affairs, Ephialtes, son of Eurydemus, a Malian, obtained an audience of
him (expecting that he should receive a great reward from the king), and
informed him of the path which leads over the mountain to Thermopylæ,
and by that means caused the destruction of those Greeks who were
stationed there; but afterward, fearing the Lacedæmonians, he fled to
Thessaly, and when he had fled, a price was set on his head by the
Pylagori when the Amphictyons were assembled at Pylæ; but some time
after, he went down to Anticyra and was killed by Athenades, a
Trachinian.
Another account is given, that Onetes, son of Phanagoras, a Carystian,
and Corydallus of Anticyra, were the persons who gave this information
to the king and conducted the Persians round the mountains; but to me,
this is by no means credible; for, in the first place, we may draw the
inference from this circumstance, that the Pylagori of the Grecians set
a price on the head, not of Onetes and Corydallus, but of Ephialtes the
Trachinian, having surely ascertained the exact truth; and, in the next
place, we know that Ephialtes fled on that account. Onetes, indeed,
though he was not a Malian, might be acquainted with this path if he had
been conversant with the country; but it was Ephialtes who conducted
them round the mountain by the path, and I charge him as the guilty
person.
Xerxes, since he was pleased with what Ephialtes promised to perform,
being exceedingly delighted, immediately despatched Hydarnes and the
troops that Hydarnes commanded, and he started from the camp about the
hour of lamp-lighting. The native Malians discovered this pathway, and
having discovered it, conducted the Thessalians by it against the
Phocians at the time when the Phocians, having fortified the pass by a
wall, were under shelter from an attack. From that time it appeared to
have been of no service to the Malians.
This path is situated as follows: it begins from the river Asopus, which
flows through the cleft; the same name is given both to the mountain and
to the path, "Anopæa," and this Anopæa extends along the ridge of the
mountain and ends near Alpenus, which is the first city of the Locrians
toward the Malians, and by the rock called "Melampygus," and by the
seats of the Cercopes, and there the path is the narrowest.
Along this path, thus situate, the Persians, having crossed the Asopus,
marched all night, having on their right the mountains of the Oetæans,
and on their left those of the Trachinians; morning appeared, and they
were on the summit of the mountain. At this part of the mountain, as I
have already mentioned, a thousand heavy-armed Phocians kept guard, to
defend their own country and to secure the pathway--for the lower pass
was guarded by those before mentioned--and the Phocians had voluntarily
promised Leonidas to guard the path across the mountain.
The Phocians discovered them after they had ascended, in the following
manner; for the Persian ascended without being observed, as the whole
mountain was covered with oaks; there was a perfect calm, and, as was
likely, a considerable rustling taking place from the leaves strewn
under foot, the Phocians sprang up and put on their arms, and
immediately the barbarians made their appearance. But when they saw men
clad in armor they were astonished, for, expecting to find nothing to
oppose them, they fell in with an army; thereupon Hydarnes, fearing lest
the Phocians might be Lacedæmonians, asked Ephialtes of what nation the
troops were, and being accurately informed, he drew up the Persians for
battle. The Phocians, when they were hit by many and thick-falling
arrows, fled to the summit of the mountain, supposing that they had come
expressly to attack them, and prepared to perish. Such was their
determination. But the Persians, with Ephialtes and Hydarnes, took no
notice of the Phocians but marched down the mountain with all speed.
To those of the Greeks who were at Thermopylæ, the augur Megistias,
having inspected the sacrifices, first made known the death that would
befall them in the morning; certain deserters afterward came and brought
intelligence of the circuit the Persians were taking. These brought the
news while it was yet night; and, thirdly, the scouts running down from
the heights as soon as day dawned, _brought the same intelligence_. Upon
this the Greeks held a consultation, and their opinions were divided;
some would not hear of abandoning their post, and others opposed that
view. After this, when the assembly broke up, some of them departed, and
being dispersed, betook themselves to their several cities; but others
of them prepared to remain there with Leonidas.
It is said that Leonidas himself sent them away, being anxious that they
should not perish, but that he and the Spartans who were there could not
honorably desert the post which they originally came to defend. For my
own part, I am rather inclined to think that Leonidas, when he perceived
that the allies were averse and unwilling to share the danger with him,
bade them withdraw, but that he considered it dishonorable for himself
to depart; on the other hand, by remaining there, great renown would be
left for him and the prosperity of Sparta would not be obliterated, for
it had been announced to the Spartans by the Pythian, when they
consulted the oracle concerning this war as soon as it commenced, "that
either Lacedæmon must be overthrown by the barbarians, or their king
perish." This answer she gave in hexameter verses, to this effect: "To
you, O inhabitants of spacious Lacedæmon! either your vast glorious city
shall be destroyed by men sprung from Perseus, or, if not so, the
confines of Lacedæmon shall mourn a king deceased, of the race of
Hercules. For neither shall the strength of bulls nor of lions withstand
him with force opposed to force, for he has the strength of Jove, and I
say he shall not be restrained before he has certainly obtained one of
these for his share." I think, therefore, that Leonidas, considering
these things and being desirous to acquire glory for the Spartans alone,
sent away the allies, rather than that those who went away differed in
opinion, and went away in such an unbecoming manner.
The following in no small degree strengthens my conviction on this
point; for not only _did he send away_ the others, but it is certain
that Leonidas also sent away the augur who followed the army, Megistias
the Acarnanian, who was said to have been originally descended from
Melampus, the same who announced, from an inspection of the victims,
what was about to befall them, in order that he might not perish with
them. He however, though dismissed, did not himself depart but sent away
his son who served with him in the expedition, being his only child.
The allies that were dismissed, accordingly departed, and obeyed
Leonidas, but only the Thespians and the Thebans remained with the
Lacedæmonians; the Thebans, indeed, remained unwillingly and against
their inclination, for Leonidas detained them, treating them as
hostages; but the Thespians willingly, for they refused to go away and
abandon Leonidas and those with him, but remained and died with them.
Demophilus, son of Diadromas, commanded them.
Xerxes, after he had poured out libations at sunrise, having waited a
short time, began his attack about the time of full market, for he had
been so instructed by Ephialtes; for the descent from the mountain is
more direct and the distance much shorter than the circuit and ascent.
The barbarians, therefore, with Xerxes, advanced, and the Greeks with
Leonidas, marching out as if for certain death, now advanced much
farther than before into the wide part of the defile, for the
fortification of the wall had protected them, and they on the preceding
days, having taken up their position in the narrow part, fought there;
but now engaging outside the narrows, great numbers of the barbarians
fell; for the officers of the companies from behind, having scourges,
flogged every man, constantly urging them forward; in consequence, many
of them, falling into the sea, perished, and many more were trampled
alive under foot by one another and no regard was paid to any that
perished, for the Greeks, knowing that death awaited them at the hands
of those who were going round the mountain, being desperate and
regardless of their own lives, displayed the utmost possible valor
against the barbarians.
Already were most of their javelins broken and they had begun to
despatch the Persians with their swords. In this part of the struggle
fell Leonidas, fighting valiantly, and with him other eminent Spartans,
whose names, seeing they were deserving men, I have ascertained; indeed,
I have ascertained the names of the whole three hundred. On the side of
the Persians also, many other eminent men fell on this occasion, and
among them two sons of Darius, Abrocomes and Hyperanthes, born to Darius
of Phrataguna, daughter of Artanes; but Artanes was brother to king
Darius, and son of Hystaspes, son of Arsames. He, when he gave his
daughter to Darius, gave him also all his property, as she was his only
child.
Accordingly, two brothers of Xerxes fell at this spot fighting for the
body of Leonidas, and there was a violent struggle between the Persians
and Lacedæmonians, until at last the Greeks rescued it by their valor
and four times repulsed the enemy. Thus the contest continued until
those with Ephialtes came up. When the Greeks heard that they were
approaching, from this time the battle was altered; for they retreated
to the narrow part of the way, and passing beyond the wall came and took
up their position on the rising ground all in a compact body with the
exception of the Thebans. The rising ground is at the entrance where the
stone lion now stands to the memory of Leonidas. On this spot, while
they defended themselves with swords--such as had them still
remaining--and with hands and teeth, the barbarians overwhelmed them
with missiles, some of them attacking them in front, having thrown down
the wall, and others surrounding and attacking them on every side.
Though the Lacedæmonians and Thespians behaved in this manner, yet
Dieneces, a Spartan, is said to have been the bravest man. They relate
that he made the following remark before they engaged with the Medes,
having heard a Trachinian say that when the barbarians let fly their
arrows they would obscure the sun by the multitude of their shafts, so
great was their number; but he, not at all alarmed at this, said,
holding in contempt the numbers of the Medes, that "their Trachinian
friend told them everything to their advantage, since if the Medes
obscure the sun, they would then have to fight in the shade and not in
the sun." This, and other sayings of the same kind, they relate that
Dieneces the Lacedæmonian left as memorials.
Next to him, two Lacedæmonian brothers, Alpheus and Maron, sons of
Orisiphantus, are said to have distinguished themselves most; and of the
Thespians, he obtained the greatest glory whose name was Dithyrambus,
son of Harmatides.
In honor of the slain, who were buried on the spot where they fell, and
of those who died before they who were dismissed by Leonidas went away,
the following inscription has been engraved over them: "Four thousand
from Peloponnesus once fought on this spot with three hundred
_myriads_![53]" This inscription was made for all; and for the Spartans
in particular: "Stranger, go tell the Lacedæmonians that we lie here,
obedient to their commands!" This was for the Lacedæmonians; and for
the prophet, the following: "This is the monument of the illustrious
Megistias, whom once the Medes, having passed the river Sperchius, slew;
a prophet who, at the time well knowing the impending fate, would not
abandon the leaders of Sparta!"
[Footnote 53: Three millions.]
The Amphictyons are the persons who honored them with these inscriptions
and columns, with the exception of the inscription to the prophet; that
of the prophet Megistias, Simonides, son of Leoprepes, caused to be
engraved, from personal friendship.
CHRONOLOGY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY
EMBRACING THE PERIOD COVERED IN THIS VOLUME
B.C. 5867--B.C. 451
JOHN RUDD, LL.D.
CHRONOLOGY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY
EMBRACING THE PERIOD COVERED IN THIS VOLUME
B.C. 5867--B.C. 451
JOHN RUDD, LL.D.
Events treated at length are here indicated in large type; the numerals
following give volume and page.
Separate chronologies of the various nations, and of the careers of
famous persons, will be found in the INDEX VOLUME, with volume and page
references showing where the several events are fully treated.
All dates are approximate up to B.C. 776, the beginning of the
Olympiads.
B.C.
=5867.= Menes, the first human ruler recorded in history, unites the two
kingdoms of Egypt under one crown; introduces the cult of Apis; founds
the city of Memphis; rears the great temple of Ptah. See "DAWN OF
CIVILIZATION," i, 1.
=5000.= Babylonia is invaded by a race of Semites; they conquer the land
and become the Babylonians of history.
=4500 (before)=. A patesi (priest-ruler), by name En-shag-kush-anna, is
King of Kengi, Southern Babylonia; Sungir, which later gave the name
Sumer to the whole district, is his capital.
=4400.= Shirpurla, Mesopotamia, subjugated by Mesilim, King of Kish.
=4200.= The hero of Shirpurla, E-anna-tum, throws off the Kish yoke and
takes the title of king. He is successful in conflicts with Erech, Ur,
and Larsa. Walls are erected and canals dug by him.
=3700.= The great Pyramid of Gizeh erected. This was during the IV or
Pyramid dynasty; so called because its chief monarchs built the three
great pyramids.
Beautiful Queen Nitocris, of the VI dynasty, reigned about this time.
She is said to have avenged the killing of her brother, King of Egypt,
by inviting his murderers to a banquet held in a subterranean chamber.
Into this the river was turned, and they all miserably perished.
=3000.= Nineveh, colonized from Babylonia, ruled by subject princes of
that country.
=2800.= Probable date of the foundation of the Chinese empire.
=2500.= Rise of the kingdom of Elam. Asshurbanipal (Sardanapalus), King
of Nineveh, records an invasion of Chaldæa, or Babylonia, by the
Elamites, B.C. 2300. The records of clay recently unearthed show that
Cyrus was originally king of Elam. See "CONQUESTS OF CYRUS THE GREAT,"
i, 250.
=2458=. Zoroaster (Zarathushtra) founds the religion known by his name.
Ancient tradition has it that he was a Median king who conquered Babylon
about B.C. 2458. M. Haug assigns the date as not later than B.C. 2300.
Be the time when he lived what it may, it is certain that, as the
Persian national religion, it dates little further back than B.C. 559
and up to A.D. 641. The four elements--fire, air, earth, and water,
especially the first--were recognized as the only proper objects of
human reverence.
=2300.= A chart of the heavens in China.
=2250.= Commencement of the reign of Hammurabi, King of Babylonia: the
earliest compilation of a code of laws was made in this reign. See
"COMPILATION OF THE EARLIEST CODE," i, 14.
=2200-1700.= Dominion of the Hyksos, or Shepherd kings, in Egypt. It is
not improbable that Abraham made his well-known journey to Egypt during
the early reign of these kings. Joseph's visit occurred near the close
of their power.
=2200.= Hereditary monarchy founded in China.
=1700-1250.= The new empire of Egypt attains the period of its greatest
splendor and power. Meneptah, about 1320 (1322), has been generally
accepted as the Pharaoh of the Exodus.
=1500.= Independence of Assyria as the rising of a kingdom apart from
Babylonia; the rise of Nineveh.
=1450-1300.= The Hittite realm in Syria attains its greatest power. The
Egyptians knew the Hittites as the Khita or Khatta. Recent discoveries
indicate that they formed a civilized and powerful nation. Many
inscriptions and rock sculptures in Asia Minor, formerly inexplicable,
are now attributed to the Hittites of the Bible.
=1330.= Rameses II of Egypt; the Sesostris of the Greeks.
=1300.= Shalmaneser I reigns in Assyria.
=1250.= The Phoenicians, closely allied in language to the Hebrews, begin
their colonizing career.
=1235.= Probable date of the consolidation of Athens, See "THESEUS FOUNDS
ATHENS," i, 45.
=1200.= Exodus of Israel from Egypt.
"FORMATION OF THE CASTES IN INDIA," See i, 52.
=1184.= "FALL OF TROY." See i, 70.
=1122.= Wou Wang becomes emperor of China.
=1120.= Beginning of the reign of Tiglath-Pileser, King of Assyria.
=1100.= Dorian migration into the Peloponnesus.
=1095 (1055; 1080 common chronology).= Hebrews establish the monarchy.
Saul the first king.
=1058 (1033).= At Gilboa, Saul is defeated by the Philistines. David
becomes king in Judah.
=1017 (998).= Accession of Solomon as king of the Hebrews. The Temple at
Jerusalem is built in this reign. See "ACCESSION OF SOLOMON," i, 92.
=1015.= Smyrna founded.
=977 (953).= Israel and Judah become separate kingdoms, following the
revolt of the Ten Tribes under Jeroboam.
=973 (949).= Jerusalem captured by Sheshonk, King of Egypt.
=958 (929).= Asa ascends the throne of Judah.
=931 (899).= Omri's accession in Israel.
=917 (873).= Jehoshaphat begins his reign in Judah.
=900 (853).= The Syrians defeat and slay Ahab, King of Israel, at
Ramoth-Gilead.
Divambar conquers Armenia, Persia, Syria, and adjacent lands.
=887 (843).= The throne of Israel usurped by Jehu.
=850.= The Tyrians colonize Carthage.
=811 (792).= Uzziah succeeds to the throne of Judah.
=800.= The canal and tunnel of Negoub constructed to convey the waters of
the Zab River to Nineveh.
=800 (850).= Sparta: Probable date of the legislation of Lycurgus.
=790 (825).= Jeroboam II becomes King of Israel.
=789.= First destruction of Nineveh: death of Sardanapalus. See "FIRST
DESTRUCTION OF NINEVEH," i, 105.
=776.= Beginning of the Olympiads. Olympiad in ancient Greece meant the
space of four years between one celebration of the Olympic games and
another. In this year it began as a system of chronology.
=772. [A](748)=. End of Jehu's dynasty in Israel.
=753 (common chronology).= "FOUNDATION OF ROME." See i, 116.
=750.= [A] The Corinthians found Syracuse.
=743-724.= First great war between Sparta and Messenia: the latter is
subjugated.
=734.= [A] Syria becomes subject to Tiglath-Pileser II of Assyria.
=731.= [A] Tiglath-Pileser II subjects Chaldea.
=727. [A] (728)=. Hezekiah ascends the throne of Judah.
=722.= [A] King Sargon of Assyria conquers Samaria; he puts an end to the
kingdom of Israel. Captivity of the Ten Tribes.
=701.= Siege of Jerusalem by Sennacherib; he encounters the Egyptian and
Ethiopian forces; his expedition into Syria fails.
=697.= Accession of Manasseh to the throne of Judah.
=685-668.= The second war between Sparta and Messenia.
=660.= [A] Prince Jimmu establishes Yamato as the capital of Japan. See
"PRINCE JIMMU FOUNDS JAPAN'S CAPITAL," i, 140.
=650.=[A] The whole of Egypt united under Psammetichus I, founder of the
XXVI dynasty. He frees Egypt from Assyrian rule and opens the country to
the Greeks.
=645-628.= The Messenians make an unsuccessful attempt to throw off the
yoke of Sparta.
[A] Date uncertain
=640.= Birth of Thales, one of the Seven Wise Men of Greece. He taught
the spherical form of the earth and the true causes of lunar eclipses;
discovered the electricity of amber. The Seven Sages, or Wise Men, are
commonly made up of Thales, Solon, Bias, Chilo, Cleobulus, Periander,
and Pittacus.
Media becomes independent of Assyria; she appears as a single united
kingdom.
=625.= Media, Assyria, and Syria have a great irruption of Scythians in
their borders.
=623.= "FOUNDATION OF BUDDHISM," See i, 160.
=621.= [B](624). Date of the legislation of Draco, at Athens.
=612.= Conspiracy of Cylon at Athens.
=609.= [B] Josiah is slain at Megiddo, when Necho, the Egyptian King,
crushes the power of Judah.
=607.= [B] Nineveh taken by the Medes and Babylonians, who overthrow the
Assyrian monarchy.
=605.= [B] Nebuchadnezzar defeats Necho at Carchemish. Necho maintained a
powerful fleet; the Phoenician ships under his order rounded the Cape of
Good Hope. Herodotus says that twice during this voyage the crews,
fearing a lack of food, after landing, drew their ships on shore, sowed
grain and waited for a harvest. It will be noticed that this was over
two thousand years before Vasco da Gama, to whom is usually given the
credit of first circumnavigating Africa.
=597.= [B] Jerusalem captured by Nebuchadnezzar, who carries away the
principal inhabitants.
=595.= The Delphic Games in Greece. See "PYTHIAN GAMES AT DELPHI," i, 181.
=594.= Adoption of the Constitution of Solon at Athens, See "SOLON'S EARLY
GREEK LEGISLATION," i, 203.
=586.= [B] Nebuchadnezzar captures and destroys Jerusalem; puts an end to
the kingdom of Judah. The Babylonish captivity.
=570.= [B] Egypt attacked by Nebuchadnezzar, who dethrones Hophra (Apries);
he places Amasis on the throne.
=560.= Tyranny of Pisistratus at Athens. The Grecian poor were still
getting poorer, notwithstanding Solon's legislation; they clamored for
relief, placed Pisistratus at their head, and passed a decree allowing
him to have a body-guard of fifty men armed with clubs. Pisistratus then
threw off all disguise and established himself in the Acropolis as
tyrant of Athens.
=550.= [B] Cyrus, at the head of the Persians, destroys the Median
monarchy. See "CONQUESTS OF CYRUS THE GREAT," i, 250.
=550.= [B] "RISE OF CONFUCIUS, THE CHINESE SAGE," See i, 270.
=546.= Croesus, King of Lydia, overthrown by Cyrus. See "CONQUESTS OF
CYRUS THE GREAT," i, 250.
=540.= [B] Calimachus invents the Corinthian order of architecture.
[B] Date uncertain.
=538.= Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus. See "CONQUESTS OF CYRUS THE GREAT,"
i, 250.
=529.= Death of Cyrus; Cambyses succeeds him on the throne of Persia.
=527.= Hippias and Hipparchus succeed their father, Pisistratus, at
Athens, in the government of that city.
=525 (527).= Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, King of Persia. He completely
subdued it, and, after an attempted rising, crushed Egypt with merciless
severity. Cambyses treated the Egyptian deities, priests, and temples
with insult and contempt.
Æschylus, Greek tragic poet, born.
=522.= Pseudo-Smerdis usurps the Persian throne. Cambyses had slain his
brother Bardes, whom Herodotus calls Smerdis. A Magian, Gaumata by name,
resembling Bardes in appearance, impersonated the murdered prince. A
revolution ensued and, owing to the death of Cambyses by his own hand,
Pseudo-Smerdis became master of the empire.
=521.= Darius I, by defeating Pseudo-Smerdis, who had reigned eight
months, ascends the Persian throne.
=521-516.= The Temple at Jerusalem, which had been destroyed by the
Babylonians, rebuilt.
=520.= [C] Birth of Pindar, the chief lyric poet of Greece. He was in the
prime of life when Salamis and Thermopylæ were fought. His poems have as
groundwork the legends which form the Grecian religious literature.
=516.= [C] Invasion of Scythia by Darius, King of Persia, who seems to have
acted according to an oriental idea of right, in that he claimed to
punish the Scythians for an invasion of Media at some previous time.
=514.= Hipparchus, of Athens, assassinated by Harmodius and Aristogiton.
=514.= [C] Birth of Themistocles, a famous Athenian commander and
statesman. He was largely instrumental in increasing the navy; induced
the Athenians to leave Athens for Salamis and the fleet, and brought
about the victory of Salamis.
=510.= Hippias expelled from Athens. The democratic party is headed by
Clisthenes, the master-spirit of the revolution inaugurated for the
overthrow of the despotic and hated sons of Pisistratus. The Athenian
democracy was reorganized by Clisthenes.
=510.= The Crotonians destroy Sybaris. Croton and Sybaris were two ancient
Greek cities situated on the Gulf of Tarentum, Southern Italy. Little is
known of them except their luxury, fantastic self-indulgence, and
extravagant indolence, for which qualities their names remain a
synonyme.
=510.= Expulsion of the Tarquins from Rome. Founding of the Republic;
consulship instituted. See "ROME ESTABLISHED AS A REPUBLIC," i, 300.