the _Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, Practical
Pharmacy Edition_, which were later reprinted by the Association in a
booklet entitled, _Tools of the Apothecary_. In it, he described several
pharmaceutical specimens in the collection and their place in history.
Division of Medical Sciences (1957 to Present)
The U.S. National Museum was reorganized on July 1, 1957, into two
units, the Natural History Museum and the Museum of History and
Technology. At the same time, and in view of the widening scope of the
Division, its more scientifically based planning, and the constantly
increasing collection with equal emphasis on all branches of the healing
arts, the Division's title was changed to the Division of Medical
Sciences--the title it still bears in 1964. With the reorganization, the
Department of Engineering and Industries, under which the Division fell
administratively, was renamed the Department of Science and Technology
of the Museum of History and Technology. It was also the first time
since its establishment in 1881 that the Division had two curators, for
on July 1, 1957, Dr. John B. Blake joined the staff.
[Illustration: Figure 19.--CURATORS JOHN B. BLAKE AND GEORGE
GRIFFENHAGEN examine the newly acquired (1957) electromagnetic,
Morton-Wimshurst-Holz Influence Machine. It was manufactured by the
Bowen Company of Providence, Rhode Island (1889). With the discovery of
x-ray, it was used for making x-ray photographs until early in the 20th
century.]
As a result of these changes, the Division was subdivided into a Section
of Pharmaceutical History and Health and a Section of Medical and Dental
History. The former was planned to encompass the collections of _materia
medica_, pharmaceutical equipment, and all material related to the
history of pharmacy, toxicology, pharmacology, and biochemistry, as well
as the Hall of Health which was opened November 2, 1957, and which
emphasizes man's progressing knowledge of his body and the functions of
its major organs.[18] The latter Section was planned to include all that
belongs to the development of surgery, medicine, dentistry, and nursing,
especially in relation to hospitals.
In October 1957, the Division acquired a collection of rare, ceramic,
drug jars which included two, 13th-century, North Syrian and Persian,
albarello-shaped, majolica jars; a 15th-century, Hispano-Moresque drug
container; and a 16th-century, Italian faience, dragon-spout ewer.
During the following two years, Curator Griffenhagen periodically toured
museums and medical and pharmaceutical institutions in this country,
South America, and Europe gathering specimens and information for the
Division and for publication, respectively. However, on June 27, 1959,
he resigned his curatorship to join the staff of the American
Pharmaceutical Association in Washington, D.C. Dr. Blake became the
curator in charge of the Division and Mr. Griffenhagen was succeeded on
September 24, 1959, by the author of this paper as associate curator in
charge of the Section of Pharmaceutical History and Health.
Dr. Blake, as curator of the Section of Medical and Dental History,
acquired a large number of valuable and varied specimens for the
Division's collections. They included optometric refracting instruments,
an early 1920's General Electric, portable, x-ray machine, the Charles
A. Lindbergh and Alexis Carrel pump (designed in 1935 to perfuse
life-sustaining fluids to the organs of the body), the Sewell heart pump
(1950) to control delivery of air pressure and suction to the pumping
mechanism, and a large and valuable collection of dental equipment
formerly at the universities of Pennsylvania and Illinois. Dr. Blake
wrote the explanatory material and supervised the design and production
of the majority of exhibits in the renovated hall of medical and dental
history. He also contributed several scholarly articles and a book (see
bibliography) on the history of the healing arts and public health in
particular. He resigned on September 2, 1961, to join the staff of the
National Library of Medicine as chief of the History of Medicine
Division, and was succeeded by the author as curator of the Division.
From the summer of 1962 to April 1964, the Division benefited from the
expert advice of Dr. Alfred R. Henderson as consultant in the
preparation and designing of the surgical and medical exhibits of the
Museum of History and Technology.
During the period from 1961 to May 1964, the Division's collections
expanded greatly through its medical, dental, and pharmaceutical
acquisitions. Specimens of antiques acquired from 1961 through 1963
numbered up to 1,539 and included gifts from leading institutions and
individual philanthropists. The scope of these gifts and acquisitions
ranges from electronic resuscitators, microscopes, x-ray equipment, and
spectacles, to patent medicines, amulets, apothecary tools, dental
instruments, and office material of practitioners.
[Illustration: Figure 20.--EXHIBIT ON SPECTACLES, LORGNETTES,
OPTOMETERS, and refraction, completed in 1960. It features a cross
section of the Division's large collection of eyeglasses. (Smithsonian
photo 47943-D.)]
In the last decade, the interest in the national endeavor for promoting
research and scholarship in the history of medicine has increased
greatly. It was most appropriate, therefore, for the Smithsonian
Institution to play host on May 2 for two sessions of the 37th annual
meeting of the American Association for the History of Medicine held in
the Washington, D.C., area from April 30 through May 2, 1964. In
welcoming the members to the morning session in the auditorium of the
new Museum of History and Technology, Frank A. Taylor, director of the
United States National Museum, expressed the feeling that the meeting of
the Association was, in a sense, a dedication of the new auditorium and
an opportunity for the Smithsonian to reaffirm its deep interest and
commitment in fostering research and furthering the appreciation of
scholarly endeavor in the history of the healing arts.
A New Dimension For the Healing Arts
"One day the United States will have a National Museum of science,
engineering, and industry, as most large nations have." This was the
prediction made in 1946 by the director of the U.S. National Museum, Mr.
Frank A. Taylor, then curator of the Division of Engineering.[19] It was
in 1963, that the new $36,000,000 building of the Museum of History
and Technology was completed, and opened to the public in 1964. The
offices of the Division of Medical Sciences as well as the reference and
study collections were moved to the fifth floor of the new building. The
exhibits, however, will be displayed in the gallery at the southwest
corner of the first floor. These exhibits, it is hoped, will show a new
dimension and an unprecedented approach in displaying the development of
the healing arts throughout the ages and the instruments and equipment
associated with health professions. They also present the expanding
objectives and plans of the Division's growth as an integral part of the
Smithsonian Institution. Conveniently, the exhibits form four, closely
connected halls in one large gallery which will be open to the public in
the summers of 1965 to 1966.
[Illustration: Figure 21.--EXHIBIT ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF BLOOD-PRESSURE
INSTRUMENTS and the early 20th-century sphygmomanometers which was
completed in 1960. (Smithsonian photo 47943-M.)]
1. THE HALL OF HEALTH displays models and graphic and historical exhibit
materials to demonstrate the function of the various healthy organs of
the human body. The main topics emphasized are: embryology and
childbirth; tooth structure; the heart and blood circulation;
respiration; the endocrine glands; kidneys and the urinary-excretory
system; the brain and the nervous system; the ear; and vision and the
use of eyeglasses.
The most appreciated exhibit of all in this Hall is the "transparent
woman" figure which rotates, automatically, every 15 minutes with a
recorded message describing the function of each major organ of the body
at the same time that the organ is electronically lighted, so that the
viewer can see its place in the body.
[Illustration: Figure 22.--HEARING-AID EXHIBIT designed in 1962. It
includes otologist Julius Lempert's personal memorabilia and original
surgical instruments used in the fenestration operation for restoring
hearing. (Smithsonian photo 49345-C.)]
2. THE HALL OF MEDICINE AND DENTISTRY will depict the history of these
two sciences with exhibits of the equipment used through the centuries.
In the medical field, early trephining and other surgical instruments
will be displayed along with a diorama of an 1805 surgical operation
performed by Dr. Philip Syng Physick in the amphitheater of the
Pennsylvania Hospital. Diagnostic instruments such as stethoscopes,
endoscopes, speculums, and blood-pressure measuring devices will be
exhibited with a series of microscopes illustrating the development of
these instruments. Exhibits of original galvanometers and other
apparatus will trace the development of cardiography. The early use of
anesthesia will be shown by apparatus of William Morton and Crawford W.
Long, American pioneers in this field. The development of the devices of
modern medicine and surgery will be shown by exhibits of the iron lung
and x-ray tubes, including a tube used by W. K. Roentgen. Medicine
chests and surgical kits of different periods will graphically summarize
the state of medical science in the period each represents.
Exhibits on the development of dentistry and dental surgery will display
examples of tooth-filling and extracting tools, drilling apparatus from
the early hand and foot engines to the first ultrasonic cutting
instrument (1954), and the original contra-angle, hydraulic and
air-turbine handpiece model[20] which revolutionized the field of
instrumentation for dental surgery (with speeds of 200,000 to 400,000
rpm). This hydraulic turbine of Dr. Robert J. Nelson and associates of
the National Bureau of Standards set the design pattern for the
remarkable and successful high-speed, air-turbine handpiece developed by
Paul H. Tanner and Oscar P. Nagel of the U.S. Naval Dental School in
1956. Also underway is the reconstruction of the offices of famous
dentists such as G. V. Black and the father of American orthodontia,
Edward H. Angle, using their original equipment and instruments. In
addition, an exhibit is planned to include x-ray tubes and the electric
dental engine, the first to be operated in a human mouth by the pioneer
dentist on dental skiagraphy, Charles E. Kells (1856-1928).[21]
[Illustration: Figure 23.--EXHIBIT ON NURSING BOTTLES and measures to
promote child health to counteract the once-common diseases of
childhood. This display was completed in 1962. (Smithsonian photo
49345-G.)]
3. THE HALL OF PHARMACEUTICAL HISTORY will feature exhibits on the
reconstruction of two pharmacy shops: an 18th-century apothecary shop,
originally from Germany, with a very elegant collection of drug jars,
decorated medicinal bottles, balances, mortars and pestles, and other
tools and documents pertaining to the apothecary art, and a late
19th-century American drugstore with shelves filled with patent
medicines and drug containers of various sizes and shapes. The window
will also feature symbols of pharmacy and beautiful show globes.
Displays will show the development of antibiotics and the early tools
used in the manufacture of the so-called "miracle drugs," including a
mold from Sir Alexander Fleming, the discoverer of penicillin. In
addition, a platform will be reconstructed to display a variety of
pharmaceutical apparatus used in the preparation and manufacture of
drugs, such as tablet and capsule machines and drug mills and
percolators. Recently, with the assistance of Professor Glenn
Sonnedecker, the Division acquired a fine collection of pharmaceutical
equipment and devices from the School of Pharmacy of the University of
Wisconsin.
[Illustration: Figure 24.--THE ORIGINS OF DRUGS from the three natural
kingdoms, drug synthesis, and the increase in the manufacture of
vitamins. This display was completed in 1962 and is now on display at
the Museum of History and Technology. (Smithsonian photo P6316.)]
Since the Division houses the largest collection of _materia medica_ in
the country, a representative cross section of crude drugs will be
displayed in alphabetical order as well as a display illustrating the
role of cinchona and antimalarial drugs in the fight against disease. An
exhibit will portray the "origin of drugs" from the three natural
kingdoms, animal, vegetable, and mineral, together with synthetic drugs
including the manufacture of vitamins.
Plans are being made for an elaborate exhibit of weights and balances
used in many countries throughout the centuries, their impact on
accuracy of dosage and weighing of drugs, and their use in the
apothecary art.
The Division will also display pictorial and printed materials, as well
as artifacts from all periods and all countries. These collections are
intended to help in presenting a more complete picture of the story of
the medical sciences for educational purposes and research, and to
increase man's knowledge in fighting disease and promoting health.
Thus, from a few hundred specimens of crude drugs in the Section of
Materia Medica of 83 years ago, there has developed a Museum Division
today which embraces the evolution of the health professions through the
ages. This Division now has the largest collection in the Western
Hemisphere of historical objects which are related to the healing arts.
The reference collections are available to the researcher and scholar,
and the exhibits are intended for pleasure and educational purposes in
these fields. The plans for expansion have no limitation as we keep pace
with man's progress in the medical sciences and continue to collect
materials that contributed to the historical development in the fight
against diseases and the attempts to secure better health for everyone.
Footnotes:
[1] _Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian
Institution for the Year 1882_ [hereinafter referred to as the
_Smithsonian Annual Report_], pp. 101-103; and introductory
"advertisement" to the lectures published by the Smithsonian Institution
in its Miscellaneous Collections (see bibliography).
[2] Dr. J. J. Woodward's lecture explained the progress of medical
knowledge of morbid growth and cancerous tumors from 1865 to 1872. It
cautioned that uncertain methods of diagnosis at that time allowed
charlatans and uneducated practitioners to report cures of cancer in
instances where nonmalignant growths were "removed by their caustic
pastes and plasters."
[3] The two longest intervals were in preparing the last two lectures:
the ninth in 1884, and the tenth, 1889. Both came after the
establishment in 1881 of the Section of Materia Medica in the U.S.
National Museum, to display the development and progress of the health
professions.
[4] _Annual Report of the Secretary of the Navy for the year 1883_, pp.
190, 614-615.
[5] For classifying chemical compounds, Dr. Flint relied on the work of
H. E. Roscoe and C. Schorlemmez, _A Treatise on Chemistry_, 2 vols. (New
York: D. Appleton, 1878-1800.)
[6] _Annual Report of the Secretary of the Navy for the year 1882_, vol.
2, part 2, pp. 100, 228, 656-657. Dr. Flint in his article "Report on
Pharmacopoeias of All Nations," ibid., pp. 655-680, remarks that there
were then 19 official pharmacopoeias in the world, besides three
semiofficial formularies in certain localities in Italy. The
pharmacopoeias collected represent Austria, Belgium, France, Germany,
Great Britain, Greece, Holland, India, Mexico, Norway, Portugal, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland (two), and the United States.
[7] The _Universal Formulary_, by R. Eglesfeld Griffith, first edited in
March 1850 (3rd ed. rev. and enlarged by John M. Maisch, Philadelphia:
Lea, 1874) should not be considered an international drug standard. It
was mainly concerned with compiling a great number of formulas and
recipes, methods of preparing and administering official and other
medicines, and tables on weights and measures for utilization by the
U.S. practitioners of the time.
[8] Other elaborate arrangements were also made to improve and expand
the Section's activities and services, though some have never
materialized. For example, a herbarium was suggested from which
specimens could be obtained for display of the actual drug with painted
pictures of its plant next to it. Consideration was given to displaying
enlarged drawings to show the minute structure of the specimen for
better identification. In addition, an exhibition of several 10-liter
vessels of the most popular mineral waters was planned. The amount of
saline substances which analysis had shown to be present in each vessel
was to be listed in a table to be attached to that vessel, or the same
amount of minerals was to be put in a small bottle beside it. This plan
was carried out to the best advantage at the Cotton States and
International Exposition held in 1895 in Atlanta, Georgia.
[9] HOLT, "A Sketch of the Development of the Rockefeller Institute for
Medical Research," p. 1. A similar comment was voiced by GALDSTON,
"Research in the United States," p. 366.
[10] _Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association_ (1918), vol.
7, pp. 376-377, 466.
[11] Two decades later, Dr. Whitebread designed a panel showing
photographs of famous medical pioneers of all nationalities. See his
article, "The Odd Origin of Medical Discoveries," p. 321.
[12] GEBHARD, "From Medicine Show to Health Museum," p. 579. The
original plan for this Hall of Health was to feature exhibits on public
health for popular educational purposes, including an illustrated
exhibit on hospital care. See FOLEY, "Smithsonian Institution Devotes
Much Space to Hospital Exhibit," pp. 43-44.
[13] Lack of space notwithstanding, valuable accessions were added about
1930, including a collection of early x-ray tubes and personal
memorabilia of Drs. William T. G. Morton (1819-1868), Crawford W. Long
(1815-1878), and William Gorgas (1854-1920).
[14] D. RILEY MOORE published a series of short reports under the title
"Committee on Osteopathic Exhibits in the U.S. National Museum," in the
_Journal of the American Osteopathic Association_ (1933-1946), vols.
33-46, regarding the exhibit on osteopathy.
[15] [KLEIN], "He Directs Pharmacy Exhibits at the Smithsonian
Institution," pp. 20-21.
[16] Several other journals reported the exhibition with illustrations:
_Drug Topics_ (July 8, 1946), vol. 90, no. 2, pp. 2, 79; _National
Capital Pharmacist_ (September 1945), vol. 7, p. 11, and (September
1946), vol. 8, pp. 11-13; and _The Scientific Monthly_ (November 1952),
vol. 75, p. 268.
[17] DODRILL, and others, "Temporary Mechanical Substitution for the
Left Ventricle in Man," pp. 642-644, and "Pulmonary Volvuloplasty under
Direct Vision using the Mechanical Heart for a Complete Bypass of the
Right Heart in a Patient with Congenital Pulmonary Stenosis," pp.
584-595.
[18] For the design, expert arrangement of the exhibits, and the legends
that accompany each exhibit in the Hall of Health, we are indebted to
Drs. Bruno Gebhard, Richards H. Shryock, Thomas G. Hull, James Laster,
Walle J. H. Nauta, Leslie W. Knott, Theodore Wiprud, and other
physicians, dentists, and scholars who have offered their advice,
assistance, and expert skills.
[19] TAYLOR, "A National Museum of Science, Engineering and Industry,"
p. 359.
[20] NELSON, PELANDER, and KUMPULA, "Hydraulic Turbine, Contra-angle
Handpiece," pp. 324-329.
[21] MONELL, "Dental Skiagraphy," pp. 313-336.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The _Annual report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian
Institution_ from 1872 to date and the _Proceedings of the
United States National Museum_ from 1881 to date were used
extensively as sources in this survey. In the latter, see in
particular, the year 1881, pp. 545-546; 1882, pp. 1-2; and 1884,
pp. 431-475.
ATKINSON, WILLIAM B. _The physicians and surgeons of the United States._
Philadelphia, 1878. [On Dr. Toner.]
BLAKE, JOHN B. Dental history and the Smithsonian Institution. _Journal
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---- _Public health in the town of Boston, 1630-1822._ Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1959.
[BRAISTED, WILLIAM C.] The biography of Dr. Beyer. Page 94 in
_Dictionary of American medical biography_, by HOWARD A. KELLY and
WALTER L. BURRAGE; NEW YORK: D. Appleton and Co., 1928.
CLARK, LEILA F. The library of the Smithsonian Institution. _Science_
(1946), vol. 104, p. 143.
COLEMAN, LAURENCE VAIL. _The museum in America: A critical study._ 3
vols. Baltimore: Waverly Press, 1939. [Printed for the American
Association of Museums, Washington, D.C.] See vol. 1, pp. 3, 11-12,
32-33, 143-146, 222, 318; vol. 3, p. 471.
DAUKES, S. H. _The medical museum: modern developments, organization and
technical methods based on a new system of visual teaching._ London:
Wellcome Foundation Ltd., 1929.
DODRILL, FOREST D., and others. Pulmonary volvuloplasty under direct
vision using the mechanical heart for a complete bypass of the right
heart in a patient with congenital pulmonary stenosis. _Journal of
Thoracic Surgery_ (1953), vol. 26, pp. 584-595.
---- Temporary mechanical substitution for the left ventricle in man.
_Journal of the American Medical Association_ (1952), vol. 150, pp.
642-644.
DUNGLISON, ROBLEY. _A dictionary of medical science._ Rev. ed. Pp.
629-630. Philadelphia: Lea, 1874.
EDWARDS, J. J., and EDWARDS, M. J. _Medical museum technology._ London:
Oxford University Press, 1959. [See in particular, pp. 33-62, 142-159.]
FERCHL, FRITZ. Die Mörser der Sammlung Jo Mayer--Wiesbaden; Libri rari
et curiosi der Sammlung Dr. Jo Mayer--Wiesbaden; Bildnisse und Bilder
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FLINT, JAMES M. Classification and arrangement of the materia medica
collection. _Proceedings of the United States National Museum_ (1881),
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---- Classification of the materia medica collection of the United
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---- Directions for collecting information and objects illustrating the
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---- Memoranda for collectors of drugs for the materia medica section of
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exhibit. _Hospital Management_ (April 1929), pp. 271-287.
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