As early as October and November, 1902, there appeared _Le Code
Babylonien d’Hammourabi_ in the _Journal des Savants_ (Paris, Hachette),
by R. DARESTE, giving a luminous account of the subject-matter of the
Code, illustrating it by comparison with a number of ancient
legislations. He, of course, based his conclusions entirely upon
SCHEIL’S translation, but his work still remains most valuable. In 1903
appeared SCHMERSAHL’S _Das älteste Gesetzbuch der Welt: Die Gesetze
Hammurabis_ in the _Deutsche Juristen-Zeitung_, pp. 111 ff. R. DARESTE
also published _Le Code Babylonien d’Hammourabi_ in the _Nouvelle Revue
historique de droit français et étranger_ (Paris, Larose, January and
February, 1903). _Hammurapi und das Salische Recht_, by H. FEHR (Bonn,
Marcus & Weber, 1910), is a very remarkable study.
A first-rate work was G. COHN’S lecture, _Die Gesetze Hammurabis_
(Zürich, Füssli, 1903). KOHLER and MÜLLER (see pp. 67, 69) have to be
weighed.
C. STOOSS in his article _Das babylonische Strafrecht Hammurabis,
Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Strafrecht_, vol. xvi (Basel, Georg,
1903), took up the question of ‘Crimes and Punishments’, on which see
also the article with that title by T. G. PINCHES in _The Encyclopaedia
of Religion and Ethics_, iv, pp. 256 ff.; and _Imprisonment_, by the
same author, iv, pp. 260 ff. _Die peinlichen Strafen im Kriegs-und
Rechtswesen der Babylonier und Assyrer_, by J. JELITTO (Breslau, 1913),
adds considerably to the subject. Compare also _Zum ältesten Strafrecht
der Kulturvölker_, by TH. MOMMSEN and others (Leipzig, Duncker, 1905).
The judicial procedure remains in many points obscure despite the fine
_Essai sur l’organisation judiciaire de la Chaldée à l’époque de la
première dynastie babylonienne_, by ED. CUQ, in the _Revue
d’Assyriologie_, 1910, pp. 65-101, which records most known facts;
_Commentaire juridique d’un jugement sous Ammiditana_, by the same
author in the same journal, 1910, pp. 129-38; and again _Un procès
criminel à Babylone sous le règne de Samsou-iluna_, 1911, pp. 173-81. P.
DHORME discussed in the same volume, p. 99, _Un appel sous
Samsou-iluna_. _A Legal Episode in Ancient Babylonian Family Life_, in
the _Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology_, 1910, pp.
81-92, 129-42, is by W. T. PILTER.
The tenure of land was elucidated by H. WINCKLER in _Zum
babylonisch-chaldäischen Feudalwesen_, in _Altorientalische
Forschungen_, i, pp. 497-503. _La Propriété foncière en Chaldée_, by ED.
CUQ (Paris, Larose, 1907), chiefly deals with later developments; as do
the articles by _J. OPPERT_, _Le droit de retrait lignager à Ninive_ in
the _Comptes rendus_ of the _Académie des inscriptions et
belles-lettres_ (Paris, 1898), and _Das assyrische Landrecht_ in the
_Zeitschrift für Assyriologie_, xiii, pp. 243-76 (Weimar, 1898).
The position of some classes or castes named will be dealt with under
the LEXICOGRAPHY OF THE CODE, pp. 74 ff. _The Consecrated Women of the
Hammurabi Code_ is an important essay by D. G. LYON in the _Studies in
the History of Religions presented to Crawford Howell Toy_ (New York,
The Macmillan Co., 1912), pp. 341-60. See also _Altbabylonische
Rechtsurkunden aus der Zeit der Hammurabi-Dynastie_, by S. DAICHES
(Leipzig, Hinrichs, 1903).
The view of law as sworn contract has importance enough to be specially
considered. It was early discovered in the so-called contracts which
were once regarded as legal decisions. We may refer to _Sworn
Obligations under Egyptian and Babylonian Law_, by E. and V. REVILLOUT,
and _Sworn Obligations in Babylonian Law_ by the same authors in _The
Babylonian and Oriental Record_, vol. i, no. 7, and vol. ii, no. 1. A.
UNGNAD pointed out _Eine neue Form der Beglaubigung in altbabylonischen
Urkunden_ in the _Orientalistische Litteraturzeitung_, 1906, cols.
163-4. The whole subject was taken up by S. A. B. MERCER in his
dissertation on _The Oath in Babylonian and Assyrian Literature_
(Munich, 1911).
The idea underlying the appeal to the ordeal is closely allied to that
of the oath, and F. E. PEISER wrote _Zum Ordal bei Babyloniern_ in the
_Orientalistische Litteraturzeitung_, 1911, cols. 477-9.
The importance of the family in the Code and Babylonian Law in general
has led to several monographs. _Le Mariage à Babylone_, by ED. CUQ
(Paris, Lecoffre, 1905), and _Zur Terminologie im Eherecht bei
Hammurabi_, by D. H. MÜLLER, in the _Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde
des Morgenlandes_, xix, pp. 352-8, deal chiefly with the Code. L.
FREUND’S _Zur Geschichte des Ehegutrechtes bei den Semiten_ (Vienna, A.
Hölder, 1909) chiefly deals with Jewish custom. _Liebe und Ehe im alten
Orient_, by F. FREIHERR VON REITZENSTEIN (Stuttgart, Franckh, 1909),
devotes pp. 51 to 70 to the Babylonian side. Of course, W. ROBERTSON
SMITH’S _Kinship and Marriage_ will be consulted in its new edition by
S. A. COOK (London, A. & C. Black, 1903).
Closely connected are other questions as to the status of women. Already
in 1892 J. OPPERT was able to make out much about _Liberté de la femme à
Babylone_ in the _Revue d’Assyriologie_, ii, pp. 89-90. V. MARX
discussed _Die Stellung der Frauen in Babylonien_ in the _Beiträge zur
Assyriologie_, iv, pp. 1-77.
Slavery in Babylonia was very different from either Roman or modern
ideals. As long ago as 1888 J. OPPERT had made out much from the legal
documents of later times in his article _La condition des esclaves à
Babylone_ in the _Comptes rendus_ of the _Académie des inscriptions et
belles-lettres_ for that year. BR. MEISSNER had written a dissertation
in 1882, _De servitute babylonico-assyriaca_ (Leipzig), which still
deserves to be consulted. M. SCHORR wrote _Arbeitsruhetage im alten
Babylonien_ in _Revue Sémitique_, 1912, pp. 398-9.
The questions of guarantee, security, &c., are finely treated by P.
KOSCHAKER in his work, _Babylonisch-assyrisches Bürgschaftsrecht_
(Leipzig, Teubner, 1911).
Business in general is well dealt with by FR. DELITZSCH in his _Handel
und Wandel in Altbabylonien_ (Stuttgart, Deutsche Verlagsanstalt, 1910).
_Die Commenda im islamischen Rechte_, by J. KOHLER (Würzburg, Stahel,
1885), is to be compared.
_Aus dem altbabylonischen Recht_, by BR. MEISSNER, in _Der alte Orient_,
vii, Heft 1, 1905 (Leipzig, Hinrichs), is excellent.
On the whole subject of Babylonian law a valuable treatise is P.
KOSCHAKER’S article, _The Scope and Methods of a History of
AssyrioBabylonian Laws_ in the _Proceedings of the Society of Biblical
Archaeology_, 1913, pp. 230-43. _Babylonian and Assyrian Laws,
Contracts, and Letters_, by the present writer, in _The Library of
Ancient Inscriptions_ (T. & T. Clark, Edinburgh, 1904), and the articles
on _Babylonian Law_, by the same author, in _The Encyclopaedia
Britannica_, vol. iii, 1910, may be consulted, pp. 115-21, and in _The
Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics_. The French jurist, ED. CUQ, in
his _Notes d’épigraphie et de papyrologie_, published in the _Nouvelle
Revue historique du droit français et étranger_ (Paris, L. Larose),
1906-1909, discussed many points of _Le Droit babylonien au temps de la
Première Dynastie de Babylone_.