this one object obscured his perspective, if
indeed it did not vitiate his whole policy. Trading vessels were
permitted to proceed up-river, but under the peculiar reservation that
the stakes, chains, and barriers placed by the Chinese to obstruct
navigation should first be removed. The fleet, nevertheless, had still
to fight its way up to Canton, Captain Elliot meanwhile never ceasing
to make overtures of peace to the Chinese. There were truces and
suspensions of hostilities, all of the same nature, binding only on
one side, and such a medley of peace and war as seemed rather to
belong to the middle ages than to the nineteenth century. Trade was
pushed on all the more briskly for the general fear that the duration
of peace was likely to be brief; and as both parties were alike
interested in getting the season's produce shipped, the Chinese
authorities were not ill-pleased to see commerce thus carried on while
they employed the interval in hurrying forward their grand
preparations for the crushing of the invading force. Hostilities were
suspended by an agreement on March 20, 1841, and Captain Elliot, after
residing some time in the foreign factory, where he had opportunities
of sounding the disposition of the new commissioners, declared himself
perfectly satisfied with their "assurances of good faith," which he
repeated in the same public manner a fortnight later--that is, a month
after the suspension of hostilities. On leaving the Canton factory
Captain Elliot, strong in the faith he professed, urged on the senior
naval officer the propriety of moving his ships away from the city in
order to show our peaceful disposition, the guard of marines which had
been stationed for the protection of the factories to be at the same
time withdrawn.
The mercantile community by no means participated in the confidence of
the plenipotentiary, nor, as we have said, did the naval commanders.
Indeed so little satisfied were they with the turn of affairs, that
Sir Gordon Bremer left in a Company's steamer for Calcutta to lay the
situation before the Governor-General of India.[10] This occurred in
the middle of April. In the beginning of May troops were seen pouring
into the forts near the city. An immense number of fire-rafts in
preparation to burn the fleet could not be concealed, while placards
of a most menacing character were posted about the city walls. Captain
Elliot, whether he was shaken in his belief in the pacific assurances
of the Chinese authorities or not, returned to the scene, on board the
Nemesis, on the 10th of May, and it is said that, in order to show the
Chinese that he still believed in their good faith, he was accompanied
on this one occasion by his wife, probably the first European woman
who had set foot in Canton.
Several weeks more elapsed before the British plenipotentiary allowed
himself to be finally disillusioned. Then he issued a proclamation to
the merchants warning them to be prepared to leave the factories at a
moment's notice, while the inevitable Nemesis was moved close up for
the protection of the foreign community generally. The Chinese had
employed the greatest ingenuity in masking their warlike preparations,
and even at the last, when they saw that concealment was no longer
possible, they attempted to allay the apprehensions of the foreigners
by issuing an edict in order "to calm the feelings of the merchants
and to tranquillise commercial business,"--their object being, as it
was confidently alleged, to take the whole community by surprise and
completely annihilate them.
[Illustration: H.M. SHIPS IMOGEN AND ANDROMACHE PASSING BOCCA TIGRIS
BATTERIES.]
Although thus attempting to lull the foreigners, the Chinese authorities
had previously warned the natives, through the elders, to remove their
families and effects from the neighbourhood of the river. On the very
day after the soothing proclamation, May 21, the signal for the
renewal of the war was given by the launching of a number of ingeniously
contrived fire-rafts, which were dropped down by the tide upon the
English vessels with the design of burning them at their anchors. This
scheme failed in its object, partly from miscalculation,--only ten or
twelve out of about a hundred being ignited,--and partly from the
intrepidity of the British officers and seamen in grappling with those
they could reach in their boats, and towing them out of their intended
course. Indeed the destructive effects of these elaborate engines were
turned on the Chinese themselves, some of the rafts taking the ground
close to the city and setting fire to the suburbs. This fiasco was
followed on the one side by an attack on the forts and the destruction
of a very large fleet of war-junks, and on the other by the demolition
and pillage of the foreign factories, not however without some curious
discrimination.
The attack on Canton was now undertaken in earnest. On the 26th May
the heights in rear of the city had been captured and were held in
force, so that the whole Chinese position was completely commanded.
Everything was ready for the assault, which would have been a
bloodless affair, an elevation just within the wall affording a
military vantage-ground from which the whole city could have been
dominated without the least risk by a very small force. At this
critical moment Captain Elliot appeared to stay the hand of Sir Hugh
Gough and Commodore Senhouse, the commanders of the military and naval
forces respectively. Captain Elliot had, in fact, granted a truce in
order to discuss, not the terms of peace with China, but merely the
conditions on which the British forces should retire from Canton. The
principal of these were that the city should be evacuated by all the
Chinese and Manchu troops, estimated at 45,000, over whom the
authorities proved that they had perfect control; and that the
authorities should pay the ransom of $6,000,000, in consideration of
which all the river forts were to be restored to the Chinese, under
the proviso that the forts below Whampoa were not to be rearmed until
the final conclusion of peace. From first to last 1200 pieces of
cannon had been captured or destroyed in these river forts, which
would in any case have taken some time to replace.
The incident which closed this transaction having an important bearing
upon future events, it merits particular attention. Two days after the
agreement was concluded the armed Braves of the city and locality
began to assemble in great numbers on the heights threatening the
British position, and they even advanced to the attack. Fighting
ensued, which lasted two days, during which the Chinese force was
constantly augmenting, and, though more than once dispersed by the
British, it was only to reassemble in greater numbers and renew the
attack. Thus the ransoming of the city seemed to be but the beginning
of strife. At length the British commander insisted upon the prefect
of Canton going out to the Braves and causing them to disperse, after
which the British force re-embarked. The incident left on the minds of
the Cantonese the conviction that they were invincible, for they took
to themselves the whole credit of expelling the barbarians.[11] This
belief was destined to bear much bitter fruit in after-days.
The emperor repudiated all these pacific arrangements, and ordered
that as soon as the English ships had withdrawn new and stronger forts
were to be erected and armed. After the anomalous episode of Canton
the war was transferred to the northern coasts. Hongkong, with its
capacious and well-sheltered harbour and facilities for ingress and
egress, was found to be an admirable naval and military base, and the
island soon became a scene of intense activity afloat and ashore. The
Chinese were attracted to it in great numbers. Tradesmen, mechanics,
builders, carpenters, servants, boatmen, market-people, and common
labourers flocked into the island, where one and all found profitable
employment both under the British Government and in connection with
the commercial establishment which had already been set up there. It
is estimated that during the year 1841 not less than 15,000 natives
from the mainland had taken up their quarters in the new possession of
Great Britain, and were naturally of material assistance in the
fitting out of the great expedition which was about to invade the
eastern seaboard. One drawback, unfortunately, soon showed itself in
the sickness and mortality of the troops, who were attacked by a fever
attributed, rightly or wrongly, to the breaking up of the soil, which
was composed of decomposed granite. Possibly, however, the hardships
of campaigning in the unhealthy delta of the Canton river predisposed
the men, when the excitement was over, to attacks of the diseases
associated with the name of Hongkong. This disastrous epidemic left to
the colony an evil reputation, which survived many years of hygienic
improvement.
The agreement concluded between Captain Elliot and Kishen, repudiated
by the emperor, was no less emphatically disapproved of by the
Government of Great Britain. Captain Elliot was recalled, and quitted
China on August 24, Sir Henry Pottinger, the new plenipotentiary,
having arrived, in company with Vice-Admiral Sir William Parker, on
the 10th, to the great joy of every one. The war was thereupon pursued
systematically and with vigour.
The twelve months over which these operations extended will not seem
long if we consider that the coast of China, with its marvellous
archipelago, was then scarcely known to navigators; that the ships
were propelled by sails; that they had to operate nearly 1000 miles
from their base--and that a place of which they held precarious
possession; and that the greatest caution was required in moving a
squadron of fifty vessels, besides transports and store-ships. Indeed
the real matter for surprise--and it reflects the highest credit on
the officers concerned--is that in an expedition of such magnitude,
including the advance of 200 miles up the Yangtze, a river till then
quite unknown, so few casualties occurred. It should also be
remembered that in this war against China precautions of quite unusual
stringency were observed for the protection of private property and
the avoidance of injury to the population.
The Chinese Government was allowed ample time for reflection between
each step in the hostile advance, yet neither the capture of the coast
forts and cities nor the incursions which were made from convenient
points into the interior sufficed to bring the Court of Peking to sue
for terms. Amoy, Chinhae, Chapu, Ningpo, Wusung, and Shanghai were
taken in succession, and Chusan was reoccupied. The Chinese defence of
these various places was far from contemptible, excepting only as
regarded the antiquity of its methods and the inefficiency of its
weapons. The fortifications at the various ports were very extensive,
and were mounted with an immense number of guns. The troops in most
cases stood bravely the attack by superior weapons and skill, in
several cases waiting for the bayonet charge before abandoning their
earthworks. It was not until the fleet had made its way up the
Yangtze, secured the Grand Canal which connects the rich rice-growing
provinces with the northern capital, and had taken its station in
front of Nanking, the southern capital, that the strategic centre of
the empire was reached.
[Illustration: YANGTZE AND GRAND CANAL.]
At Nanking, therefore, commissioners were appointed to treat with Sir
Henry Pottinger, and as they had nothing to do but acquiesce in his
demands with the best grace, while at the same time saving the face of
the Imperial Government as much as the circumstances of such a
surrender would allow, the long-desired treaty of commerce was at last
concluded on August 29, 1842.
The two Imperial Commissioners intrusted with the negotiations were
men of the highest distinction and rank, Ilipu and Kiying. Of the
latter it was said that he was the first high officer who since the
commencement of the war had dared to tell the naked truth to his
imperial master. Their joint memorial to the throne, on which the
imperial instructions for signing the treaty were based, was
remarkable for its clearness, simplicity, and outspokenness,
contrasting in these respects strongly with the customary tone of
flattery, evasion, and bombast. Of Kiying we shall hear further in the
sequel.
Ilipu was already an old man and infirm. His name is never mentioned
by contemporary writers without respect amounting almost to
veneration. Governor-general in Nanking, he had been appointed
Imperial Commissioner and ordered to Ningpo to get the dependent
island Chusan cleared of foreigners. He had thus been brought into
communication with the foreign commanders in connection with the
occupation of Ningpo and the capture of Chapu, out of which a
correspondence ensued alike honourable to both sides. A number of
Chinese prisoners, after having their wounds attended to and their
wants provided for, with a small present of money, were restored to
liberty by the British commander. This unexpected action seemed to
impress Ilipu, who in return sent down to Chapu a number of English
prisoners, who had been for some time incarcerated at Hangchow,
treating them handsomely, according to his lights. The despatch of the
prisoners was accompanied by a respectful letter to Sir Hugh Gough and
Sir William Parker, probably the first communication deserving to be
so styled that ever passed between a high Chinese officer and a
foreigner. These circumstances augured well for the success of future
intercourse. Ilipu was sent to Canton as High Commissioner to arrange
details as to the carrying out of the treaty. He died there, and was
succeeded by Kiying, who brought the ratification of the treaty to
Hongkong in June 1843.
[Illustration]
FOOTNOTES:
[9] Europe in Asia. Luzac & Co.
[10] Commodore Senhouse, who succeeded temporarily to the command, was
so mortified by the course of diplomacy that his death at Hongkong in
the month of June 1841 was believed to have been hastened thereby. His
dying request was that his body should be taken to Macao, for burial,
as he feared that further conciliatory measures might result in
Hongkong being given back to the Chinese.
[11] In a proclamation issued in 1844 it was said, "Remember how our
people were persuaded not to fall upon and massacre your soldiers."