clouds and showers, there have been some gorgeous sunsets, and
magnificent colouring of the depth and richness which people call
tropical, has blazed extravagantly; and from the violet desert to the
indigo storm-clouds on the still snow-patched Kuhr[=u]d mountains,
from the vivid green of the oasis to the purple crags in dark relief
against a sky of flame, all things have been new.
Two Sundays witnessed two incidents, one the baptism of a young Moslem
in a semi-private fashion, who shortly afterwards renounced
Christianity, and the other that of a respectable Mohammedan merchant
in Isfahan, who has long pleaded for baptism, presenting himself at
the altar rails at the Holy Communion, resolved that if he were not
permitted to confess Christ as Divine in one way he would in another.
He was passed over, to my great regret, if he be sincere, but I
suppose the Rubric leaves no choice.[39]
I have written little about my prospective journey because there has
been a prolonged uncertainty about it, and even now I cannot give any
definite account of the project, except that the route lies through an
altogether mountainous region, in that part of the province of
Luristan known in Persia colloquially as the "Bakhtiari country," from
being inhabited by the Bakhtiari Lurs, chiefly nomads. The pros and
cons as to my going have been innumerable, and the two people in
Persia who know the earlier part of the route say that the character
of the people makes it impossible for a lady to travel among them. On
the other hand, I have the consent and help of the highest
authorities, Persian and English, and shall not go too far, but shall
return to Isfahan in case things should turn out as is feared. The
exploration of a previously unexplored region will be in itself
interesting, but whether there will be sufficient of the human
interests, which I chiefly care for, I doubt; in that case the journey
will be dull.
At all events I shall probably have to return here in two months,[40]
but such a journey for myself and two servants in such a region
requires extensive preparations, and I have brought all my own
travelling "dodges" into requisition, with a selection of those of
other people.
It is considered desirable to carry stores from Isfahan for forty
days, except flour and rice, which can be obtained a week's march from
here. At the British Legation I was kindly supplied with many tins of
preserved meat, and milk, and jam, and besides these I am only taking
a quantity of Edwards' Desiccated Soup, portable and excellent, twelve
pounds of tea, and ten pounds of candles. The great thing in planning
is to think of what one can do without. Two small bottles of saccharin
supply the place of forty pounds of sugar.
Two _yekdans_ contain my stores, cooking and table utensils and
personal luggage, a waterproof bag my bedding, and a divided
packing-case, now empty, goes for the flour and rice. Everything in
the _yekdans_ is put up in bags made of the coarse cotton of the
country. The tents and tent-poles, which have been socketed for easier
transport on crooked mountain paths, and a camp-bed made from a
Kashmiri pattern in Tihran, are all packed in covers made from the
gunny bags in which sugar is imported, and so are double sets of
large and small iron tent-pegs.
Presents for the "savages" are also essential, and I have succeeded in
getting 100 thimbles, many gross of small china buttons which, it is
said, they like to sew on children's caps, 1000 needles, a quantity of
Russian thread, a number of boxes with mirror tops, two dozen
double-bladed knives, and the same number of strong scissors, Kashmir
_kamarbands_, gay handkerchiefs for women's heads, Isfahan printed
"table-cloths," dozens of bead bracelets and necklaces, leather purses
and tobacco pouches, and many other things.
I take three tents, including a _shuldari_, five feet square, and only
weighing ten pounds. My kit is reduced to very simple elements, a
kettle, two copper pots which fit into each other, a frying pan,
cooking knife and spoon, a tray instead of a table, a chair, two
plates, a teacup and saucer, a soup plate, mug, and teapot, all of
course in enamelled iron, a knife, fork, and two spoons. This is ample
for one person for any length of time in camp.
For this amount of baggage and for the sacks of flour and rice,
weighing 160 lbs., which will hereafter be carried, I have four mules,
none heavily laden, and two with such light loads that they can be
ridden by my servants. These mules, two _charvadars_, and a horse are
engaged for the journey at two _krans_ (16d.) a day each, the owner
stipulating for a _bakhsheesh_ of fifty _krans_, if at the end I am
satisfied. This sum is to cover food and all risks.
The animals are hired from a well-known _charvadar_, who has made a
large fortune and is regarded as very trustworthy; Dr. Bruce calls him
the "prince of _charvadars_." He and his son are going on the "trip."
He has a quiet, superior manner, and when he came to judge of the
weight of my loads, he said they were "very good--very right," a more
agreeable verdict than muleteers are wont to pass upon baggage.[41]
The making of the contract with Hadji involved two important
processes, the writing of it by a scribe and the sealing of it. The
scribe is one of the most important persons in Persia. Every great man
has one or more, and every little man has occasion for a scribe's
services in the course of a year. He is the trusted depositary of an
infinity of secrets. He moves with dignity and deliberation, his
"writer's inkhorn" pendent from his girdle, and his physiognomy has
been trained to that reticent, semi-mysterious expression common to
successful solicitors in England.
Writing is a fine art in Persia. The characters are in themselves
graceful, and lend themselves readily to decoration. The old
illuminated MSS. are things of beauty; even my contract is ornamental.
The scribe holds the paper in his left hand, and uses a reed pen with
the nib cut obliquely, writing from right to left. The ink is thick,
and is carried with the pens in a _papier-mache_ inkhorn.
Hadji tells me with much pride that his son, Abbas Ali, can write "and
will be very useful."
Sealing is instead of signing. As in Japan, every adult male has his
seal, of agate or cornelian among the rich, and of brass or silver
among the poor. The name is carefully engraved on the seal at a cost
of from a half-penny to 18s. a letter. Tihran is celebrated for its
seal-cutters. No document is authentic without a seal as its
signature.
Hadji took the contract and applied it to his forehead in token of
respect, touched the paper with his tongue to make it moist and
receptive, waved it in the air to rid it of superfluous moisture,
wetted his fingers on a spongy ball of silk full of Indian ink in the
scribe's inkstand, rubbed the ink on the seal, breathed on it, and
pressed it firmly down on the paper, which he held over the forefinger
of his left hand. The smallest acts in Persia are regulated by rigid
custom.
The remaining portion of my outfit, but not the least important,
consists of a beautiful medicine chest of the most compact and
portable make, most kindly given to me by Messrs. Burroughes and
Wellcome, containing fifty small bottles of their invaluable
"tabloids," a hypodermic syringe, and surgical instruments for simple
cases. To these I have added a quantity of quinine, and Dr. Odling at
Tihran gave me some valuable remedies. A quantity of bandages, lint,
absorbent cotton, etc., completes this essential equipment. Among the
many uncertainties of the future this appears certain, that the
Bakhtiaris will be clamorous for European medicine.
I have written of my servants. Mirza Yusuf pleases me very much,
Hassan the cook seems quiet, but not active, and I picture to myself
the confusion of to-night in camp, with two men who know nothing about
camp life and its makeshifts!
Whatever the summer brings, this is probably my last letter written
from under a roof till next winter. I am sorry to leave Julfa and
these kind friends, but the prospect of the unknown has its charms.
I. L. B.
FOOTNOTES:
[38] _Screw_ never became a friend or companion, scarcely a comrade,
but showed plenty of pluck and endurance, climbed and descended
horrible rock ladders over which a horse with a rider had never passed
before, was steady in fords, and at the end of three and a half months
of severe travelling and occasional scarcity of food was in better
condition than when he left Julfa.
[39] He has since been baptized, but for safety had to relinquish his
business and go to India, where he is supporting himself, and his
conduct is satisfactory.
[40] I never returned, and only at the end of three and a half months
emerged from the "Bakhtiari country" at Burujird after a journey of
700 miles.
[41] Hadji Hussein deserves a passing recommendation. I fear that he
is still increasing his fortune and has not retired. The journey was a
very severe one, full of peril to his mules from robbers and dangerous
roads, and not without risk to himself. With the exception of a few
Orientalisms, which are hardly worth recalling, he was faithful and
upright, made no attempt to overreach, kept to his bargain, was
punctual and careful, and at Burujird we parted good friends. He was
always most respectful to me, and I owe him gratitude for many
kindnesses which increased my comfort. It is right to acknowledge that
a part of the success of the journey was owing to the efficiency of
the transport.
NOTES ON THE "BAKHTIARI COUNTRY" OR LURI-BUZURG
In introducing the following journal of a summer spent in Luri-Buzurg
or Greater Luristan by a few explanatory notes, I desire to
acknowledge the labours of those travellers who have preceded me over
some of the earlier portions of the route, and my obligations to those
careful explorers of half a century ago, who turned the light of
modern research upon the antiquities of Lower Elam and the condition
of its modern inhabitants, and whose earnestness and accuracy the
traveller in Upper Elam and the Bakhtiari country may well desire to
emulate.[42]
For the correction of those portions of my letters which attempt to
describe a part of mountainous Luristan previously unexplored, I am
deeply indebted to a recent unpublished Geographical Report, to which
any geographical interest which they may possess is altogether due.
For the customs and beliefs of the Bakhtiaris I have had to depend
entirely on my own investigations, made through an intelligent and
faithful interpreter, whose desire for accuracy was scarcely exceeded
by my own.
The accompanying sketch map represents an area of 15,000 square miles,
lying, roughly speaking, between Lat. 31 deg. and 34 deg. N., and between
Long. 48 deg. and 51 deg. E., and covering a distance of 300 miles from the
Khana Mirza to Khuramabad.
The itinerary covers a distance of about 700 miles, a journey of three
and a half months, chiefly in the region of the Upper Karun and its
affluents, among which must be included the head-waters of the
Ab-i-Diz.
During this time the Karun was traced, wherever the nature of its bed
admitted of it, from the gorge of Dupulan, below which several
travellers have investigated and reported its extraordinary windings,
up to the Sar-Cheshmeh-i-Kurang, its reputed source, a vigorous
fountain spring with an altitude of 8000 feet in the steep limestone
face of the north-eastern side of the Zard Kuh range, and upwards to
its real source in the Kuh-i-Rang or "variegated mountain."
The Ab-i-Diz was found to carry off the water of a larger area than
had been supposed; the north-west branches, the Ab-i-Burujird and the
Kamandab, which drain the well-watered plain of Silakhor, almost
yielding in importance to the Guwa and Gokun, which, uniting to form
what, for convenience' sake, was termed the Ab-i-Basnoi, receive the
drainage of the upper part of Faraidan, an important district of
Persia proper.
A lake of marvellously coloured water, two and a half miles long by
one mile wide, very deep, and with a persistent level, was found to
occupy a hollow at the inner foot of the grand mountain Shuturun, and
this, having no native name, was marked on the map as Lake Irene.
The Bakhtiari mountains are chains of precipitous parallel ranges,
generally running north-west and south-east, the valleys which divide
them and carry off their waters taking the same directions as far as
the Kuh-i-Rang, where a remarkable change takes place, noticed in
Letter XVII. This great mountain region, lying between the lofty
plateau of Central Persia and the plains of Khuzistan, has continuous
ranges of singular steepness, but rarely broken up into prominent
peaks, the Kuh-i-Rang, the Kuh-i-Shahan, the Shuturun Kuh, and Dalonak
being detached mountains.
The great ranges of the Kuh-i-Sukhta, the Kuh-i-Gerra, the Sabz Kuh,
the Kala Kuh, and the Zard Kuh were crossed and recrossed by passes
from 8000 to 11,000 feet in altitude; many of the summits were
ascended, and the deep valleys between them, with their full-watered,
peacock-green streams, were followed up wherever it was possible to do
so. The magnificent mountain Kuh-i-Rang was ascertained to be not only
a notable water-parting, but to indicate in a very marked manner two
distinct mountain systems with remarkable peculiarities of drainage,
as well as to form a colossal barrier between two regions which, for
the sake of intelligible description, were called "Upper Elam" and
the "Bakhtiari country."
The same authority, for the same purpose, designated the two main and
highest chains of mountains by the terms "Outer" and "Inner" ranges,
the former being the one nearest the great Persian plateau, the latter
the chain nearest to the Khuzistan plains. The conjectural altitudes
of the peaks in this hitherto unexplored region have been brought down
by some thousands of feet, and the "eternal snow" with which rumour
had crested them has turned out a myth, the altitude of the highest
summit being estimated at only a trifle over 13,000 feet.
The nearly continuous ranges south-east of the Kuh-i-Rang are pierced
for the passage of water by a few remarkable rifts or _tangs_--the
Outer range by the Tang-i-Ghezi, the outlet of the Zainderud towards
Isfahan, and the Tang-i-Darkash Warkash, by which the drainage of the
important districts of the Chahar Mahals passes to the Karun, the
Inner range being pierced at the Tang-i-Dupulan by the Karun itself.
North-west of the Kuh-i-Rang the rivers which carry the drainage of
certain districts of south-west Persia to the sea pierce the main
mountain ranges at right angles, passing through magnificent gorges
and chasms from 3000 to 5000 feet in depth.
Among the mountains, but especially in the formation south-east of the
Kuh-i-Rang, there are many alpine valleys at altitudes of from 7000 to
8500 feet, rich summer pastures, such as Gurab, Chigakhor, Shorab, and
Cheshmeh Zarin.
Some of the valleys are of considerable width, many only afford room
for narrow tracks above the streams by which they are usually watered,
while others are mere rifts for torrents and are inaccessible. Among
the limestone ranges fountain springs are of frequent occurrence,
gushing out of the mountain sides with great volume and
impetuosity--the perennial sources of perennial streams.
Much of the country is absolutely without wood, producing nothing fit
even for fuel but the _Astragalus verus_ and the _Astragalus
tragacantha_. This is especially the case on the outer slopes of the
Outer range, which are formed of rocky ribs with a covering of gravel,
and are "barren, treeless, waterless, and grassless." From the same
crest to the outer slopes of the Inner range, which descend on
Khuzistan, there are splendid pasturage, abundant water, and extensive
forests in the deep valleys and on the hill slopes.[43]
The trees, however, can rarely be defined as "forest trees." They are
small in girth and are usually stunted and wizened in aspect, as if
the conditions of their existence were not kindly.
Flowers are innumerable in the months of May and June, beginning with
the tulip, the iris, the narcissus, and a small purple gladiolus, and
a little later many of the hillsides above an altitude of 7000 feet
are aflame with a crimson and terra-cotta _Fritillaria imperialis_,
and a carnation-red anemone, while the margins of the snow-fields are
gay with pink patches of an exquisite alpine primula. Chicory, the
dark blue centaurea, a large orange and yellow snapdragon, and the
scarlet poppy attend upon grain crops there as elsewhere, and the
slopes above the upper Karun are brilliant with pink, mauve, and
white hollyhocks. But it must be admitted that the chief interest of
many of the flowers is botanical only. They are leathery, woolly,
thorny, and sticky, adapted rather for arid circumstances than to
rejoice the eye.
Among the economic plants observed were the _Centaurea alata_, which
grows in singular abundance at a height of from 5500 to 7000 feet, and
is cut and stacked for fodder; a species of celery of very strong
flavour, which is an important article of food for man and beast, and
the flower-stalks of which, six feet high, are woven into booths by
some of the tribes; the blue linum, red madder, the _Eryngium
caeruleum_, which is cut and stacked for fodder; a purple garlic, the
bulbs of which are eaten; liquorice, and the _Ferula asafetida_ in
small quantities.
It is a surprise to the traveller to find that a large area is under
cultivation, and that the crops of wheat and barley are clean, and up
to the Persian average, and that the removal of stones and a laborious
irrigation system are the work of nomads who only occupy their
_yailaks_ for five months of the year. It may be said that nearly
every valley and hill-slope where water is procurable is turned to
account for grain crops.
No part of the world in this latitude is fuller of streams and
torrents, but three only attain to any geographical dignity--the
Zainderud, or river of Isfahan, which after a course full of promise
loses itself ignominiously in a partially-explored swamp; the Karun,
with its Bakhtiari tributaries of the Ab-i-Bazuft, the Darkash
Warkash, the Ab-i-Sabzu, and the Dinarud; and the Ab-i-Diz, which has
an important course of its own before its junction with the Karun at
Bandakir. None of these rivers are navigable during their course
through the Bakhtiari mountains. They are occasionally spanned by
bridges of stone or wickerwork, or of yet simpler construction.
With the exception of the small area of the Outer range, which
contains the head-waters of the Zainderud, the Bakhtiari country
proper consists of the valleys of the upper Karun and its tributaries.
The tracks naturally follow the valleys, and are fairly easy in their
gradients to the south-east of the Kuh-i-Rang. To the north-west,
however, being compelled to cross rivers which pierce the ranges at
right angles to their directions, ascents and descents of several
thousand feet are involved at short intervals, formed of rock ladders,
which may be regarded as "impassable for laden animals."
The so-called roads are nothing better than tracks worn in the course
of centuries by the annual passage of the nomads and their flocks to
and from their summer pastures. In addition to the tracks which follow
the lie of the valleys, footpaths cross the main ranges where foothold
can be obtained.
There are but two bridle tracks which deserve mention as being
possible for caravan traffic between Isfahan and Shuster, one crossing
the God-i-Murda at a height of 7050 feet and the Karun at Dupulan, the
other, which considerably diminishes the distance between the two
commercial points, crossing the Zard Kuh by the Cherri Pass at an
altitude of 9550 feet and dropping down a steep descent of over 4000
feet to the Bazuft river. These, the Gurab, and the Gil-i-Shah, and
Pambakal Passes, which cross the Zard Kuh range at elevations of over
11,000 feet, are reported as closed by snow for several months in
winter. In view of the cart-road from Ahwaz to Tihran, which will pass
through the gap of Khuramabad, the possible importance of any one of
these routes fades completely away.
The climate, though one of extremes, is healthy. Maladies of locality
are unknown, the water is usually pure, and malarious swamps do not
exist. Salt springs produce a sufficiency of salt for wholesome use,
and medicinal plants abound. The heat begins in early June and is
steady till the end of August, the mercury rising to 102 deg. in the shade
at altitudes of 7000 feet, but it is rarely oppressive; the nights are
cool, and greenery and abounding waters are a delightful contrast to
the arid hills and burning plains of Persia. The rainfall is scarcely
measurable, the snowfall is reported as heavy, and the winter
temperatures are presumably low.
There are few traces of a past history, and the legends connected with
the few are too hazy to be of any value, but there are remains of
bridges of dressed stone, and of at least one ancient road, which must
have been trodden by the soldiers of Alexander the Great and Valerian,
and it is not impossible that the rude forts here and there which the
tribesmen attribute to mythical heroes of their own race may have been
built to guard Greek or Roman communications.
The geology, entomology, and zoology of the Bakhtiari country have yet
to be investigated. In a journey of three months and a half the only
animals seen were a bear and cubs, a boar, some small ibex, a blue
hare, and some jackals. Francolin are common, and storks were seen,
but scarcely any other birds, and bees and butterflies are rare. It is
the noxious forms of animated life which are abundant. There are
snakes, some of them venomous, a venomous spider, and a stinging
beetle, and legions of black flies, mosquitos, and sand-flies infest
many localities.
This area of lofty ranges, valleys, gorges, and alpine pasturages is
inhabited by the Bakhtiari Lurs, classed with the savage or
semi-savage races, who, though they descend to the warmer plains in
the winter, invariably speak of these mountains as "their country." On
this journey nearly all the tribes were visited in their own
encampments, and their arrangements, modes of living, customs, and
beliefs were subjects of daily investigation, the results of which are
given in the letters which follow.
Their own very hazy traditions, which are swift to lose themselves in
the fabulous, represent that they came from Syria, under one chief,
and took possession of the country which they now inhabit. A later
tradition states that a descendant of this chief had two wives equally
beloved, one of whom had four sons, and the other seven; and that
after their father's death the young men quarrelled, separated, and
bequeathed their quarrel to posterity, the seven brothers forming the
Haft Lang division of the Bakhtiaris, and the four the Chahar
Lang.[44]
The Haft Lang, though originally far superior in numbers, weakened
their power by their unending internal conflicts, and in 1840, when
Sir A. H. Layard visited a part of Luristan not embraced in this
route, and sojourned at Kala-i-Tul, the power and headship of Mehemet
Taki Khan, the great chief of their rivals the Chahar Lang, were
recognised throughout the region.
The misfortunes which came upon him overthrew the supremacy of his
clan, and now (as for some years past) the Haft Lang supply the ruling
dynasty, the Chahar Lang being, however, still strong enough to decide
any battles for the chieftainship which may be fought among their
rivals. Time, and a stronger assertion of the sovereignty of Persia,
have toned the feud down into a general enmity and aversion, but the
tribes of the two septs rarely intermarry, and seldom encamp near each
other without bloodshed.