than anything else, strengthened the scientific establishment. As taken
over from the Crown the Garden possessed neither. But Sir William
brought with him from Glasgow his own collections, already the most
extensive in private hands. For long years after coming to Kew he
maintained and added to his store at his own expense. But finally his
collections were acquired after his death by Government. His Herbarium
was merged with the fine Herbarium of Bentham, already presented to the
nation in 1857. Thus, the opening years of Sir Joseph's directorate
saw the organisation upon a public basis of that magnificent Herbarium
and Library, which now contains not only his father's collections, but
also his own. Among the enormous additions since made to the Herbarium
of Kew, its greatest interest will always be centred in the Hookerian
collections which it contains.
It might be thought that such drafts as these upon the time and
energies of a scientific man would leave no opportunity for other
duties. But it was while burdened with the directorship that Sir
Joseph was called to the highest administrative office in science in
Great Britain. He served as President of the Royal Society from 1873
to 1878. The obligations of that position are far from being limited
to the requirements of the Society itself. The Government of the day
has always been in the habit of taking its president and officials
into consultation in scientific matters of public importance. In these
years the administrative demands upon Sir Joseph were the greatest
of his life. They are marked by a temporary pause in the stream of
publication. None of his own larger works belong to this period.
It happens only too often in this country that our ablest men are
thus paralysed in their scientific careers by the potent vortex of
administration. Not a few succumb, and cease altogether to produce.
They are caught as in the eddy of the Lorelei, and are so hopelessly
entangled that they never emerge again. They fail to realise, or
realise too late, that the administration of matters relating to a
science is not an end in itself, but only a means to an end. Some,
the steadfast and invincible seekers after truth, though held by the
eddy for a time, pass again into the main stream. Hooker was one of
these. The Presidency of the Royal Society ended at the usual term of
five years. Seven years later he demitted office as Director of Kew.
He was thus free in 1885, still a young man in vigour though not in
years. For over a quarter of a century after retirement he devoted the
energy of his old age to peculiarly fruitful scientific work. Thus the
administrative tie upon him was only temporary. So long as it lasted he
faithfully obeyed the call of duty, notwithstanding the restrictions it
imposed.
No exhaustive catalogue need be given of the works upon which the
reputation of Sir Joseph Hooker as a _scientific systematist_ was
founded. It must suffice briefly to consider his four greatest
systematic works, _The Antarctic Flora_, _The Flora of British India_,
_The Genera Plantarum_, and the _Index Kewensis_.
We have seen how on the Antarctic voyage Hooker had the opportunity
of collecting on all the great circumpolar areas of the Southern
Hemisphere. His _Antarctic Flora_ was based on the collections
and observations then made. It was published in six large quarto
volumes. The first related to the Lord Auckland and Campbell Islands
(1843-1845); the second to Fuegia and the Falkland Islands (1845-1847);
the third and fourth to New Zealand (1851-1853); and the fifth and
sixth to Tasmania (1853-1860). They describe about 3000 species,
while on 530 plates 1095 species are depicted, usually with detailed
analytical drawings. But these volumes did not merely contain reports
of explorations, or descriptions of the many new species collected.
There is much more than this in them. All the known facts that could
be gathered were incorporated, so that they became systematically
elaborated and complete Floras of the several countries. Moreover,
in the last of them, the _Flora Tasmaniae_, there is an Introductory
Essay, which in itself would have made Hooker famous. We shall return
to this later. Meanwhile we recognise that the publication of the
_Botanical Results of Ross's Voyage_ established Hooker's reputation as
a Traveller and Botanist of the first rank.
What he did for the Antarctic in his youth he continued in mature life
for British India. While the publication of the _Antarctic Flora_ was
still in progress, he made his Indian journeys. The vast collections
amassed by himself and Dr Thomson were consigned by agreement with
Government to Kew. Thither had also been brought in 1858 "seven
waggon-loads of collections from the cellars of the India House in
Leadenhall Street, where they had been accumulating for many years."
They included the herbaria of Falconer and Griffith. Such materials,
with other large additions made from time to time, flowed into the
already rich Herbarium at Kew. This was the material upon which Sir
Joseph Hooker was to base his _Magnum Opus_, the _Flora of British
India_.
Already in 1855 Sir Joseph, with his Glasgow college friend, Thomas
Thomson, had essayed to prepare a "Flora Indica." It never advanced
beyond its first volume. But if it had been completed on the scale
set by that volume, it would have reached nearly 12,000 pages! After
a pause of over fifteen years Hooker made a fresh start, aided now by
a staff of collaborators, and the _Flora of British India_ was the
result. It was conceived, he says with regret, upon a restricted plan.
Nevertheless it ran to seven volumes, published between the years
1872 and 1897. There are nearly 6000 pages of letterpress, relating
to 16,000 species. It is, he says in the Preface, a pioneer work, and
necessarily incomplete. But he hopes it may "help the phytographer to
discuss problems of distribution of plants from the point of view of
what is perhaps the richest, and is certainly the most varied botanical
area on the surface of the globe."
Scarcely was this great work ended when Dr Trimen died. He left the
_Ceylon Flora_, on which he had been engaged, incomplete. Three
volumes were already published, but the fourth was far from finished,
and the fifth hardly touched. The Ceylon Government applied to Hooker,
and though he was now eighty years of age, he responded to the call.
The completing volumes were issued in 1898 and 1900. This was no mere
raking over afresh the materials worked already into the _Indian
Flora_. For Ceylon includes a strong Malayan element in its vegetation.
It has, moreover, a very large number of endemic species, and even
genera. This last floristic work of Sir Joseph may be held fitly to
round off his treatment of the Indian Peninsula. His last contribution
to its botany was in the form of a "Sketch of the Vegetation of the
Indian Empire," including Ceylon, Burma, and the Malay Peninsula.
It was written for the _Imperial Gazetteer_, at the request of the
Government of India. No one could have been so well qualified for this
as the veteran who had spent more than half a century in preparation
for it. It was published in 1904, and forms the natural close to the
most remarkable study of a vast and varied Flora that has ever been
carried through by one ruling mind.
The third of the systematic works selected for our consideration is the
_Genera Plantarum_. It was produced in collaboration with Mr Bentham.
Of its three massive volumes the first was published in 1865, and the
work was completed in 1883. It consists of a codification of the Latin
diagnoses of all the genera of Flowering Plants. It is essentially a
work for the technical botanist, but for him it is indispensable. Of
the known species of plants many show such close similarity of their
characters that their kinship is recognised by grouping them into
genera. In order that these genera may be accurately defined it is
necessary to have a _précis_ of the characters which their species have
in common. This must be so drawn that it shall also serve for purposes
of diagnosis from allied genera. Such drafting requires not only a keen
appreciation of fact, but also the verbal clearness and accuracy of the
conveyancing barrister. The facts could only be obtained by access to
a reliable and rich Herbarium. Bentham and Hooker, working together at
Kew, satisfied these drastic requirements more fully than any botanists
of their time. The only real predecessors of this monumental work were
the _Genera Plantarum_ of Linnaeus (1737-1764) and of Jussieu (1789),
to which may be added that of Endlicher (1836-1840). But all of these
were written while the number of known genera and species was smaller.
The difficulty of the task of Bentham and Hooker was greatly enhanced
by their wider knowledge. But their _Genera Plantarum_ is on that
account a nearer approach to finality. Hitherto its supremacy has not
been challenged.
The fourth of the great systematic works of Hooker mentioned above
was the _Index Kewensis_. It was produced upon the plan and under the
supervision of Sir Joseph by Dr Daydon Jackson and a staff of clerks.
The publication began in 1893, and successive supplements to its four
quarto volumes are still appearing at intervals. The expense was borne
by Charles Darwin. The scheme originated in the difficulty he had
found in the accurate naming of plants. For "synonyms" have frequently
been given by different writers to the same species, and this had led
to endless confusion. The object of the _Index_ was to provide an
authoritative list of all the names that have been used, with reference
to the author of each and to its place of publication. The habitat of
the plant was also to be given. The correct name in use according to
certain well-recognised rules of nomenclature was to be indicated by
type different from that of the synonyms superseded by it. The only
predecessor of such an Index was Steudel's _Nomenclator Botanicus_,
a book greatly prized by Darwin, though long out of date. He wished
at first to produce a modern edition of Steudel's _Nomenclator_. This
idea was, however, amended, and it was resolved to construct a new
list of genera and species, founded upon Bentham and Hooker's _Genera
Plantarum_. Sir Joseph Hooker was asked by Mr Darwin to take into
consideration the extent and scope of the proposed work, and to suggest
the best means of having it executed. He undertook the task, and it
was he who laid out the lines to be followed. After years of labour by
Dr Daydon Jackson and his staff, the work was produced. But Sir Joseph
read and narrowly criticised all the proofs. Imagine four large quarto
volumes, containing in the aggregate 2500 pages, each page bearing
three columns of close print, and each column about fifty names. The
total figures out to about 375,000 specific names, all of which were
critically considered by the octogenarian editor! Surely no greater
technical benefit was ever conferred upon a future generation by the
veterans of science than this _Index_. It smooths the way for every
systematist who comes after. It stands as a monument to an intimate
friendship. It bears witness to the munificence of Darwin, and the
ungrudging personal care of Hooker.
But the author of great works such as these was still willing to help
those of less ambitious flights. I must not omit to mention two books
which, being more modest in their scope, have reached the hands of many
in this country. In 1870 Hooker produced his _Students' Flora of the
British Islands_, of which later editions appeared in 1878 and 1884.
It was published in order to "supply students and field botanists with
a fuller account of the plants of the British Isles than the manuals
hitherto in use aim at giving." In 1887 he edited, after the death of
its author, the fifth edition of Bentham's _Handbook of the British
Flora_. Both of these still hold the field, though they require to be
brought up to date in point of classification and nomenclature.
The object of these brief sketches of four of the great systematic
works of Sir Joseph Hooker has been to show how fully he was imbued
with the old systematic methods: how he advanced, improved and extended
them, and was in his time their chief exponent. His father had held a
similar position in the generation before him. But the elder Hooker,
true to his generation, treated his species as fixed and immutable. He
did not generalise from them. His end was attained by their accurate
recognition, delineation, description, and classification. The younger
Hooker, while in this work he was not a whit behind the best of his
predecessors, saw further than they. He was not satisfied with the mere
record of species as they were. He sought to penetrate the mystery
of the origin of species. In fact, he was not merely a Scientific
Systematist in the older sense. He was a _Philosophical Biologist_
in the new and nascent sense of the middle period of the nineteenth
century. He was an almost life-long friend of Charles Darwin. He was
the first confidant of his species theory, and, excepting Wallace,
its first whole-hearted adherent. But he was also Darwin's constant
and welcome adviser and critic. Well indeed was it for the successful
launch of evolutionary theory that old-fashioned systematists took it
in hand. Both Darwin and Hooker had wide and detailed knowledge of
species as the starting-point of their induction.
Before we trace the part which Hooker himself played in the drama
of evolutionary theory, it will be well to glance at his personal
relations with Darwin himself. It has been seen how he read the
proof-sheets of the _Voyage of the 'Beagle'_ while still in his last
year of medical study. But before he started for the Antarctic he
was introduced to its author. It was in Trafalgar Square, and the
interview was brief but cordial. On returning from the Antarctic,
correspondence was opened in 1843. In January 1844 Hooker received the
memorable letter confiding to him the germ of the Theory of Descent.
Darwin wrote thus: "At last gleams of light have come, and I am almost
convinced that species are not (it is like confessing a murder)
immutable:--I think I have found (here's presumption!) the simple way
by which species become exquisitely adapted to various ends." This was
probably the first communication by Darwin of his species-theory to any
scientific colleague.
The correspondence thus happily initiated between Darwin and Hooker is
preserved in the _Life and Letters of Charles Darwin_, and in the two
volumes of _Letters_ subsequently published. They show on the one hand
the rapid growth of a deep friendship between these two potent minds,
which ended only beside the grave of Darwin in Westminster Abbey. But
what is more important is that these letters reveal, in a way that
none of the published work of either could have done, the steps in the
growth of the great generalisation. We read of the doubts of one or
the other; the gradual accumulation of material facts; the criticisms
and amendments in face of new evidence; and the slow progress from
tentative hypothesis to assured belief. We ourselves have grown up
since the clash of opinion for and against the mutability of species
died down. It is hard for us to understand the strength of the feelings
aroused: the bitterness of the attack by the opponents of the theory,
and the fortitude demanded from its adherents. It is best to obtain
evidence on such matters at first hand; and this is what is supplied by
the correspondence between Darwin and Hooker.
How complete the understanding between the friends soon became is shown
by the provisions made by Darwin for the publication of his manuscripts
in case of sudden death. He wrote in August 1854 the definite direction
"Hooker by far the best man to edit my species volume": and this
notwithstanding that he writes to him as a "stern and awful judge and
sceptic." But again, in a letter a few months later, he says to him: "I
forgot at the moment that you are the one living soul from whom I have
constantly received sympathy." I have already said that Hooker was not
only Darwin's first confidant but also the first to accept his theory
of mutability of species. But even he did not fully assent to it till
after its first publication. The latter point comes out clearly from
the letters. In January 1859, six months after the reading of their
joint communications to the Linnean Society, Darwin writes to Wallace:
"You ask about Lyell's frame of mind. I think he is somewhat staggered,
but does not give in ... I think he will end by being perverted. Dr
Hooker has become almost as heterodox as you or I, and I look at Hooker
as by far the most capable judge in Europe." In September 1859 Darwin
writes to W. D. Fox: "Lyell has read about half of the volume in clean
sheets ... He is wavering so much about the immutability of species
that I expect he will come round. Hooker has come round, and will
publish his belief soon." In the following month, writing to Hooker,
Darwin says: "I have spoken of you here as a convert made by me: but I
know well how much larger the share has been of your own self-thought."
A letter to Wallace of November 1859 bears this postscript: "I think
that I told you before that Hooker is a complete convert. If I can
convert Huxley I shall be content." And lastly, in a letter to W. B.
Carpenter, of the same month, Darwin says: "As yet I know only one
believer, but I look at him as of the greatest authority, viz. Hooker."
These quotations clearly show that, while Lyell wavered, and Huxley had
not yet come in, Hooker was a complete adherent in 1859 to the doctrine
of the mutability of species. Excepting Wallace, he was the first, in
fact, of the great group that stood round Darwin, as he was the last of
them to survive.
The story of the joint communication of Darwin and of Wallace to the
Linnean Society "On the tendency of Species to form Varieties, and
on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of
Selection" will be fresh in the minds of readers, for the fiftieth
anniversary of the event was lately celebrated in London. It was Sir
Charles Lyell and Sir Joseph Hooker who jointly communicated the two
papers to the society, together with the evidence of the priority of
Darwin in the enquiry. Nothing could then have been more apposite
than the personal history which Sir Joseph gave at the Darwin-Wallace
celebration, held by the Linnean Society in 1908. He then told, at
first hand, the exact circumstances under which the joint papers were
produced. Nor could the expressions used by the President (Dr Scott)
when thanking Sir Joseph, and presenting to him the Darwin-Wallace
Medal, have been improved. He said: "The incalculable benefit that your
constant friendship, advice, and alliance were to Mr Darwin himself,
is summed up in his own words, used in 1864: 'You have represented for
many years the whole great public to me.'" The President then added:
"Of all men living it is to you more than to any other that the great
generalisation of Darwin and Wallace owes its triumph."
The very last appearance of Hooker at any large public gathering of
biologists was at the centenary of Darwin's birth, celebrated at
Cambridge, in 1909. None who were there will forget the tall figure of
the veteran, aged, but still vigorous, with vivacity in every feature.
How gladly he accepted the congratulations of his many friends, and
how heartily he rejoiced over the full acceptance of the theory he had
himself done so much to promote. The end came only two years later,
in December last. Many will have wished that the great group of the
protagonists of Evolution, Darwin, Lyell, and Hooker, should have found
their final resting-place together in Westminster Abbey. But this was
not to be. Personal and family ties held him closer to Kew. And he lies
there in classic ground beside his father.
Having thus sketched the intimate relations which subsisted
between Hooker and Darwin, it remains to appraise his own positive
contributions to _Philosophical Biology_. He himself, in his Address
as President of the British Association at Norwich in 1868, gives
an insight into his early attitude in the enquiry into biological
questions. "Having myself," he says, "been a student of Moral
Philosophy in a Northern University, I entered on my scientific career
full of hopes that Metaphysics would prove a useful mentor, if not a
guide in science. I soon found, however, that it availed me nothing,
and I long ago arrived at the conclusion so well put by Agassiz,
when he says, 'We trust that the time is not distant when it will be
universally understood that the battle of the evidences will have
to be fought on the field of Physical Science, and not on that of
the Metaphysical.'" This was the difficult lesson of the period when
Evolution was born. Hooker learned the lesson early. He cleared his
mental outlook from all preconceptions, and worked down to the bed-rock
of objective fact. Thus he was free to use his vast and detailed
knowledge in advancing, along the lines of induction alone, towards
sound generalisations. These had their very close relation to questions
of the mutability of species. The subject was approached by him through
the study of geographical distribution, in which, as we have seen, he
had at an early age become the leading authority.
The fame of Sir Joseph Hooker as a Philosophical Biologist rests upon
a masterly series of Essays and Addresses. The chief of these were
The Introductory Essay to the _Flora Tasmaniae_, dealing with the
Antarctic Flora as a whole; The Essay on the Distribution of Arctic
Plants, published in 1862; The Discourse on Insular Floras in 1866;
The Presidential Address to the British Association at Norwich in
1868; his Address at York, in 1881, on Geographical Distribution; and
finally, The Essay on the Vegetation of India, published in 1904. None
of these were mere inspirations of the moment. They were the outcome of
arduous journeys to observe and to collect, and subsequently of careful
analysis of the specimens and of the facts. The dates of publication
bear this out. The Essay on the Antarctic Flora appeared about twenty
years after the completion of the voyage. The Essay on the Vegetation
of India was not published till more than half a century after Hooker
first set foot in India. It is upon such foundations that Hooker's
reputation as a great constructive thinker is securely based.
The first-named of these essays will probably be estimated as the most
notable of them all in the History of Science. It was completed in
November 1859, barely a year after the joint communications of Darwin
and Wallace to the Linnean Society, and before the _Origin of Species_
had appeared. It was to this Essay that Darwin referred when he wrote
that "Hooker has come round, and will publish his belief soon." But
this publication of his belief was not merely an echo of assent to
Darwin's own opinions. It was a reasoned statement, advanced upon
the basis of his "own self-thought," and his own wide systematic and
geographical experience. From these sources he drew for himself support
for the "hypothesis that species are derivative, and mutable." He
points out how the natural history of Australia seemed specially suited
to test such a theory, on account of the comparative uniformity of the
physical features being accompanied by a great variety in its Flora,
and the peculiarity of both its Fauna and Flora, as compared with other
countries. After the test had been made, on the basis of study of some
8000 species, their characters, their spread, and their relations to
those of other lands, he concludes decisively in favour of mutability
and a doctrine of progression.
How highly this Essay was esteemed by his contemporaries is shown by
the expressions of Lyell and of Darwin. The former writes: "I have just
finished the reading of your splendid Essay on the Origin of Species,
as illustrated by your wide botanical experience, and think it goes
far to raise the variety-making hypothesis to the rank of a theory, as
accounting for the manner in which new species enter the world." Darwin
wrote: "I have finished your Essay. To my judgment it is by far the
grandest and most interesting essay on subjects of the nature discussed
I have ever read."
But besides its historical interest in relation to the Species
Question, the Essay contained what was up to its time the most
scientific treatment of a large area from the point of view of the
Plant-Geographer. He found that the Antarctic, like the Arctic Flora,
is very uniform round the Globe. The same species in many cases occur
on every island, though thousands of miles of ocean may intervene.
Many of these species reappear on the mountains of Southern Chili,
Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand. The Southern Temperate Floras,
on the other hand, of South America, South Africa, Australia, and New
Zealand differ more among themselves than do the Floras of Europe,
Northern Asia, and North America. To explain these facts he suggested
the probable former existence, during a warmer period than the present,
of a centre of creation of new species in the Southern Ocean, in the
form of either a continent or an archipelago, from which the Antarctic
Flora radiated. This hypothesis has since been held open to doubt.
But the fact that it was suggested shows the broad view which he was
prepared to take of the problem before him. His method was essentially
that which is now styled "Ecological." Many hold this to be a new
phase of botanical enquiry, introduced by Professor Warming in 1895.
No one will deny the value of the increased precision which he then
brought into such studies. But in point of fact it was Ecology on the
grand scale that Sir Joseph Hooker practised in the Antarctic in 1840.
Moreover it was pursued, not in regions of old civilisation, but in
lands where Nature held her sway untouched by the hand of man.
This Essay on the Flora of the Antarctic was the prototype of the
great series. Sir Joseph examined the Arctic Flora from similar points
of view. He explained the circumpolar uniformity which it shows, and
the prevalence of Scandinavian types, together with the peculiarly
limited nature of the Flora of the southward peninsula of Greenland.
He extended his enquiries to oceanic islands. He pointed out that
the conditions which dictated circumpolar distribution are absent
from them; but that other conditions exist in them which account for
the strange features which their vegetation shows. He extended the
application of such methods to the Himalaya and to Central Asia. He
joined with Asa Gray in like enquiries in North America. The latter had
already given a scientific explanation of the surprising fact that the
plants of the Eastern States resemble more nearly those of China than
do those of the Pacific Slope. In resolving these and other problems
it was not only the vegetation itself that was studied. The changes of
climate in geological time, and of the earth's crust as demonstrated
by geologists, formed part of the basis on which he worked. For it is
facts such as these which have determined the migration of Floras. And
migration, as well as mutability of species, entered into most of his
speculations. The Essays of this magnificent series are like pictures
painted with a full brush. The boldness and mastery which they show
sprang from long discipline and wide experience.
Finally, the chief results of the Phyto-Geographical work of himself
and of others were summed up in the great Address on "Geographical
Distribution" at York. The Jubilee of the British Association was held
there in 1881. It had been decided that each section should be presided
over by a past President of the Association, and he had occupied that
position at Norwich in 1868. Accordingly at York Hooker was appointed
President of the Geographical Section, and he chose as the subject
of his Address "The Geographical Distribution of Organic Beings."
To him it illustrated "the interdependence of those Sciences which
the Geographer should study." It is not enough merely to observe the
topography of organisms, but their hypsometrical distribution must
also be noted. Further, the changes of area and of altitude in exposed
land-surfaces of which geology gives evidence, are essential features
in the problem, together with the changes of climate, such as have
determined the advance and retrocession of glacial conditions. Having
noted these factors, he continued thus: "With the establishment of the
doctrine of orderly evolution of species under known laws I close this
list of those recognised principles of the science of geographical
distribution, which must guide all who enter upon its pursuit. As
Humboldt was its founder, and Forbes its reformer, so we must regard
Darwin as its latest and greatest law-giver." Now, after thirty years,
may we not add to these words of his, that Hooker was himself its
greatest exponent?
And so we have followed, however inadequately, this great man into
the various lines of scientific activity which he pursued. We
have seen him to excel in them all. The cumulative result is that
he is universally held to have been, during several decades, the
most distinguished botanist of his time. He was before all things a
philosopher. In him we see the foremost student of the broader aspects
of Plant-Life at the time when evolutionary belief was nascent. His
influence at that stirring period, though quiet, was far-reaching and
deep. His work was both critical and constructive. His wide knowledge,
his keen insight, his fearless judgment were invaluable in advancing
that intellectual revolution which found its pivot in the mutability of
species. The share he took in promoting it was second only to that of
his life-long friend Charles Darwin.
INDEX
Absorption, Aristotelian views on, 68
---- Grew and, 58
---- Hales and, 73-76
---- Mariotte and, 68
Adanson, Plant families and, 41
Agassiz, appreciation of, 215, 319
Agriculture, investigations in, 234, 236-237
---- physiology and, 7
---- Theophrastus and, 9
Algae, Berkeley on British, 226
---- collection of, 214, 216
---- Harvey on, 208, 210-212, 216
---- systematic work on, 202
---- Williamson and, 252
Algal floras, 219
Alston, Charles, King's Botanist, =283-284=
---- Hales and, 285-286
---- investigations of, 285
---- publications of, 286
Alternation of generations, 188-189, 198
Amman, Morison's method and, 26
_Anabena_ filaments, Griffith on, 190, 196
Anatomical method, W. Hooker and, 147-148
Anatomy, Balfour and comparative, 262
---- Founders of, 2, 6, 44, 63, 67
---- Grew and plant, 47-57
---- Henfrey and Monocotyledon, 199
---- Hill and plant, 93, 94, 95
Annals of Botany, Ward and, 266
Annual rings, J. Hill and, 94
Antarctic flora, J. D. Hooker and, 305, 311-312
Anthrax, Ward on, 272
Apical growth, Nägeli and Leitgeb on, 135
Apogamy, Alston and, 286
Aquatic fungi, Ward on, 265
Aquatic _Myxomycete_, Ward and, 265
Arber, Agnes, on Grew, 44-64
Arber, Newell, on _Primofilices_, 257
Arboretum, founding of Edinburgh, 300
Archaeology, Williamson and, 249
Archegonia, discovery in Ferns of, 196-198
Aristotle, botanical writings of, 8
Aristotle, value of work of, 15
---- physiology and, 68
Ascent of sap, Grew's explanation of, 58
_Asclepiadaceae_, R. Brown on the, 114-116
Assimilation, Hales on, 80
Bacteria, action of light on, 273
Bacteriology, Ward on, 265, 271-273
Baker, J. Hill's quarrels with, 89-91
---- _Synopsis Filicum_ and, 146
_Balanophoraceae_, Griffith on the, 186
---- J. D. Hooker and the, 308
Balfour, Andrew, pioneer work of, 281
Balfour, J. Bayley, on the Edinburgh Professors, 280-301
---- ---- on the Ginger-beer plant, 269
Balfour, John Hutton, life of, =293-300=
---- ---- Edinburgh Professorship and, 293-295
---- ---- at Glasgow, 295
---- ---- administrative work of, 295
---- ---- teaching methods of, 299
Banks, Sir Joseph, W. Hooker and, 129
---- ---- R. Brown and, 110-111
---- ---- on "rust" disease, 275
Banksian collections, R. Brown and, 112-123, 134
de Bary, on potato disease, 266
---- on "rust" disease, 27
---- Ward's visit to, 264
Basidia, Berkeley's researches on, 230
Bauer, W. Hooker and, 144-145
Bauhin, Caspar, Pinax of, 14-15
---- and John, Morison on, 20
Bean, collections of, 248
---- on Yorkshire Fossil Flora, 247
Bentham, collaboration with Hooker, 313
---- bequest of, 144
---- collections of, 140
---- Herbarium of, 310
Berkeley, Miles Joseph, life of, =225-232=
---- ---- fungal morphology and, 230-231
---- W. Hooker on, 227
---- as naturalist, 225-226
---- as plant pathologist, 231-232
---- as systematic mycologist, 227-230
---- as zoologist, 226
Binney, on Carboniferous plants, 253
---- on coal balls, 245
---- fossil plant tissues and, 307
---- Geological Survey and, 245-246
---- publications of, 246
Blair, on Morison and Ray, 31
Bobart, Jacob, Keeper of Oxford Physic Garden, 17
---- ---- the younger, 18
---- ---- ---- and Morison's work, 18, 23
---- ---- ---- influence on Ray, 43
Botanic gardens, of British colonies, 136
---- ---- of Calcutta, 181-182, 305
---- ---- of Cambridge, 153
---- ---- Chelsea Physic, 84, 92, 179
---- ---- of Glasgow, 129, 130, 292
---- ---- Glasnevin, 213
---- ---- Government subsidy of, 288
---- ---- Kew, 136-137
---- ---- Oxford, 17, 18
---- ---- purpose of, 281
---- ---- rivalry between Edinburgh, 282, 283
_Botanical Gazette_, Henfrey and, 201, 202
_---- Magazine_, editorship of W. Hooker, 142
Botanical Society of Edinburgh, founding of, 294
Botanical illustration, Bauer and, 179
---- ---- Berkeley and, 226
---- ---- Dickson and, 301
---- ---- W. Fitch and, 141-142, 246
---- ---- Grew and, 52
---- ---- Harvey and, 202, 206, 212
---- ---- Hill and, 100, 102, 103
---- ---- W. Hooker and, 141
---- ---- Lindley and, 170, 174
---- ---- McGillivray, 244
---- ---- Tuffen West and, 200
---- ---- Williamson and, 257
Botany, local study of, 249
Botany teaching, Henslow's methods, 158, 159
---- ---- pioneers of, 281, 296
Bottomley, on Gilbert, 233-242
Bower, F. O., 258
---- on W. Hooker, 126-150
---- on J. D. Hooker, 302-323
Boyle, influence on Hales, 66
Bridging species, Ward on, 277
British Algae, Berkeley on, 226
British Flora, Bentham and Hooker on, 315
---- ---- Berkeley on, 227-228
---- ---- W. Hooker on, 143
---- ---- J. D. Hooker on, 315
Brome grass, Ward on, 276-277
Brongniart, Williamson and, 254-256
---- antiquity of Dicotyledons and, 244
---- on fossil seeds, 257
---- influence of, 246
Broome, collaboration with Berkeley, 229
Brown, Robert, life of, =108-125=
---- ---- J. Banks and, 110, 111
---- ---- collections of, 112
---- ---- Cycad ovule and, 187
---- ---- diary of, 111
---- ---- Griffith and, 186
---- ---- Linnean Society and, 112, 123-124
---- ---- on the ovule, 184-185
---- ---- period of, 134
---- ---- on vegetation of New Holland, 113
Brownian movement, 120
_Bryophyta_, Griffith and, 188-189, 190
Bud protection, Grew on, 50
_Calamites_, Williamson on, 253, 254, 256
---- secondary growth in, 254
Calcutta Gardens, Falconer and, 305
---- ---- Griffith and, 181-182
Cambridge, Ward at, 262
---- Botanic Gardens, 153
---- Herbarium, Lindley's presentation to, 170
Cambridge Philosophical Society, founding of, 151
---- ---- ---- presentations to, 152-153
---- ---- ---- Ward and, 276
---- Professorship, 152, 274
Carboniferous period, Binney on, 246, 253, 307
---- ---- J. D. Hooker on, 307
---- ---- Williamson on, 4, 253, 256
Cell structure, discovery of, 53
---- ---- Grew on, 53-54
---- theory, Williamson and, 251
Cesalpino, Andrea, abstract of results of, 12, 13
---- ---- classification and, 11
---- ---- on Cryptogams, 21
---- ---- Morison and, 26
---- ---- Theophrastus and, 11
Ceylon Flora, Hooker and, 312, 313
Chelsea Physic Garden, Botany lectures at, 84
---- ---- ---- Griffith and, 179
---- ---- ---- Hill's use of, 92
Chemiotaxis, R. Brown on, 115
---- Myoshi on, 275
---- Pfeffer and, 275
Chlorophyll, Grew's observations on, 59
Circumpolar uniformity, Hooker and, 321
Classification, Adanson on, 41
---- Bauhin and, 14
---- Cesalpino and, 11
---- De Candolle and, 41
---- first attempt at, 9
---- flower and fruit in, 11
---- Gesner on, 10
---- Hill on, 100
---- historical review of, 173
---- Jung and, 15
---- de Jussieu on, 41
---- leaf in, 21
---- Lindley and, 172, 173
---- Malpighi on, 35
---- Morison and, 18, 22
---- natural system of, 13, 41, 172, 173
---- progress in, 9
---- Ray on, 29
Climbing plants, anatomy of, 55
Coal-balls, first investigation of, 245
---- Williamson and, 251
Coffee disease, investigations of, 263
Coleridge, on Grew, 46, 47
Constancy of species, W. Hooker on, 148
Contact stimulus, Hill on, 98, 99
Controversies, Gilbert and Liebig, 238
---- Hill's, 89-91
---- Morison and Ray, 21, 31
---- Rothamsted and German physiologists, 242
---- Williamson and Brongniart, 254
Copley medal, Hales and, 70
Coprolite, discovery of, 155-156
Corn laws, Lindley and repeal of, 169
Cotyledons, Malpighi on, 35, 36
---- systematic value of, 36
Croonian lecture, Timiriazeff's, 80
Cryptogamic botany, Berkeley and, 4, 226
---- ---- W. Hooker and, 128
Cryptogamist, Ward as Government, 262
Cryptogams, R. Brown on, 121, 122
---- Cesalpino and, 21
---- Griffith and, 188-191
---- Harvey and, 4, 205
---- Williamson and fossil, 254, 255
Cycads, R. Brown on, 114, 117, 187
---- relationships of, 254
---- _Zamia_ and, 253
_Cycas_, R. Brown on, 118, 119
---- Griffith on ovule of, 187, 188
Cytase, importance of, 267
Darwin, Charles, omission of, 5
---- ---- Harvey and, 221
---- ---- J. D. Hooker and, 303, 307, 308, 315, 316, 320, 322, 323
---- ---- _Index Kewensis_ and, 314
Darwin, Francis, on Hales, 65-83
Darwinism, Balfour and, 298
De Candolle, A. P., Prodromus of, 134
---- ---- classification of, 41, 42
De Candolle, A. P., work of, 109
Deep sea deposits, Hooker and, 307
---- ---- ---- Williamson and, 251
Development, on study of, 118
Dewar, on Gilbert, 234, 235
Dickson, Alexander, Edinburgh Professorship of, =300-301=
Dublin Herbarium, Harvey and, 211, 222
---- Professorships at, 210-211, 218
East India Company, Griffith and, 3, 180, 184
Ecology, J. H. Balfour and, 297, 298
---- Grew on, 61
---- Griffith and, 182
---- J. S. Henslow and, 152, 154
---- J. D. Hooker and, 321
---- scope of, 7
Economic botany, Berkeley and, 231
---- ---- Griffith and, 180
---- ---- W. Hooker and, 139
---- ---- Museum of, 137-138
Edinburgh Botanical Gardens, Mackay and Don and, 291
---- ---- ---- the McNabs and, 299
---- ---- ---- Rutherford and, 291
---- ---- Schools, rivalry of, 282
---- Medical School, 290, 295
Edinburgh Professors, J. B. Balfour on, =280-301=
---- ---- Charles Alston, 283-286
---- ---- William Arthur, 284
---- ---- J. H. Balfour, 293-300
---- ---- Dickson, 300-301
---- ---- Graham, 291-293
---- ---- John Hope, 286-290
---- ---- Charles Preston, 282-283
---- ---- Rutherford, 290-291
---- ---- Sutherland, 281-283
Elfving, Ward and, 264
---- on bacteria, 273
Embryogeny, Dickson on plant, 300
Embryo-sac, Ward on the, 262
_Encyclopædia Britannica_, on Hales, 68
---- ---- Ward and the, 265
Endosperm, Grew on, 63
Eriksson, on "rust" disease, 276
Evolution, Harvey and, 221
---- J. D. Hooker and, 316
Falconer, Herbarium of, 312
Farmer, J. B., on R. Brown, 108-125
Farming, J. S. Henslow and, 155
Ferments, Ward on, 270, 271
Ferns, Grew on spores of, 63
---- W. Hooker and, 144-148
---- Morison on, 21
---- sexuality in, 135
---- Williamson on, 254, 257
Field botany, Balfour and, 297
---- ---- Edinburgh School and, 296
---- ---- Graham and, 292
---- ---- W. Hooker and, 132
---- Hope and, 289
Fitch, W., as illustrator, 131, 141, 145, 146
Flora of British India, 312
---- of Britain, 43
---- of South Africa, 219
---- of Antarctic, 305, 311, 312
---- of Ceylon, 312, 313
---- of Scotland, 132
---- Fossil, 245, 252
---- ---- of Williamson, 248
---- ---- of Yorkshire, 247
Floras, migration of, 322
Flowers, Ray on morphology of, 35
---- Grew on anatomy of, 52, 62
Food solutions, Grew on, 60
_Foraminifera_, Williamson on, 250, 251
Fossil botany, Binney and, 243, 307
---- ---- Brongniart and, 244
---- ---- R. Brown and, 122
---- ---- in England, 243
---- ---- in France, 254, 255
---- ---- J. D. Hooker on, 243, 307
---- ---- Lindley on, 176
---- ---- Williamson and, 7, 256, 259
---- ---- Witham and, 243
---- plants, development in, 258
Fossils, Williamson's collections of, 258
Frankland, Percy, Ward and, 271
Fungi, J. Banks on, 275
---- basidia in, 230
---- Berkeley on, 229
---- ---- Berkeley and Broome on, 229-230
---- classification of, 227-230
---- on epiphyllous, 263-264
---- Eriksson on, 276
---- on exotic, 228
---- J. S. Henslow on, 156, 157
---- Kew collections of, 228
---- life-history of, 271
---- morphology of, 230-231
---- nutrition of, 265
_Gardeners' Chronicle_, editorship of Lindley, 166, 169
Gardening, Williamson and, 252
Gatty, Mrs, on seaweeds, 216, 221
_Genera Filicum_, 144, 145, 147
_---- Plantarum_, of Bentham and Hooker, 313
---- ---- of Endlicher, 314
---- ---- of de Jussieu, 314
---- ---- of Linnaeus, 314
Genera, Tournefort and, 40
Geographical distribution, of Fungi, 228, 229
---- ---- J. D. Hooker on, 319-322
Geological zones, Williamson and, 248
Geology, Binney and, 245, 246
---- Father of English, 247
---- of Yorkshire, 247
---- Williamson and, 251
Geotropism, Grew on, 59
Gesner, classification and, 10, 11
Gilbert, Sir Joseph Henry, life of, =233-242=
---- ---- career of, 234
---- ---- chemical training of, 233-234
---- ---- Hellriegel and, 240
---- ---- Lawes and, 233
---- ---- Rothamsted and, 234
Ginger-beer plant, Ward on, 269, 270
Glasgow, Botanic Gardens at, 129, 130, 292
---- W. Hooker and Professorship of, 130-133
Glasnevin, Harvey and Botanic Gardens of, 213
Goebel, on W. Hooker, 148, 149
---- on _Bryophyta_, 189
Golden age, of Botany, 193-194
Graham, Edinburgh Professorship and, =291-293=
---- Glasgow Gardens and, 292
---- teaching and, 292, 293, 299
Grand'Eury, Williamson and, 253
Graphical method, Ward and, 276
Gray, Asa, 224, 321
Greeks, Botany of, 9
Greenhouses, ventilation of, 81
Greville, W. Hooker and, 144, 147
Grew, Nehemiah, life of, =44-64=
---- ---- anatomy and, 47-57, 135
---- ---- Hales and, 81
---- ---- Malpighi and, 48
---- ---- Schleiden and, 48
---- ---- versatility of, 45
Griffith, William, life of, =178-191=
---- ---- botanical work of, 180
---- ---- collections of, 182
---- ---- contemporaries of, 183
---- ---- Herbarium of, 312
---- ---- methods of, 183
---- ---- morphology and, 182-183
---- ---- travels of, 180-182
---- ---- University College and, 179
Griffiths, Mrs, on algae, 211, 223
Growth, Hales on, 82
---- logarithmic curve of, 273
Gwynne-Vaughan, on _Nymphaeaceae_, 199
Gymnosperms, R. Brown on, 117, 118
---- seeds of, 257
Hales, Stephen, life of, =65-83=
---- ---- Alston and, 285-286
---- ---- Chemistry and, 67, 78-80
---- ---- Physics and, 67
---- ---- Physiology and, 67, 71-78, 80-83
Hartog, Marcus, Williamson and, 255
Harvey, William Henry, life of, =202-224=
---- ---- collections of, 208-210, 216-218
---- ---- Darwin and, 221
---- ---- W. Hooker and, 207-208, 211, 219
---- ---- influence of, 221
---- ---- lectures of, 213-215
---- ---- publications of, 219
Hellriegel, on _Leguminosae_, 240-241, 267
Henfrey, Arthur, life of, =192-203=
---- ---- on critical species, 201
---- ---- on fertilisation, 195
---- ---- on sex in plants, 193-198
---- ---- Suminski and, 197-198
---- ---- text-books of, 200
---- ---- as translator and editor, 200
---- ---- work of, 192
Henslow, George, on Henslow, 151-163
Henslow, John Stevens, life of, =151-163=
---- ---- Berkeley and, 226
---- ---- botanical work of, 154
---- ---- collections of, 152-153
---- ---- Ecology and, 152-153
---- ---- Education and, 153-154, 158-159
---- ---- lectures of, 157
---- ---- on "rust" disease, 275
---- ---- scientific studies of, 151-152
---- ---- views of, 156
Herbalist, Hill as, 92, 100
Herbalists, work of, 47
_Herbals_, of Culpeper, 47
---- of Dodonaeus, 10
---- of Fuchs, 9
---- of Lobelius, 10
---- of Parkinson, 47
---- of Pierre Pena, 10
---- of Tragus (Bock), 9
Herbarium, of Falconer and Griffith, 312
---- Kew, 140
Herbs, classification and, 29, 30, 34
Hermann, work of, 26, 39
Hill, John, life of, =84-107=
---- ---- as actor, 85
---- ---- on anatomy, 93-96
---- ---- character of, 104-107
---- ---- as gardener, 93
---- ---- as herbalist, 92
---- ---- on Linnean method, 39
---- ---- on literature, 86-87, 92-93
---- ---- medical career of, 85
---- ---- methods of, 88
---- ---- on Natural History, 87
---- ---- on physiology, 96-100
---- ---- as systematist, 103
---- ---- on taxonomy, 100-103
Hill, T. G., on J. Hill, 84
_Himalayan Journals_, Hooker's, 305
Hofmeister, influence of, 6
---- morphology and, 4
---- predecessors of, 135
---- work of, 186, 191, 194, 195
Hofmeisterian epoch, papers of, 198
Hooke, on anatomy, 135
---- on cellular structure, 53
---- microscope and, 53
Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton, life of, =302-323=
---- ---- as Administrator, 308-311
---- ---- Bentham and, 313
---- ---- Darwin and, 303, 316-319
---- ---- early life of, 302-303
---- ---- Edinburgh and, 293
---- ---- Essays of, 319-322
---- ---- as Geologist, 307-308
---- ---- as Systematist, 311-315
---- ---- as Traveller, 304-307
Hooker, Sir William, life of, =126-150=
---- ---- Berkeley and, 227
---- ---- collections of, 139, 140
---- ---- on cryptogams, 227
---- ---- diagnosis and, 147-148
---- ---- Floristic works of, 143-145
---- ---- Glasgow and, 127, 129
---- ---- _Icones Plantarum_, 143
---- ---- Journals and, 142-143
---- ---- Kew and, 127, 130, 133-134, 136, 140, 149
---- ---- Linnean Society and, 127
---- ---- as Naturalist, 126-127
---- ---- as Pteridologist, 144-148
---- ---- as Systematist, 148-149
---- ---- teaching and, 130-132
Hookerian collections, Kew and, 310
Hope, life of, =286-290=
---- Alston and, 287
---- Botanic Gardens and, 288
---- de Jussieu and, 287
---- physiology and, 286-289
Horticulture, Lindley and, 3, 171, 172
How, British Flora and, 43
Hutton, Fossil botany and, 176-177
Huxley, lectures of, 261
---- on mutability of species, 317
_Icones Plantarum_, W. Hooker and, 143
Imbibition of water, Hales on, 75-76
---- ---- Sachs on, 76
Immunity, Grass and, 276
---- Ward on, 266
_Index Kewensis_, origin of, 314
India, J. D. Hooker's flora of, 312
---- J. D. Hooker's travels in, 306
Ingenhousz, on plant nutrition, 69
Insectivorous plants, J. D. Hooker on, 308
Ipswich Museum, J. S. Henslow and, 156, 159, 160
Jackson, Daydon, _Index Kewensis_ and, 314
Jodrell Laboratory, Ward at, 262
---- ---- Williamson and, 259
Judd, on Williamson, 251
Jung, Linnaeus and, 15
---- Ray and, 35
---- Systematic botany and, 15
de Jussieu, de Candolle and, 41, 42
---- classification and, 109, 134, 287
---- Tournefort and Ray and, 42
Keeble, F., on Lindley, 164-177
Kew Gardens, Administration of, 309-310
---- ---- Bentham's gifts to, 140
---- ---- Hales and, 81
---- ---- Herbarium at, 305
---- ---- Herbarium and Library at, 141, 310
---- ---- Hill and, 93
---- ---- W. Hooker Director of, 127, 130, 133-4, 136-7, 140, 149
---- ---- the two Hookers at, 308-309
---- ---- Lindley and, 136-138, 169-170
---- ---- Mycological Herbarium at, 231
---- ---- Orchid Herbarium at, 170
---- ---- Thiselton-Dyer and, 81, 150, 203, 259
Kidston, Witham's collection and, 245
_Kingia_, R. Brown on, 117
King's Botanist, Alston as, 283
---- ---- Arthur as, 284
Knaut, work of, 26, 39
Lang, on Griffith, 178-191
Lankester, E., 193
Lankester, Ray, on _Schizomycetes_, 265
Lawes, agriculture and, 235
---- Gilbert and, 235-236
---- on nitrogen assimilation, 267
Leaves, classification on form of, 21
---- movements of, 96-99
---- structure and functions of, 96-97
---- vernation of, 50
Leguminous nodules, Gilbert on, 239
---- ---- Hellriegel and, 240
---- ---- Ward on, 267
_Lepidodendron_, Williamson and, 258
Lichens, Ward on, 264, 270
Liebig, mineral theory of, 237-240
---- controversy with Gilbert, 238
Light on plants, Hales and, 80, 81
---- ---- Hill on, 97
Lily disease, Ward on, 266, 267
Lindley, John, life of, =164-177=
---- ---- activities of, 166
---- ---- J. Banks and, 168
---- ---- _Botanical Register_ and, 174
---- ---- characteristics of, 177
---- ---- on cryptogams, 195
---- ---- on Darwin, 174
---- ---- Horticulture and, 171
---- ---- Hutton and, 245, 248
---- ---- Library and, 174, 177
---- ---- literary work of, 169-174
---- ---- Professorship of, 168, 169
---- ---- Williamson and, 250
Linnaeus, British botany and, 6
---- Hope and, 286
---- Jung and, 15
---- on Morison and Cesalpino, 27-28, 42, 43
---- on Ray, 38, 42, 43
---- Taxonomy and, 6
---- method, 2, 3, 39
---- ---- Adanson and, 41
---- ---- Hill and, 101-103
---- ---- England and, 39, 40
---- period, 109, 134
---- system, Alston on, 285
---- ---- Hope on, 289
---- ---- influence of, 193
Linnean school, influence of, 195
Linnean Society, R. Brown and, 111, 112, 114, 121-124
---- ---- Berkeley and, 232
---- ---- Darwin-Wallace Celebration, 317, 318
---- ---- Griffith and, 183-185
---- ---- Harvey and, 207
---- ---- Ward and, 263, 264
---- ---- publications of, 184-186, 253
London University, Botany teaching at, 179
---- ---- Henslow and, 154
_Loranthaceae_, Griffith on, 185-186
Lotsy, morphology and, 186
Lycopods, Williamson and, 256
Lyell, _Calamites_ and, 253
---- J. H. Hooker and, 308, 320
---- mutability of species and, 317
_Lyginodendron_, Williamson and, 256, 257
Malpighi, anatomy and, 44, 135, 286
---- Grew and, 6, 48, 63
---- Hales and, 67, 68, 81
---- on seeds and seedlings, 35, 36
Manchester, Geological Society of, 245
---- Natural History Society of, 249
---- Professorship at, 250
---- Ward and, 264
Mangroves, Griffith and, 186-187
Manures, experiments with, 234, 236, 237
---- effect of, 237
---- nitrogenous, 238
_Marchantia_, Henfrey on, 199
Massee, George, on Berkeley, 225-232
_Materia Medica_, Alston and, 285
---- ---- Hope and, 287-289
---- ---- the Prestons and, 283
---- ---- Sutherland and, 282
Mayow, Hales and, 66, 79
McNab, Edinburgh Botanic Gardens and, 291, 292, 299
Medullary rays, Grew on, 56
Metabiosis, Ward on, 270
Microscope, R. Brown and, 119, 120
---- Hill and, 94
Microtechnique, Henfrey and, 199
Microtome, Hill's use of, 94
von Mohl, protoplasmic continuity and, 199, 200
Morison, Robert, life of, =16-43=
---- ---- the Bauhins and, 20
---- ---- Cesalpino and, 26
---- ---- classification of, 19, 21
---- ---- method of, 22-25
---- ---- Ray and, 34, 35, 39
---- ---- on _Umbelliferae_, 22
---- ---- works of, 19-20
Morphology, Berkeley on Fungal, 230-231
---- Floral, 35
---- Foundation of Plant, 15
---- Griffith on, 179
---- Hofmeisterian epoch, 198
---- modern, 135
---- Ray's essays on, 35
---- of reproductive organs, 187
Museums, J. S. Henslow and, 160
---- Hill and, 87
---- W. Hooker and, 137-140
Mutability of species, 317, 320
Mycology, Systematic, 227
Mycoplasm theory, 274, 275
Myoshi, chemiotaxis and, 275
Nägeli, fertilisation in Ferns, 196
Nathorst, on Bennettiteae, 253
Natural History, Henslow and, 3
---- ---- Hill on, 87
---- ---- Ray on, 43
Nature Study, J. S. Henslow and, 161, 162
Newton, Hales and, 66, 72, 78, 80
Nitrogen assimilation, Gilbert and Lawes and, 238-241
---- ---- Hellriegel and, 240-241
---- ---- leguminous plants and, 240
---- ---- Ward and, 267, 268
---- theory, 237-241
Nucleus, R. Brown and, 119, 135
Nutation, Grew on, 60
---- Hales on, 74
Nutrition, Hales on, 72, 80, 83
---- Ingenhousz on, 69
---- transference of, 278
_Nymphaeaceae_, Henfrey on, 199
Oceanic islands, J. D. Hooker on, 321
Oliver, F. W., on Henfrey, 192-203
Oolitic plants of Yorkshire, 253
_Orchidaceae_, R. Brown and, 115, 116
---- Lindley and, 165, 174-176
Organography, Dickson and, 301
Origin of Species, J. D. Hooker's essay, 320
Ovule, R. Brown on, 117-119, 184-185
---- Griffith on, 185-188
---- Schleiden and, 185
Oxford, Professorship at, 16, 17
---- Gardens of, 16, 17, 27
Parasites, education of, 277
---- host of, 268
Parasitic habit, adoption of, 269
Parasitism, adaptive, 277
Permanence of species, Lindley and, 173
Philosophical Biology, J. D. Hooker and, 315-323
Philosophical Transactions, Ward and, 264, 266-267, 269, 270, 275
Phlogiston theory, 66, 79
Photosynthesis, 80
Plant diseases, Ward on, 268
Plant histology, early work in, 199
Plant nutrition, 69, 72
Plant pathology, 4, 231-232
Plant physiology, Agriculture and, 7
---- ---- Chemistry and, 7
---- ---- experimental, 68, 83
---- ---- founders of, 2, 6, 68
---- ---- Gilbert and, 234-235
---- ---- Grew on, 58, 60, 61
---- ---- Hales and, 71-78, 80-83
---- ---- Hope and, 287, 289
---- tissues, Grew on, 54
Plants, medicinal properties of, 47
Pleomorphism, Bacteria and, 265
---- _Uredineae_ and, 266
Pollen, Amici's discovery, 194, 195
---- R. Brown and, 115-116
---- chamber, in _Cycas_, 187-188
Polyembryony, 117
Popularisation of Science, 250
Potato disease, 231, 266
Praeger, R. L., on Harvey, 202-224
Presl, on Ferns, 145-147
Preston, C. and G., _Materia Medica_ and, 283
_Primofilices_ of Arber, 257
_Proteaceae_, R. Brown on, 114
Protective mimicry in _Orchidaceae_, 116
Protoplasm, von Mohl and, 135
_Pteridophyta_, Griffith on, 188
---- alternation of generations, 188-189
Pteridosperms, secondary growth in, 256
---- seeds of, 257
Q. J. M. S., Ward and, 263-266
Quaker Schools, Science in Irish, 205
Ray, John, life of, =28-43=
---- ---- on Classification, 28-29, 34, 36-38
---- ---- on floral morphology, 35
---- ---- influence of, 23, 109
---- ---- Jung and, 15
---- ---- _Methodus Plantarum_, 32-34
---- ---- on seeds and seedlings, 35
---- ---- on transmission of water, 68
---- Society, Harvey on, 210
Renaissance of Botany, 5, 193, 194, 203
Renault, Williamson and, 255
Reproduction, Hill's views on, 99-100
_Rhamnus infectorius_, Ward on, 267
Ringing experiments, Hales and, 76-77
Root pressure, Hales on, 77, 78
Roots, Grew on, 51, 53, 55, 56
Ross, J. D. Hooker's travels with, 303-305, 312
Rothamsted, experiments on plants, 234-241
---- experiments on animals, 241
---- publications, 235-236, 241
Royal Horticultural Society, Lindley and, 166, 168
Royal Society, Gilbert and, 234
---- ---- Grew and, 63
---- ---- Hales and, 70
---- ---- Henfrey and, 193
---- ---- Hill and, 88-91
---- ---- Hooker, J. D., and, 310-311
---- ---- Ward and, 279
---- ---- Williamson and, 251, 253, 257, 259
---- ---- medal, 172, 234, 279
Rust fungus, physiological species of, 276
Rutherford, Edinburgh Medical School and, 290
---- Chemical work of, 290
Sachs, on growth, 82
---- on Hales, 65, 67, 68
---- History of Botany, 65, 191, 193
---- on Hofmeister, 198
---- on physiology, 72, 74, 75
---- on Ray, 68
---- Textbook, 194
---- on transpiration, 72-74
---- on water transport, 76
---- on Ward, 262
_Schizomycetes_, Ward on, 265
Schleiden, fertilisation, 194-196
---- Grew and, 48
---- morphology and, 134, 185, 186, 197
Schwendener's Theory, Bornet and, 278
---- ---- Ward and, 264, 278
Science and Art Department, Ward and, 261
Scientific exploration, Golden age of, 304
Scott, D. H., on Williamson, 243-260
Scottish Flora, Hope and, 289
Seaweeds, Flora of, 219
---- Harvey and, 208, 210-212, 214, 216
---- systematic study of, 202
Secondary growth, in Cryptogams, 254-256
---- ---- systematic importance of, 254, 256
Seeds and seedlings, Grew on, 49, 62
---- ---- ---- Malpighi on, 35
---- ---- ---- Ray on, 35
Sex in plants, Alston on, 286
---- ---- ---- in Cryptogams, 195, 196
---- ---- ---- denial of, 285
---- ---- ---- in Ferns, 135, 196-197
---- ---- ---- in flowering plants, 194
---- ---- ---- Grew on, 61, 62
Shrubs, Ray's classification of, 30, 34
Sibbald, 281
Solms-Laubach, on Williamson, 256, 257
---- ---- on Scott, 258
Sorby, Williamson and, 251
South Kensington, Science Schools at, 261, 262
Species, critical, 201
---- "lumping" of, 201
_Species Filicum_, 145, 146
Spencer, Herbert, 80
_Sphenophyllum_, Williamson and, 255-256
Starch, extraction of, 160, 161
Stems, annual rings in, 57
---- comparative anatomy of, 51, 56
---- modified, 57, 58
---- secondary thickening in, 56
_Sternbergiae_, Williamson on, 252
_Stigmaria_, Williamson on, 257
Suminski, sex in Ferns, 196-197
---- and Schleiden's theory, 197
Susceptibility, Ward on, 268
Sutherland, Edinburgh Professor, =281-282=
Symbiosis, physiological aspect of, 269
---- fermentation and, 270
_Synopsis Filicum_, publication of, 146, 147
Systematic botany, Balfour and, 299
---- ---- Bauhin and, 14
---- ---- Berkeley on, 227-230, 231
---- ---- British School of, 6
---- ---- R. Brown and, 121
---- ---- Cesalpino and, 11
---- ---- Ferns and, 144-148
---- ---- first publication on, 32
---- ---- Founders of, 2
---- ---- Griffith and, 184
---- ---- Harvey and, 220
---- ---- W. Hooker and, 3, 127, 132
---- ---- J. D. Hooker, 311-315
---- ---- Lindley and, 3
---- ---- _Materia Medica_ and, 282
---- ---- Morison and Ray and, 6, 47
---- ---- Seventeenth Century and, 14
Taxonomy, Hill and, 100
---- Linnaeus and, 6
---- Ray on, 6
---- rise of, 202-203
Theophrastus, Botany and, 8, 9
---- Cesalpino and, 11
---- Hill and, 85, 86
---- influence of, 11
---- Jung on, 15, 35
---- Ray on, 35
Theory of Descent, J. D. Hooker and, 316
Thiselton-Dyer, 2, 81, 259
---- ---- anatomy and, 150
---- ---- New Botany, 203
---- ---- on Ward, 261-279
Thomson, Gilbert under, 233-234
---- J. D. Hooker and, 306, 312
Timiriazeff, 80
Tournefort, Alston on, 285
---- on Cesalpino, 27
---- on Ray, 38
---- on Morison, 27
---- on de Jussieu, 42
---- work of, 40
Tracheae, Grew on, 51, 57
Transmission of water, Hales on, 68
Transpiration, Hales on, 72-77
---- and Light, 81
Trees, classification of, 31, 34
Treub, 186, 187
Trimen, Ceylon Flora and, 312
Tulasne, on "rust" disease, 275
Turgescence, Hales and, 82
University College, London, Gilbert and, 232, 233-4
---- ---- ---- Griffith and, 179
---- ---- ---- Lindley and, 166, 168, 177
---- ---- ---- Williamson and, 249
_Uredineae_, Banks and, 275
---- Eriksson and, 276
---- Ward and, 263, 266, 274, 275
Vascular Cryptogams, classification of, 254-255
---- ---- Henfrey and, 194
---- system, of climbing plants, 55
Vegetable physiology, Weddell and, 248
Vernation of leaves, Grew on, 50
Vessels, Hill and function of, 95
---- Grew and formation of, 52
---- Grew and nature of, 55
---- Grew and spiral, 57
Vienna Congress and Hill, 104
Vines on Morison and Ray, 8
---- on Ward, 261, 262
Wallace and Darwin, 315, 317
Ward, Harry Marshall, life of, =261-279=
---- ---- at Cambridge, 274
---- ---- in Ceylon, 262-264
---- ---- at Cooper's Hill, 266
---- ---- at Manchester, 264
---- ---- methods of, 278-279
---- ---- on coffee disease, 262-264
---- ---- on bacteriology, 265-268, 271-274
---- ---- on symbiosis, 268-271
---- ---- on _Uredineae_, 266, 275-277
Warming, on Ecology, 321
Water supply, Ward on, 274
_Welwitschia_, J. D. Hooker on, 308
Wheat, experiments on, 236-237
Wieland, on fossil plants, 253
Wilfarth, 267
Williamson, William Crawford, life of, =243-260=
---- ---- collections of, 258
---- ---- early life of, 247
---- ---- as Fossil Botanist, 7, 253
---- ---- as Geologist, 249
---- ---- as Lecturer, 250, 251
---- ---- at Manchester, 250
---- ---- mistakes of, 257, 258
---- ---- as Naturalist, 248
---- ---- results of, 256
---- ---- Ward and, 264
---- ---- as Zoologist, 4
_Williamsonia_, 253
Witham, 243-245, 307
Yorkshire, palaeontology of, 247
_Zamia_, Williamson on, 253
Zoologist, Williamson as, 4
---- Berkeley as, 226
TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE
Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.
Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=.
Superscripts are denoted by ^ and have not been expanded.
Subscripts in chemical formulae are denoted by _ eg CO_2.
Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors
have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences
within the text and consultation of external sources.
All botanical terms in the text have been retained. Except for
those changes noted below, misspelling by the authors,
inconsistent or archaic usage, has been retained. For example,
cell-walls, cell walls; sea-weed, seaweed; Linnæus Linnaeus;
p 69 'limped' changed to 'limpid'.
p 106 'concensus' changed to 'consensus'.
Footnote [105] 'completer' changed to 'more complete'.
Footnote [112] 'p. 8*.' changed to 'p. 8.'.
p 173 'Endogens' (repeated in list) changed to 'Exogens'.
p 220 'deterrants' changed to 'deterrents'.
p 248 'estuarian' changed to 'estuarine'.
p 300 'Walker Arnott' changed to 'Walker-Arnott'.
Index: 'Anabaena' changed to 'Anabena'.
Index: (De Candolle:) 'Prodomus' changed to 'Prodromus'.
Index: 'Elfing' changed to 'Elfving'.
Index: (Ward:) '261-279' made bold '=261-279='.