SECTION IV. Behind the support trenches the C. T. should be constructed

on the traverse principle of _Section I_, so that the same defensive

features existing for the support trenches as should exist for the

firing line. In doing this, however, it should be kept in mind to

provide rapid transit for troops behind these supporting lines. This

is best done by continuing the zigzag system right through support

trenches as shown. When necessary, this C. T. can be blocked.

It is always a possibility that support trenches may be lost, but not

a probability. Therefore, undue weight should not be given against the

convenience of adopting as soon as possible again the zigzag C. T. of

_Section II_, the latter supplying all requirements of rapid transit

and allowing the introduction of straight stretches in loophole

traverses wherever required.

TELEPHONE LINES

It is generally found that artillery telephone lines are laid on

the north and west side of a C. T.; infantry lines on the south and

east. Lines are generally laid about two feet from the bottom of the

trench, picketed inter-grooves being cut into the side of the trench.

These lines must be given absolutely every protection possible by the

infantry and by any one using the trenches. Far too much carelessness

has at times existed which destroyed communication with artillery and

infantry when it was of vital importance that it should be open.

Infantry in the trenches depend for immediate support upon their

artillery, and if, through lack of supervision on the part of the

officers in charge, these lines are destroyed or temporarily torn down

by careless men not understanding their significance and importance,

then that officer or officers is guilty of a very serious crime.

RECESSES

These are usually made in C. T. to allow for the passing of troops

or bearers of stretchers, or parties passing up and down to the line

carrying the many things that are necessary for the upkeep of that line.

It is advisable that these should always be placed in the same

corresponding place in each stretch, as shown in SECTION III, just

before the turn, so that men know where they are to be found. The

first man of a party coming up having arrived at a turn, and seen or

heard others coming down, can give necessary protection to his party,

and a great deal of unnecessary and very exasperating and fatiguing

movements, and sometimes retracing of steps, is avoided. It is also

often the cause of a great many casualties in a trench where these

recesses are not made, as parties of men coming and going very often,

while struggling to get past one another with their loads, are caught

by heavy shell fire.

The recesses should be about 8 feet long and at least 2 feet wide, and

the soil excavated from these recesses could be used for strengthening

the parapets of the C. T.’s at these turns. Generally, when time

allows and energy permits, close to the firing line these recesses are

made longer and deeper, oftentimes running to 12 and 18 feet long by 6

and 10 feet deep, although it is not advisable to crowd them too much.

Recesses of this kind may also be heavily roofed and used as a very

temporary shelter for stretcher cases, stores of bombs, ammunition, etc.

At every second or third stretch in these C. T.’s, either steps or an

easy runway to the top of the trench should be made. This saves time on

a great many occasions when parties coming over the top for speed and

comfort find themselves stopped and have to take to the trench on short

notice. It is also good when a serious obstruction occurs, and it is

necessary to leave a C. T. and enter it again farther on.

NOTICE BOARDS

These boards should be fixed at every entrance and junction in a trench

system, stating the name of the trench and the places to which it

leads, and where there are trenches expressly for up and down traffic,

these boards should state it. Some people argue that such notices

assist the enemy when they get into our trenches, but the argument

does not hold as it is very often the case they do not know the names

used in the sectors, as they vary up and down the line, and generally

they have a very good idea of the system they will find themselves in

anyway, and there is a very small chance that a majority of them will

be able to read them anyway.

Care must be taken that these notice boards are not used for what

is known as “boiling up,” building fires, in braziers, etc., as the

absence of these boards causes a tremendous amount of confusion when

new troops are coming into the line. All officers must know the

shortest routes from their own headquarters to those of companies on

their flanks, as well as their own battalion headquarters, and every

officer, N. C. O. and man must know the position of his immediate

commander’s dugout, as well as his company headquarters, and every man

must know the name of the trench that he is in and helping to hold, and

this is not possible when these notice boards are destroyed.

TRENCH DRAINAGE

Efforts at drainage, which is the greatest trouble during the winter

months to troops occupying the line, must be as systematic and thorough

as possible. Tinkering is of very little use and brings no results

but causes a great and tiring expenditure of labor as far as the

men are concerned, with no end of work in sight. When taking over a

sector of line, the drainage system must be thoroughly studied and a

line of campaign mapped out and strictly adhered to. Thorough work

in the initial stages will save any amount of subsequent unnecessary

fatigue and labor. The system to be applied depends entirely on

local conditions, but full advantage must be taken of the assistance

which nature affords. Water running down hill is a marvelous fact;

nevertheless it is often overlooked. Field drains and natural streams

anywhere near the trench must be kept clear of obstructions. These are

usually attended to by the overworked farmers in peace times, but as

they do not work near a trench system, it must be looked after by the

army. Neglect of the natural watercourses has been the cause of much

of the difficulty of draining the trenches themselves.

During the winter months a trench is never really drained. A mixture

in the trenches which is neither water nor good, sticky mud, but a

beautiful liquid combination of water and dirt, which is thick enough

not to run, is formed. Sometimes it becomes sufficiently like water

to be pushed or assisted to run down hill with scrapers, boards, and

anything else that is handy. Sometimes it becomes sufficiently heavy

enough to be shoveled over the parapet or put into sand bags. In either

of these cases it is only overcome by persistent labor, but when

the mud is in its true clayed self it is a waste of time and labor

to attempt to move it, and the only way, without a large amount of

cursing, is to sit tight and pray for the sun to dry it.

When a valley or dip is close to the side of a C. T. a few narrow

gullies through the side, of about 18 inches in width, should be made

so that liquid mud can be swept along the trench and on through the

gulley to a natural fall. These little gullies or ditches should start

at a place or places where there are dips in the level of the trench

and must be dug straight through the side, as it then becomes easier

to keep clear and gives no obstruction to the flow of mud; but if

facing the enemy, it should not be in a straight line, as it then

allows rifle fire into the trenches. If no other way is possible, then

overhead traverse or other means of protection should be taken at that

point. Sometimes, when it is not possible to complete these gullies,

they should be dug out as far as circumstances will permit and a block

of soil or very large sods be put at the junction of the gulley to the

trench and the liquid mud dipped out of the trench and dumped into

the gulley, where it will be prevented from running into the trench

again by these collections of sods. This process is very slow, but

conditions frequently make it the easiest and most convenient way of

ridding the trenches of some of the mud. This work can be carried on

by what is sometimes known as a “trench patrol” or maintenance squad,

which is generally detailed from the company in the support line and

which patrols the system of trenches held by their battalion during

the day. The N. C. O. in charge generally reports serious collapses

to his company officer, who in turn reports it to the engineers, who

immediately take steps to have it repaired.

The width of drainage gullies should not be less than 18 inches, thus

allowing easy use of brushes issued. With these brushes and adequate

gullies, very long stretches of trench can be kept in excellent

condition when the trench is wide enough to allow the drying effect

of wind and sun to reach the bottom. The time spent in making these

gullies is saved over and over again. If there be no natural valley

or dip, a sump-pit is generally dug, the size depending on the energy

of the troops digging it, but generally it is about 10 feet below the

level of the trench it drains, and anything from 8 feet on in diameter.

It is dug some fair distance from the trenches and in a position that

will allow the maximum amount of gullies to be led to it from that

particular section of the trench.

After having this system worked out, the next thing is to ascertain

what parts of the rest of the trench system will not be affected by

this drainage, and there to dig similar sump-pits just to the side of

the trenches drained, small gullies leading to them. These need only

be about 6 feet deep below the trench level and 4 feet in diameter. A

short gulley, 12 to 15 inches wide and 2 feet long, should lead from

the trench to the sump-pit, as shown in sketch of trench system.

Sometimes the sump-pit may be semi-circular and cut into the side of

the trench, but in this case some barrier must be put across it to

prevent men falling in while traveling at night. The former system is

far more satisfactory, and especially so when the trench is hardly wide

enough to allow the passing of traffic without touching the sides of

the trench.

Entrances to these sump-pits must always be kept clear of all

obstructions. Very often a ridge of mud from a man’s foot-mark is

enough to put a sump-pit out of action. They should be continually

emptied by pumping the contents over the parapet, or carrying in pails

to the nearest gulley.

The side sump-pits must never be cut under the wall of a trench. On

very short notice the roof will take the place of the excavated soil

and there will be no sump-pit.

It is not always that pumps are available, and the few of those which

are, are of no practical use for a length of time sufficient to be of

any value; in fact, they hardly repay the fatigue entailed in getting

them to the trenches. For ordinary trench drainage several small pumps

are of far more use than one large one, as the range’s limited by the

difficulties of removing it or by the length of pipe attached. These

pumps, whether large or small, must be given a large and substantial

platform, placed in some central position among a number of sump-pits.

Each pump must have not only a discharge pipe, but a suction pipe, the

latter being movable from one pit to another in the pump’s area without

moving the pump. The placing of these pumps must be thorough and

systematic, and those sump-pits not reached by pumps must be kept empty

by means of pails.

FLOORBOARDS

Although these are rarely available in sufficient numbers to be laid

continuously along the entire length of the trench, it is unwise to

throw one down on a particularly muddy spot in a trench as a remedy.

The result is that when it becomes covered with mud it sinks out of

sight, and another one is thrown down with the same result. Then,

when an attempt to drain is made, much to somebody’s disgust they run

into a layer of floorboards, quit work, and the trench never becomes

drained. Patchy repairs to a trench bottom are as aggravating and as

useless as bad revetment. When only a few floorboards are available,

then they should be laid in one length and that length made as nearly

perfect as possible, until more may be had, then that length continued.

Patching here and there is of no use and never leads anywhere. Trench

bottoms are treated in different ways up and down the line, depending

on localities and materials on hand. In some places the trench bottom

is of concrete blocks and bricks, with a small trench ditch of about 6

inches running along the side. This is not a very happy combination,

as men traveling up and down the trenches at night with heavy loads

sometimes stumble, their feet go in, the trench ditch becomes full of

mud and blocked up, and your trench gradually becomes flooded up and

down its length, unless very great care is taken. Where time and labor

are available, long lengths of trench may be put and kept in good

condition and the trench question partially solved if two rows of stout

4-foot sticks are driven well into the bottom of the trench, about 3

feet apart. Wooden rails are then nailed along the top of the stakes

and cross-bars nailed and fastened to the rails. This work must be done

thoroughly, though, or weak places will occur and become very dangerous

for men traveling at night with heavy loads, as a fall through a hole

in one of these bottoms generally means a broken ankle or some other

accident.

In some parts of the line it has not been necessary to use anything

for a trench floor, the ground itself being sufficient, with a small

drainage ditch dug at the side, as in the case of those trench bottoms

covered with cement and brick.

BRUSHWOOD AND STRAW

Brushwood should not be placed in a trench bottom, except under

very exceptional circumstances, and, as a matter of fact, is very

seldom used, its value lying more in the manufacture of hurdles. Once

brushwood has been trodden into the mud it is absolutely impossible

to remove it, and there is no means of removing the mud and properly

repairing the trench bottom. Straw under no circumstances should ever

be put in a trench bottom, and when put into dugouts or shelters,

should be cleared out and burned where possible (which will not be in

front line) as soon as it becomes sodden or sour. The floor of the

dugouts and shelters must be thoroughly cleaned of all this old straw,

sand bags and bad soil before fresh straw is put in. It is possible in

large dugouts such as are found in reserve and support lines, to make

bunks out of wire netting on the same style as the berth in a steamer,

and in a modern dugout enough of these bunks may be made to accommodate

a company. In all German dugouts this is the practice, although it is

not possible in close proximity to the front line. Advantage must be

taken of what material is at hand.

WORKING PARTIES

The routine of a battalion which is doing, for the sake of

illustration, we will say six days in the trenches, is roughly as

follows:

Six days are spent in what is generally known as a Brigade Reserve,

which means living in the reserve dugouts or billets, depending on the

closeness of a village to the firing line. During these six days the

battalion supplies working parties to assist the battalion holding

the line in the upkeep of its trenches. Very often this necessitates

continuous work night and day for the men, more especially so during

the winter months. At the end of the six days they go to the trenches

and are in turn assisted by the working parties of the battalion

relieved.

These working parties may sometimes be actually in the front line with

the battalion that relieved them, or on the communication trenches

leading to the front line, or on the second line defenses or reserve

and support dugouts. This work is carried on under the supervision of

engineer officers generally acting under orders from their brigade and

divisional commanders. A request is made daily through the battalion

commander for so many men to form the various working parties for that

day and night, and the battalion commander keeping the brigade or

division informed of his actual strength, protects his battalion from

impossible allotments of work. These working parties are then detailed

with the officer in charge, and he is generally given sufficient notice

that he may have some idea of the task ahead of him. It is then to that

officer’s benefit, knowing the amount of men who will have to do the

task and what the task is like, for him to study out before leaving for

the place where the work is to be done, just exactly what he intends to

do and what sort of an organization it will require to do the work with

the least possible friction.

This is absolutely essential, as naturally men coming from a six days’

tour of the trenches and being ordered on a working task, are not

keen on the job, and when an officer has not studied beforehand what

he intends doing and how it shall be done, it winds up in endless

confusion, disgusts the men more than ever, and precious little work is

done.

RELIEFS. The total time occupied in digging trenches is generally

divided into parties called reliefs, usually of four hours. Shorter

periods than this means much time wasted in commencing work and in

delays; but, as a matter of fact, the time spent on the job and going

to and from it will run to from 7 to 10 hours.

In digging trenches, the usual extension is to two full paces per man.

Where there is little probability of attack the following method may

be adopted: Halt party about four paces in rear of the left flank of

the general line of trenches required to be dug; then form single rank,

march ahead of party to the commencement of task and indicate to the

first man his task, stepping off the next two paces for the next man,

and so on until you have your party all placed. This takes a very short

time and is one of the best methods. Allow the men to remove their

equipment, but do not allow them to throw it any place they like. It is

a general rule to place it about four paces to the rear of their task.

Where attacks are possible, rifles must be kept within easy reach.

TRAVERSED FIRE TRENCHES

The following is a method for extending men to dig by night a traversed

and recessed fire trench which is not already traced:

1. Detailing a covering party to guard against sudden attack.

2. Extension of the remainder to two paces.

3. Number quietly down the line by 4s.

4. Nos. 1 and 4 stop 2 paces back (these men then become traverse

men).

5. Nos. 2 and 4 drive in their picks (half way between themselves

and left-hand neighbors and in line with their toes).

6. Front rank to mark out tasks (Nos. 2 and 3 commence from the

pick between them and mark out 7½ feet each way, that is, 2½

pick-handles’ distance).

7. Rear rank mark out tasks (commencing from pick between Nos. 1

and 4 to end of each recess).

As soon as this is done the men commence work, the officer going down

the line at once to check any errors before they have gone too far.

While this may sound very complicated it will be found that after a

little training the men become accustomed to it and it is a very simple

matter. This method renders unnecessary the giving of many orders in

the dark once the men are extended, and prevents a great amount of

confusion. There will always be a slight amount of readjustment of the

work, such as the widening of traverses, etc., but it is easily done

after the work has been started and even after the trench has been dug

to some depth.

OBSTACLES AND ENTANGLEMENTS

The purpose of an obstacle is to obtain the control of the enemies in

respect to direction and speed during an attack, and to deflect troops

into areas favorable to their destruction by the defenders. They break

up the unity of action, deflect parties isolated into the best swept

fields of fire and hold them under close fire of the defenses. An

obstacle should be close to the defender’s position, not more than 80

yards away at the most. A system is now in use on the Western Front

where entanglements in front of trenches are placed approximately 20

yards from the parapet, as that has been found to be the distance at

which the deadliest bombing can be done. They should be sheltered

or screened, when possible, from enemy artillery, giving no cover

to the enemy and be so placed as to surprise the enemy. They should

not interfere with any counter attack necessary to be made and have

occasional gaps, which may be mined. Types of obstacles are low wire

entanglements, their height depending on the condition existing in No

Man’s Land; high wire entanglements, barricades, mines, inundations,

etc. Wire plays the important part in most of the obstacles now being

used on all fronts, and is generally used, first, as a trip wire

stretched just above the ground, or fastened in loose coils to short

pickets. Flares and alarm guns and tin cans may be used in connection

with this; second: a simple fence to cause delay and confusion to the

enemy at night; third: as a concealed obstacle in fords and standing

crops or long grass; fourth: as a help towards making hedges and

brushwood impassable, and as a wire entanglement solely.

The wire entanglements are the best obstacles, as they are quickly and

easily made, are very difficult to destroy and offer no obstruction to

fire in view of the defenses.

LOW WIRE ENTANGLEMENTS. Stout sticks, 36 inches long and 1½ to 2 inches

in diameter, are driven into the ground on level at 6-foot intervals.

These should be driven in at least three rows so arranged that the

sticks in one row are opposite the centers of gaps in the next. The

heads of the sticks are connected by strong wires crossing diagonally

from 12 to 18 inches above the ground.

HIGH WIRE ENTANGLEMENTS. To be effective, high wire entanglements

should prevent the enemy from crawling through it at or near the

ground level, and when possible, should be screened from enemy

artillery observation. This obviously is utterly impossible as far as

wire entanglements in front of the firing line is concerned, but it

is possible to a certain extent to screen these high entanglements

from observation in front of support lines and second line systems.

Under conditions existing at the front, the wire work is often and

generally, for very good reasons, of a hasty character, and it is best,

therefore, to limit the first stage to just enough to form a nucleus

of the whole entanglement, in order that the required area may be

covered by obstacle before serious interruption occurs. To do this, the

obstacle is best constructed in two zones, with a small space between.

The pickets should be from 5 to 8 feet long and average five inches

in diameter, being placed at irregular distances and with varying

heights in order to make more difficult the passage over them by means

of hurdles and planks. The outer pickets should be very firmly driven

and stayed to prevent the enemy dragging the obstacle away. It is also

nice to drive large nails into the tops of the posts with half their

length projecting. After the posts are driven in, they are first joined

diagonally, that is, from head to foot and foot to head, by winding

the wire around each post and securing it by staples. Each set of

posts should be stayed by four wires. There should be a trip wire 9

inches from the ground, or even less, running continuously round the

outer posts, and another one foot from the top of the middle posts.

The barbed wire can then be hung in festoons between the posts on no

fixed pattern and fastened to them. It must also be fastened to the

other wire where it crosses, by short lengths of wire especially cut

beforehand. Slack wires are of more hindrance when cut than taut wires.

Tight wires help the enemy’s advance by giving support to hurdles and

other methods used to get across these entanglements. One method once

used by the Germans was the carrying out of mattresses and endeavoring

to cover the wire obstacles in that manner, and had the wire been taut

it would have been a success, but as it happened, it was not.

The ground on the enemy’s side and within the entanglement, as a matter

of courtesy, is strewn with broken glass and tangled wire. The whole

system of entanglement should be under well-controlled machine gun

fire from special points and should be widest where the fire of the

defenders is least effective by night. There should be one sentry at

least to each 50 yards of entanglement.

ABATIS. A form of obstacle made by trees cut down and laid side by

side as close as possible with their branches towards the enemy is

used. These should be in a hollow and screened from view to make it of

any value. The butts of the trees should be firmly secured by burying

them in the earth, or by laying logs of timber across several butts.

Wire and barbed wire must then be interlaced between the boughs, which

should also be sharpened to points on the enemy side. Some of the lower

branches may be pegged to the ground, if thought necessary, to insure

the maximum resistance.

BARRICADES. These are used for the defense of streets, roads, bridges,

etc., and are made of any available materials, including furniture and

vehicles, either overthrown or with wheels removed, carts filled with

earth, railings, bales of goods, etc. Where trees are growing along the

roadside, fell them across it and entangle with wire.

It must be kept in mind, though, that passages are required through

these barricades to allow outposts to advance or retreat, that these

passages, viewed from the front, must not appear as openings. To avoid

this the barricade should be made in two parts, one overlapping the

other. Sometimes, where there is a gap in a row of houses, or a sharp

bend in the road, a barricade may be made in one part and a passage

round one end left for traffic.

INUNDATIONS. They may be formed by damming streams at convenient

points, specially in the valleys, or by damming up the arches of

bridges. In the latter case, care must be taken not to endanger the

stability of the bridge. The ditches of field works form a good

obstacle when flooded. Destroyed trenches in front of a breastworks may

be filled with water, and with barbed wire thrown into it, will prove

an effective obstacle.

FOUGASSES. These are used in connection with obstacles and are really

land mines loaded with stones, bricks, etc. An excavation is made in

conical shape with an axis inclined to about 40 degrees toward the

enemy horizon. A box of powder is then placed in a recess at the bottom

and on the box is placed a wooden platform or shield 3 to 4 inches

thick, over which stones are piled.

A fuse is placed in a groove cut at the back of the excavation. A line

of least resistance must be so arranged that by placing the excavated

earth on the back edge of the fougasse, the powder will act in the

direction of the axis and not vertically. A fougasse charged with 80

pounds of powder may be constructed in this manner to throw five tons

of brick and stone over a surface about 160 yards long by 120 yards

wide.

All of the foregoing are labors of working parties, as well as

construction of dugouts, carrying of supplies, ammunition, etc.,

drainage and building of the trenches and the many other jobs behind

the lines. Always, no matter how small the job, careful forethought

must be given to the planning and arrangement necessary to carry it out.

ORGANIZATION OF BOMBING SQUADS

Every infantry soldier must and does receive instruction in grenade

throwing. Some men do not possess the temperament and qualifications

necessary to make efficient bombers, and for this reason in every

platoon there should be a bombing squad of one N. C. O. and 8 men, with

a higher degree of training and efficiency as bomb throwers than the

remainder, although all hope must not be given up for the remainder.

These men are available either to work with the platoon or to provide

a reserve of bombers for any special job, such as raids, cutting-out

parties, and clearing trenches just occupied. Only the very best

men in each platoon should be chosen, taking into consideration

physique, courage and steadiness, although it is not always the big

man physically that makes the best bomber. The responsibility for the

training of these men rests with the battalion and company commanders.

TRAINING

The first step is to overcome a man’s natural fear of the grenade

itself. This is only done by explaining how it is to be used, the

method of lighting and the length of time taken for the fuse to burn. A

good idea is to have some of the fuses of the length used lighted and

the men told to count while the fuse burns out. Dummy grenades with

fuses attached can then be introduced and the men taught to light them,

observing carefully how long it takes for the fuse to burn down to the

grenade.

The second step is to develop accuracy in throwing. Normally, the bomb

should be bowled overhand, although it is certainly not wrong to throw,

but it has been found in tests that a man throwing bombs has tired a

great deal quicker than a man bowling them overhand.

Stick grenades may be thrown over short distances like a dart, although

this is unhandy and can only be done by a carefully trained man. Great

care must be taken while in the trenches in throwing percussion bombs,

as very often a man swinging his arm back to throw such a bomb has

exploded it in the trench, with disaster to himself and those near him.

Men should be taught to throw standing, kneeling and prone. It should

be impressed upon them from the beginning that if a grenade with a time

fuse is dropped in the act of throwing there is ample time to pick it

up and throw it out of the trench before it explodes, but this must be

done immediately.

[Illustration: A B]

A is a diagram of a bombing field where men are trained in practice

with dummy bombs. 1 is the target marked on the ground and having

the same general plan as a firing target, with Bull, Inner, Magpie,

and Outer, the score counting 5, 4, 3, & 2 respectively, or according

to the instructor’s taste. 2 is the first line, 20 yards from the

center of the inner ring. The men _must_ be trained to a high degree of

accuracy at this range. 3 is the second line, 25 yards from the center

of target. There are lines every five yards back until the 40 yard line

is reached, which latter is the extreme range for bombing practice.

At each range the men should practice standing, kneeling, and prone. At

35 and 40 yards bombing from the kneeling and prone positions is very

difficult and the time spent on practice here should not interfere with

the obtaining of great accuracy at the shorter ranges.

At all ranges the men should be allowed to throw any number of dummy

bombs, but should not be permitted to fatigue their arms.

B is a diagram showing the arrangement for trench practice with dummy

bombs. Small trenches are built on the surface of the ground by screens

of wire mesh covered with burlap or other similar material. 1 is the

thrower’s trench and is built so high that he cannot see over the top.

From this he throws, using a periscope for observation. 2 represents

part of a traverse and fire-bay, the front part of which is about 20

yards from the throwing trench. 3 is a section of straight trench about

25 yards half right from the thrower’s front. 4 is a section of curved

trench about 20 yards half left from the thrower’s front.

The general custom in the practice trenches is to give the man any

desirable number of dummy bombs, say 18; 6 for each trench. Four out of

six are required to be put in No. 2, and 3 out of 6 in Nos. 3 & 4. Men

must not be kept at bombing practice too long at a time as it spoils

both their interest and their aim.

In taking a line of trenches, it is well to remember that the attack

will take place on a relatively small front by a large number of

men, and therefore when the trenches are finally reached, there is

liable to be great overcrowding in them. This can only be prevented by

extending them along the trenches as quickly as possible, and is of the

utmost importance as heavy casualties will result from allowing this

overcrowding. To make this extending possible, it is the duty of the

bombing parties to work along to both flanks of the trenches and take

advantage of the temporary confusion of the enemy by obtaining as much

of his trenches as possible, thus allowing for the extension of men.

In a narrow trench the only portion of an attacking party coming into

contact with the enemy is the head, or what is known as the Bayonet

Man. The bombing party is composed of the following:

1. Bayonet man,

2. First thrower,

3. First carrier,

4. First spade man,

5. N. C. O. first squad,

6. Second bayonet man,

7. Second thrower,

8. Second carrier,

9. Spade man, in charge of second party.

These parties will work up a trench until they come to a junction, when

the first party in charge of the N. C. O. will continue straight on

and the second party branch to the right or left, as the case may be,

and as they come on other parties keep working up behind them, and the

infantry gradually following taking possession of the line and starting

consolidation work at once.

Communication throughout these lengths of grenade parties is very

difficult with men extended in single file, and the attendant

confusion which accompanies such a stand.

A system is required which will enable supplies of bombs to be passed

up and casualties replaced automatically. This system cannot be laid

down on any cut and dried lines, but must be figured out before the

attack, with due consideration being given to the line of trenches to

be attacked and the difficulties which will be encountered in getting

supplies to that line, and it is only on the spot that such a system

can be worked out.

During an attack three grenades per man are issued to each unit

detailed to open the attack, and these grenades are turned over to

the bombers or used by the men themselves if necessary. When out of

grenades themselves, the men take over the casualty’s, and it is the

duty of a casualty when he is so able to, to leave his grenades and

ammunition to the care of some other man before “going down.” Small

depots should be established at frequent intervals along the trenches

from which the attack starts, with careful consideration given to

their safety from shell fire, if at all possible. Other depots must

be established in the support and assembly trenches, and these will

generally be supplied through a central station probably controlled by

a brigade or division.

Before starting the attack, every man and party should have had

explained them in detail exactly what is required of them, and

generally the following system is adopted:

First bombing party of group--

Two bayonet men to protect grenade throwers,

First bomber,

First carrier,

Second bomber,

Second carrier,

Group leader (N. C. O.),

Two bayonet men to protect the group leader and the rear of party.

* * * * *

Second bombing party--

Formation as above. The head of the party must be in touch with

the rear of the first party. Officer commanding in rear of

second party.

* * * * *

Third and fourth bombing party--

Formation as above. Second in command in touch with rear of

fourth party.

Machine gun detachment, if available or considered necessary.

The machine gunners are generally used at the rear of a party, so that

they can bring their guns into action from behind and sweep the top

of the ground around the trenches being attacked, in order to prevent

an overland attack on the bombing party. In all these formations the

number of men detailed must allow for casualties. Rapidity of movement

is essential, as crawling and stalking will give the waiting enemy an

advantage. The leading bayonet men generally move along the trench,

from corner to corner, in a succession of rushes, followed by first

bomber, and the thrower hurls as directed by the bayonet man. The

duty of the bayonet man is to protect the thrower and carrier at all

costs. Second bomber and carrier follow the leader, keeping one corner

behind to replace casualties. Each party must be regarded as reserves

to the party in front, and some method must be found every time a new

attack is carried out for giving the aerial service notice of trenches

occupied. If the head of a party is checked, that which has been gained

must be held by throwing up a barricade. In all attacks bombing parties

are supported by a party of sandbag men, under an experienced N. C. O.,

so that while bombers keep the enemy at bay a strong barracade may be

put up as quickly as possible.

This is generally done by placing what is known as a demolition tube

about 1½ feet from the bottom of the trench and in each side of the

trench. This will bring down enough of the sides of the trench to make

a good enough barricade for the moment, but great care must be taken

that while watching and protecting the barricade the enemy do not come

overland and drop in behind the barricade, with disastrous results to

the garrison.

Although the main defense of a line of trenches is infantry supported

by artillery and machine gun fire, parties of bombers should be

distributed throughout the front system of trenches. The best position

is in the support trenches close to the main communication trenches,

where they can make an immediate counter-attack should the enemy

succeed in gaining a footing. A bombing trench back about 20 yards in

the rear from which bombs may be thrown into the front trench, is a

distinct advantage.

The bombs stored in the trench should be kept ready-fused and with

detonators inserted. They must be distributed in a number of dry,

enclosed, as nearly as bomb-proof depots as possible, established at

frequent intervals along the trenches. A good type of grenade depot is

one built in a “T” shaped trench, slightly off the main trench.

EXPLOSIVES

Relative strengths of explosives: Gunpowder 5; cordite 8; dynamite 9;

guncotton 10; gelignite 10; gelatine dynamite 11; blasting gelatine

12. Guncotton is available in two forms, wet and dry. The dry, while

being utilized in making bombs, is mostly used to explode the wet

guncotton. For this purpose it is made up in one-ounce primers, which

are perforated in the center for a detonator. These primers are packed

in metal cylinders, each containing ten threaded on a tape. Each case

contains six cylinders. In this state, although not as powerful, dry

guncotton is much more dangerous to handle than wet, being susceptible

to both shock and friction.

Wet guncotton is that which has absorbed 30% of its weight in water,

and is made up in 15-ounce slabs 6 x 3 x 1⅜ inches, and packed in tin

foil and air-tight boxes containing 16 slabs each.

Whether wet or dry, guncotton, like other explosives, can be exploded

by one detonator, so long as the charges or slabs are in direct contact

with each other.

Dynamites include the following compounds: (1) dynamite; (2) gelignite;

(3) gelatine dynamite; (4) blasting gelatine. All of these are now

being used. Their advantages over guncotton are that, being soft and

plastic, they can be used in bombs where it would be impossible to use

guncotton slabs or primers on account of size and shape. Dynamite and

its compounds freeze very easily (42° F.), becoming hard and brittle.

In this state they are exceptionally dangerous, and they should be

thawed before use, but this process should not be attempted by any

one other than a competent person. Wooden implements should always be

used for cutting and piercing holes for detonators in any of these

explosives, and care should be taken to protect them from damp, as

when wet they become highly dangerous. Dynamite explosives are usually

supplied in parchment cartridges weighing two ounces, and are packed in

boxes of 5 or 50 pounds.

Lyddite and picric acid are both high explosives, used mostly in

shells. They are easily melted and in this way the shell is filled.

They are very safe and difficult to detonate.

Ammonal. A new explosive which is absolutely safe to handle, not being

sensitive to shock or even bullets. It does not freeze and can only be

exploded by means of a detonator. It easily absorbs moisture and should

be kept dry.

Cordite. Is made in strands and is the explosive used in small arms

ammunition.

BOMBS

There are three kinds of bombs: (1) _percussion_; (2) _ignition_;,

and (3) _mechanical_. It is not possible to describe every bomb in

use under these three headings, but the most typical are selected for

description, although it does not follow that they are all in use at

the present time, but will give a fairly good idea of what is required.

PERCUSSION BOMBS.

1. Hand Grenade No. 1.

2. Hand Grenade No. 2, formerly known as Mexican Hand Grenade.

3. Rifle grenade No. 3, formerly known as Hale’s Rifle Grenade.

[Illustration: _HAND GRENADE NO. 1._]

_Hand Grenade No. 1_ consists of a brass case screwed on to a block

of wood, to which is fixed a small cane handle about half way up the

case. Outside it is a cast iron ring serrated into 16 parts. The upper

end is covered by a moveable cap with a striker pin in the center.

On the cap are the words “Remove,” “Travel,” and “Fire” in duplicate.

These are marked in red and can be made to correspond with red pointers

painted on case. To prepare a bomb, turn cap so that pointer is at

“Remove,” take off cap, insert detonator in hole and turn it to the

left until the spring on the flange is released and goes into position

under the pin; replace cap and turn to “Travel,” which is a safety

position. When the bomb is to be thrown, turn cap to “Fire” and then

remove safety pin. This bomb explodes on impact, and to insure its

falling on the head, streamers are attached. Care should be taken that

streamers do not get entangled. The bomb must be thrown well into the

air.

_Hand Grenade No. 2_ is similar to the above, except that a special

detonator is screwed in from the head, and that the striker pin, in

this case, is at the bottom. The detonator having been inserted in the

bomb is ready for throwing as soon as the safety pin has been drawn.

_Rifle Grenade No. 3_, more commonly known as Hale’s Rifle Grenade,

consists of a serrated steel case filled with T.N.T. and a composite

explosive. At the bottom of the case is a brass ring fitted with wind

vanes, which keeps in place two small steel retaining plugs, securing

the striker. In order to prepare this grenade for firing, the steel

rod attached must be put down the bore of the rifle. The safety pin is

then withdrawn, the collar pulled down and the wind vane given a slight

turn. The rifle is then loaded with a special cartridge containing

43 strands of cordite. When charging the rifle the bolt must be well

pushed home. When the rifle is fired, the explosion of the cartridge

speeds the grenade on its way and the air passing through wind vanes

causes the ring mentioned above to unscrew, and the two retaining plugs

to fall out. The striker is now free, and when the grenade reaches its

destination and comes in contact with the ground the shock compresses

the creep spring and the needle of the striker is forced into the

detonator, exploding the grenade.

Special screw-in detonators are supplied with this grenade, as well

as in Grenade No. 2, and care should be taken not to mix the two

detonators, as the Rifle Grenade Detonator is slightly longer, and if

fixed in the wrong grenade will cause premature explosion and much

sadness. These grenades have an accurate range of from 250 to 350 yards.

IGNITION BOMBS. The following bombs come under this heading:

Hand Grenade No. 6.--Grenade light friction pattern.

Hand Grenade No. 7--Grenade heavy friction pattern.

Hand Grenade No. 8--Formerly known as double-cylinder light

pattern.

Hand Grenade No. 9.--Formerly known as double-cylinder heavy

pattern.

Battye Hand Grenade.

Pitcher Hand Grenade.

Oval Hand Grenade.

Ball Hand Grenade.

_Hand Grenades Nos. 6 and 7_ consist of metal cases filled with T.N.T

and a composite explosive and are exactly alike, except that No. 7

contains shrapnel bullets or scrap iron, while No. 6 contains only

explosive. At the top of each case is a place to fix the friction

igniter, which is supplied separately. When these bombs are to be used,

detonator fuse and igniter are put in and firmly fixed. Before throwing

the becket on, head of igniter should be pulled smartly off.

_Hand Grenades Nos. 8 and 9_ are similar to the above, except that the

fuse is lighted by a Nobel Patent Lighter[1]. The _Battye Grenade_

consists of a grooved cast iron cylinder filled with explosive. The top

is closed by a wooden plug pierced centrally for insertion of detonator

and fire.

[1] _The Nobel lighter_ consists of two cardboard tubes, one

fitting over the other. Inside the top end of the outer

tube there is a layer of friction composition; fixed to the

top end of the inner tube is a forked brass friction head,

which is held in position by a safety pin fastened through

both tubes. Inside the other end of the inner tube is a

small copper band, into which the fuse is fitted. At the

joint of the two tubes there is a narrow tape band with a

loose end. To light the fuse, pull off tape and safety pin,

then press down outer tube and turn slightly. This lighter

has a five-second fuse attached.

_The Pitcher Hand Grenade_ is very similar to the Battye, only

different in that it is slightly heavier and having a different patent

lighter. This lighter is somewhat complicated and special instructions

should be given before the grenade is used.

[Illustration: _HAND GRENADE NO. 7._

_BALL HAND GRENADE._]

_The Oval Hand Grenade_ is an egg-shaped cast iron receptacle filled

with ammonal. One egg has a steel plug and the other a flanged brass

plug bored centrally, to which a hollow copper tube is fixed to take

the detonator. This grenade is set off by a Brock fuse and lighter[2].

[2] _The Brock lighter_ consists of a match-head and fuse

combined. The head consists of a small cardboard cup filled

with friction composition and covered with waterproof

paper. With this type of lighter an armlet covered with

match composition is worn by the bomber on the left

forearm. To ignite fuse, first pull off waterproof paper

and then strike head against armlet. Time of fuse 5 seconds.

_The Ball Hand Grenade_ consists of a cast iron sphere, 3 inches in

diameter, filled with ammonal and closed by a screwed steel plug which

has attached to it a covered tube to take detonator in the center of

grenade. It is also lighted by a Brock lighter.

JAM-POT BOMBS. In the early stages of the war it was found necessary

to make bombs on the spot. The material used was generally a jam tin

filled with shrapnel bullets, scrap iron, powdered glass and grass,

etc. This was exploded by 2 one-ounce primers, two ounces gelignite,

blastene or ammonal, and detonated by a No. 6 or 7 detonator, to which

was attached a five-second fuse. The time could be regulated by length

of fuse.

MECHANICAL BOMBS. _Hand Grenade No. 5_, known as _Mills’ Hand Grenade_.

Mills’ Hand Grenade No. 5 weighs about one and one-half pounds and is

in constant and steady use at the front, being the best known of all

grenades. It consists of an oval cast iron case, containing explosives

and serrated to provide numerous missiles on detonation. In the center

is a spring striking pin, kept back by a lever or handle, which, in its

turn, is held in position by a safety pin.

[Illustration: _HAND GRENADE NO. 5 (MILLS)._]

Detonators and percussion caps connected by a short length of fuse are

supplied with these bombs. When the bomb is to be used the bottom is

unscrewed and the combined detonator and percussion cap is inserted

in the space provided for it, the percussion cap being placed in the

boring under the striking pin. When this is done the bottom is screwed

on again as tightly as possible, using the special spanner provided

for this in each box. Before throwing, the safety pin is removed and

the bomb held with the lever in the palm of the hand. When the bomb is

actually thrown the lever or handle is released; this releases the

spring, which forces striker down on to the percussion cap, ignites

fuse, sets off detonator and explodes bomb.

GAS WARFARE

The use of poisonous and asphyxiating gases, which was first adopted

by the Germans in the Ypres salient in April of 1915, is now becoming

an accepted fact in the present war. It is to a certain extent in

one shape or another, before one every day of his life in or near

the trenches. Every one should therefore be well acquainted with

the various ways in which gases are used in an attack, as well as

precautionary methods to be taken in counteracting its effects while on

the defense.

In an attack there are only two methods which can be used--emanation

and shells and grenades. The emanation method can only be employed

under very favorable circumstances and in a few cases where rather a

long chance was taken, it reacted very badly on the enemy. The first

thing to make a gas attack successful must be a favorable breeze of

about five miles an hour, as if the wind blows any faster it does not

give the gas a chance to settle down into the trenches. The object of

this gas is to create a poisonous and irritant atmosphere, and this is

accomplished either by a gas forced through tubes in the direction

of the enemy, or a liquefied gas stored in cylinders under very high

pressure. To be successful, as before mentioned, the wind must be a

steady breeze of not much over 5 miles per hour, no rain, and the

element of surprise must figure very largely. The gas used must be

heavier than air and not allow of being held back by any protective

measures taken by the enemy. If the wind is too strong, it is obvious

that any gas employed will be carried too quickly over the enemy’s

trenches, so that it cannot settle to any degree which will allow of

its obtaining the desired effect. If the wind is too light, it will be

carried up into the air by local eddies, or may even be blown back.

For these reasons it is impossible to fix a definite hour for gas

attacks, as everything depends on the wind.

Arsenic and phosphorus compounds are used in the tube method, and their

presence can be detected at once by the smell of garlic. Should such

gases get into your own trenches, chloride of lime scattered freely

about will disperse them.

The gases used in liquid form from cylinders are a mixture of chlorine

and other matter annoying to the ordinary infantry officer and

soldier. If successful in surprising the enemy, their trenches should

be cleared at once, but if the element of surprise is not there and

time is given for defensive measures to be taken, the effect is lost.

In an assault following a gas attack, men should always wear smoke

helmets for at least 30 minutes after the gas dissemination has ceased,

and the assaulting party must have the strictest orders not to remove

their helmets until the officer in charge has given the command.

In the shell and grenade method of dissemination, shells and bombs are

used containing liquid gas, or a substance which gives off irritant

fumes.

It is easy to tell a gas shell when it lights as it comes down, the

same as a “dud” shell; that is, one which does not explode, the outer

casing of the shell simply collapsing. The liquid soaks into the

ground, and men should be warned against standing over this ground and

inhaling any of the fumes, which are very slight and rather hard to

notice but very powerful and with very quick action. When a man thinks

he has inhaled any of this gas he should at once be made to lie down,

not undergo any exercise whatever, and as soon as possible have him

carried out on a stretcher to the dressing station.

_Tear shells_, which are used in great profusion during an attack, are

for the moment blinding in their effect, causing smarting of the eyes

and a great amount of watering. This effect is only for a minute, and

the men must be impressed with the fact that if they continue moving

forward instead of sitting down and rubbing their eyes, it will pass

off almost at once. These shells are also greatly used against the

artillery during heavy bombardments. Adequate protection is furnished

in the shape of goggles to fit over the eyes, as the gas has no other

effect whatever.

As in other branches of military art, the best means of learning

defense is to have a thorough knowledge of attack. Thus, direction

of wind must always be noted, and if favorable for an enemy attack,

special observers must be placed to give warning and surprise guarded

against in every way. Sentries are specially placed in the trench,

and often in listening posts, to get early warnings of an impending

attack. If a sentry at a listening post discovers that a gas attack

is being made, he at once warns the sentry at the end of his cord or

wire, giving a pre-arranged signal. This sentry passes the alarm on

a Strombon horn, which is something similar to a Klaxton, and will

automatically give a warning which can be heard for 3 or 4 miles, and

which lasts about a minute.

When a horn is not in use, generally shell cases are hung in the

trenches. These are beat on by the sentry who is warned and taken up

all along the line. It is then the duty of that sentry not for the

instant to put on his gas helmet, but to proceed along the front line

waking all the occupants of dugouts, etc., who may be sleeping in the

area guarded by him. Every man without exception stands to in his

trench with his helmet on and will not reënter dugouts until first

given permission by officer or N. C. O.

These attacks are generally carried out, when possible, just before

dawn or during the middle of the night, and the only warning given

before the actual gas reaches a trench, is a slight hissing sound which

is made and can be easily heard as the gas escapes from the cylinder.

Great care must be taken when the wind is favorable for an attack that

this sound be listened for.

Any man wounded during a gas attack must not be placed in a dugout

or on the bottom of a trench, and even if considerable shell fire be

going on it is far better that he be laid out in the open on the top

of the ground, where he will have a far better chance than lying in

the bottom of the trench or in a dugout. After gas has passed through a

trench system, and before the officer thinks that it is safe to remove

the helmets, the trenches must be sprayed with a machine known as

Vermeral Sprayer. A man with this sprayer on his back and wearing his

helmet, slowly traverses the trench working the spray. This small tank

on his back is charged with nothing more or less than “hypo” (sodium

hyposulphite), about 6 pounds of which is dissolved in a bucket of

water and a handful of ordinary washing soda added.

Garden syringes and buckets may be used if sprayers are not available,

but their effect is not so quick.

When the officer thinks that the trench has been sprayed sufficiently

and all gas has gone, he may then allow the men to take off their

helmets, but not to reënter their dugouts until they have been

thoroughly cleaned.

This is sometimes done by fanning the gas out, sometimes by building

a fire and smoking it out, and by the use of the sprayer. Great care

must be taken that no one enters until every last vestige of gas is

gone, and it is generally well that the medical officer should inspect

infected dugouts before allowing the men to return.

GAS MASKS OR RESPIRATORS

The Box Respirator at present in use on the Western Front is the latest

improvement, and proof against any gas that so far has been used,

but should such a thing happen that a man be caught without his box

respirator, any of the following improvised methods are good:

1. Wet and ring out any woolen article, such as a stocking, muffler or

cap comforter, so as to form a thick pad large enough to cover the nose

and mouth, and press firmly over both.

2. Place in a scarf, stocking or handkerchief, a pad of about three

handfuls of damp earth, and tie firmly over the nose and mouth.

3. A wet cap comforter will be found useful as additional protection,

especially against certain gases other than chlorine.

4. A cap comforter wetted with water and soda solution or tea, folded

into eight folds and firmly held over the nose.

5. A sock folded fourfold similarly wetted and held or tied. If

the sock or comforter has been soaked in soda solution it will act

efficiently when dry, though, if possible, it should be moist. The

spare tapes from puttees may be used for tying on the sock or cap

comforter.

6. Any loose fabric, such as a sock, sandbag, woolen scarf or

comforter, soaked in urine, then wrung out sufficiently to allow of

free breathing and tied tightly over the nose and mouth.

In the absence of any other cloths, the flannel waistbands issued for

winter use could be used for this purpose.

Every officer defending a trench against an enemy gas attack should

endeavor to collect information whenever possible to be sent to

headquarters regarding the capture of apparatus used by the enemy

either for disseminating or protection from gas. If a gas shell attack

is made, unexploded shells or portions of them should be sent; the time

of day, duration of attack, color, taste or smell of gas used, effect

on the eyes, breathing, and all other symptoms should be noted. New

gases may be used at any time, and speedy information greatly helps the

adopting of protective measures.

The area of the gas attack is very large and will sometimes cover as

far back as 12 to 15 miles behind the lines, although at that point it

is not generally dangerous, but for three to four miles the gas has

a killing power, and precaution should be taken anywhere within that

length of the firing line the same as though in the firing line.

Another nuisance resulting from a gas attack is the wholesale slaughter

of rats and other animals that infest the trenches, and while a very

unpleasant job, steps should at once be taken to gather these beasts up

and bury them in some place, obviously for sanitary reasons.

DUTIES OF A PLATOON COMMANDER AT THE FRONT

GENERAL NOTES: The selection and training of section commanders is of

the highest importance, and a commander must assure himself that the

man selected has the confidence of the men as well as his own.

A platoon commander should know his men and all about them, and keep a

record in a book arranged in sections always kept up-to-date. This is

easy to say, but harder to do, when the platoon changes day by day.

He should know his drill and be capable of moving the platoon into any

position easily and by the shortest possible route.

He should know how to organize a task allotted to him, such as

delivering over a working party, placing a line of sentries, arranging

posts and reliefs, and occupying a line of trenches.

He should be able to assume responsibility for all trench stores,

bombs, periscopes, etc., handed over to him.

He should know the geography of his battalion trenches, the position of

company and battalion headquarters, and keep trained guides at hand who

can find their way to all important points by day or night.

GOING INTO THE TRENCHES

Platoons generally enter by not more than two sections at a time,

thus minimizing the danger from shell fire and delay at entrance to

communication trenches.

Before leaving billets, platoon commanders should explain fully to

sergeants and sections commanders the extent of trench to be taken over

and the steps to be taken in case they are caught by shelling or rapid

fire going up to the trenches. Arrangements should also be made that if

casualties occur among the soldiers, relief will proceed as arranged.

IN THE FIRING LINE

On relieving the fire trenches, the men should make no noise, and

rifles must be carried so that they do not show over the parapet. This

is necessary even if enemy’s trenches are at a distance, as there is

always the possibility of a listening or observation post being quite

near.

Each man should pair off with one of the party occupying the trench and

find out from him any points which may be useful.

A commander should consult the officer or N. C. O. in charge of

the outgoing party and obtain the fullest information possible in

connection with the position.

Particular points on which information should be obtained from the

outgoing officer are generally: (a) behavior of enemy during period

preceding relief and any point in their line requiring special

information, such as enemy may have cut wire as though preparing to

attack; (b) machine gun implacement may be suspected at some particular

point; (c) anything ascertained by patrols about ground between firing

lines, thus avoiding unnecessary reconnoissance; (d) any standing

arrangement for patrols at night, including point at which wire can

best be passed, ground to be patrolled, or place where they can lie

under cover; (e) any parts of trench from which it is not safe to

fire. Such positions are apt to occur in winding trenches, and are not

always recognizable in the dark; (f) special features of trench, recent

improvements, work not completed, dangerous points (on which enemy

machine guns are trained at night), useful loopholes for observation;

(g) places from which wood and water can be safely obtained; (h) amount

of ammunition, number of picks, shovels and empty sandbags in that

section of the line.

Information on these points cannot always be given by word of mouth.

Written notes and plans should, therefore, be handed over to a platoon

commander taking over for the first time.

In the meantime the incoming party should fix bayonets and all go

temporarily on sentry at posts taken over. Occasional shots should be

fired, so that the enemy’s suspicions may not be roused. The outgoing

party then starts back, and when clear, the relieving party should be

numbered off and sentries posted and dugouts allotted. When practicable

sentries should be taken from the dugout closest to his post.

By day the number of sentries varies, but should not be less than one

in six. The platoon sergeant is responsible for changing sentries, who

are generally not on duty more than one hour at a time, unless under

exceptional circumstances. When the maximum amount of labor must be

obtained from the battalion holding the line, sentry duty is of any

length that fits in with working arrangements.

Every man must see that he has a good clear position for all

directions. Section commanders must satisfy themselves that men have

done this and reported such. When these arrangements are completed,

word must be quietly passed down for men not on sentry to stand clear,

and they are all not in that position again until the “Stand to” hours,

generally the hour nearest dusk and the hour before dawn.

After dark, unless the moon is bright, rifles should be kept in a

firing position on the parapet, and all men not on duty should keep

rifles with bayonets fixed while in the trench.

OBSERVATION. Continuous survey of the enemy’s lines through disguised

steel loopholes should be made when the trenches are being held for any

lengthy period, and such loopholes must always be sideways. Sites may

be chosen by day, and made and disguised by night. Two steel loopholes

about 3 yards apart enable a man with leveled rifle to wait by one

while another with field glasses watches for target through the other.

An observer watching persistently through glasses in complete security

should make himself so familiar with the look of the opposite trenches

as to enable him to observe any alteration in the enemy’s wire

entanglements, or notice immediately if a new sap has been run out

from the enemy trenches under cover of night. He should watch points

suspected of being machine gun implacements, and especially at night

when the flashes can be detected. Observers should be told what marks,

etc., to look for on men exposing themselves, and any result of these

observations at once reported to the officer or N. C. O.

INSPECTION. A platoon commander should make frequent examination of

trenches; at least once daily, go around with platoon sergeant and

section commanders and decide on the necessary work to be done. Section

commanders are responsible for carrying it out.

Before handing over a trench, a platoon commander should make a

rigorous inspection to see that it is as clean as possible and that

latrines are left in a satisfactory state. This includes the removal

of old tins, paper, scraps of food, etc., which should be buried

or burned, if possible. Empty cartridges should also always be

kept cleared out, as they get imbedded in trench floors and hinder

subsequent digging.

SENTRIES

If the enemy is close, sentries should be supplied with a small

periscope to fix on sticks or bayonets. Magazines must be kept as full

as possible. Sentries are not allowed to look over the parapet by day,

but by night they must keep a continuous lookout. Shots should be fired

even when no lights are showing, on the chance of catching hostile

patrols or working parties. The best time to watch across No Man’s Land

is exactly the minute that the enemy send up a Very light, as there is

little danger of one being seen, the real danger coming when the Very

light is coming down behind you. Sentries should not reply to bursts of

rapid fire on the right or left, unless they have a definite object to

fire at.

Arrangements are usually made for commanders of two or three

neighboring platoons to divide the night between 10 P.M. and the time

for “Standing to” between them.

The platoon commander on duty in each watch should patrol the line

constantly and satisfy himself that the proper number of sentries are

on duty and keeping a sufficient lookout; also that they have good

firing positions. In each platoon the sergeant and section commanders

keep watch similarly in turns during the night, and are responsible for

the relief of sentries. They also visit sentries every hour.

It is a rule which must be strongly enforced, that every sentry

must challenge each person passing him, as it has often happened

that enemy officers with more daring than common sense and speaking

fluent English, have come into the trenches and walked up and down

without being molested, which was only made possible by sentries not

challenging every one passing his post.

RIFLES

Rifles should be inspected every morning in the trenches by the platoon

commander, and at other times during the day by the sergeant or section

commander, and it should be impressed on the men that ammunition must

be kept clean or the rifles are apt to jam.

The principal defects of a rifle in the trenches are:

(a) Mud in the bolt, owing to rifle being rested on wet parapet or

dropped on wet ground. To remedy this a bolt cover is used, or when not

obtainable, an old sock pulled over the bolt action gives the desired

result.

(b) Muddy ammunition, resulting in mud in chamber. Remedy: Prohibit

placing of ammunition on ground and provide proper boxes for it.

(c) Mud in muzzle resulting from rifles being pushed into the sides of

the trench. Remedy: Careful and frequent inspection. Rifle barrels must

be freed from mud before firing, or they will be injured.

(d) Sticking of cartridges owing to dirt in chamber and magazine.

Remedy: The keeping clean of both.

(e) Rust in the lock and insufficient oiling. Remedy: Bolt and magazine

tested daily. Cartridges never to be kept in the chamber.

It is a standard rule that never from the time men enter the trenches

until they go out, regardless of what they are doing, does their

equipment come off, not even to lie down to sleep. During working

periods which take the men to the trenches, their equipment and rifles

must always be carried with them.

PREPARATORY TO ENTERING TRENCHES

Things to be taken note of before entering:

(a) Check periscopes, wire cutters, field glasses, water carriers,

stretchers, field dressings, emergency rations, smoke helmets, rifles,

identity discs, sandbags, ammunition.

(b) See that water bottles are filled.

(c) Each officer to have an orderly.

(d) Magazines to be charged and bayonets fixed and unfixed beforehand

to insure proper working. When taking over the trenches, the first

thing to be done is:

(a) Ascertain position of officers’ dugouts.

(b) Arrange telephones.

(c) Check stores, tools, and reserve ammunition, and its position.

(d) Obtain rough sketch of front and number of traverses to be manned.

(e) See that entanglements in front of trenches are absolutely intact.

(f) Arrange for water and ration parties and find out position of

latrines.

TAKING OVER TRENCHES

On arrival each sentry is to have a periscope, the whole company to

stand at arms, and each platoon to have its own ammunition reserve

and all men know where this is. It is of the greatest importance that

every detail and portion of trench taken over be known, and also the

adjoining trenches as far as they affect the trenches held. Accurate

sketches of the trench should be made, and periscopes, prismatic

compasses and ruled notebooks are required. General scale is roughly

¼ inch to 10 yards. Drains must be watched and every effort made to

keep trenches dry. When large trench mortar batteries of the enemy are

active, men must be told off to watch for these bombs, as they are

easily seen, and many casualties may be prevented by timely warning of

their coming.

The fire trenches should contain as few men as possible, and work

should be done at night, the men resting by day.

SNIPING

Each company generally has specially selected men told off as snipers.

Strict discipline is necessary. They are generally on duty by day and

excused from night work, and it is the rule that they are either told

off to a definite post or given what is known as a roving commission.

These men must be expert in building loopholes of all kinds by day or

night, use of telescopic sights, periscopes, etc., the selection and

judging of good sniping positions, either for use in front or behind

fire trenches; expert in judging distances, in aiming and trigger

pressing, in laying fixed rifles for night firing, and in the fixing

and laying of rifle batteries.

PATROLS

Patrolling both day and night is of great importance, and generally

during the night each unit holding a front line sends out several small

patrols which frequently obtain information of great value and at the

same time counter the enemy’s efforts in this direction.

These patrols generally consist of an officer and four to six men,

according to the job in view. Sometimes on highly important work,

it is three officers and sufficient orderlies to carry any valuable

information obtained quickly back to a pre-arranged headquarters.

Bombs, revolvers and trench daggers are the only weapons of any value

on these patrols. They frequently carry out small operations, such as

raiding parties, cutting out parties, etc., obtaining from prisoners

taken in this way information as to what enemy troops are opposing them

in the line.

When a patrol is out every man in the section of firing line concerned

must be warned, as well as the listening posts, and this cannot be

done too carefully. It is not a sufficient warning to tell the sentry

on duty at the time a patrol goes out, as men cannot all be trusted to

pass on instructions, and generally word is quietly passed down the

line by an N. C. O. or officer in person, and never passed from man

to man. At the same time care must be taken to see that all firing

does not cease, as this is undesirable, obviously arousing the enemy’s

suspicions that something is going on. When these patrols have to lie

out in trying conditions during winter months, special dugouts should

be kept ready for them on their return.

DUTIES OF AN OFFICER

Some of the questions an officer should ask himself on taking over a

trench and keep in mind during his stay there, are:

1. I am here for two purposes--to do as much damage as possible to

the enemy and to hold my part of the line at all costs. Am I doing

everything possible to insure my being able to do this?

2. Do I worry the enemy as much as I might, and are the periscope

rifles, rifle grenades, catapults and patrols at my disposal organized

in the best way to effect this purpose?

3. Am I doing all I can to make my part of the line as strong as

possible?

4. Should the enemy succeed in getting into any part of my line, will

I be able to at once bring up a section of bombers for immediate

counter-attack?

5. Do I connect properly with units on my right and left? Do I know the

position of the nearest support, and the position of all machine guns

in my vicinity, as well as their lines of fire?

6. Does every man know his firing position, and can he fire from it

over the parapet at the foot of our wire?

7. Do I do my best to prevent men exposing themselves needlessly? Have

I ascertained and warned all my men of the places in my part of the

line, including communication trenches, which are exposed to the fire

of hostile snipers?

8. Are my sentries in the right places? Are they properly posted by

N. C. O.’s and have they received proper instructions? Are the sentries

visited at frequent intervals?

9. Have I always got a man ready to take messages to company

headquarters? Do I realize that I should at once report any information

I may obtain about the enemy, and that such information may be of the

greatest use to the highest commanders?

10. Do all my men know their duties in case of attack, especially the

bombers? If the enemy succeeds in working into my line at any point,

how can I best arrange for counter-attacking him?

11. Are there any suitable places in my part of the line which snipers

can use? Have I pointed out to section commanders the portions of the

enemy’s trench which each one is responsible for keeping under fire,

and where the enemy’s loopholes are?

12. Do I thoroughly understand the best method of relief and bringing

up of ration and water supplies, and do my men come up into the

trenches in absolute silence?

13. Do my men know their way about the trenches in various routes to

company and battalion headquarters?

14. Am I acquainted with the arrangements for access to the artillery

and for asking, if necessary, for their immediate support? Do I know

the location of the nearest telephone?

15. Am I doing my best to collect information about the enemy, his

defenses, his activities and movements, and especially about his

patrols at night? What points in my front particularly require

patrolling?

16. Are my listening patrols properly detailed?

17. Which is my best way to get through the parapet in order to go

towards the enemy?

18. Do I know the last order regarding the use of S. O. S., gas and

Zeppelin messages, and do I know exactly what messages to send?

19. Are the arrangements in case of gas attack complete and known to

all ranks? Do I know the gong position, and does the sentry know the

orders as to sounding it?

20. Have my men always got their gas helmets on their person and are

they in good order?

21. Are my parapets and traverses bullet-proof everywhere?

22. Is my wire strong enough and am I doing all I can to prevent my

trenches from falling in?

23. Am I doing all I can to drain my trenches?

24. Have my men got weather-proof places to sleep in?

25. Are the trenches as clean and sanitary as they might be? Are

live ammunition and empty shells properly collected? Have I made

all possible arrangements for the collection of refuse and do the

men realize that it must not be thrown over the parapets or in the

sump-pits for sanitary reasons?

26. Where are my small ammunition and bomb stores, and are they under

cover from weather?

27. Are all my rifles and ammunition clean and in good order, and have

all my men rifle covers? Are their magazines always charged?

28. Am I doing all I can to prevent my men from getting trench feet?

Have my men greased their feet before entering the trenches, and have

they a pair of spare dry socks to change? Do my men wear gum boots

when it is not necessary? Have I made all possible arrangements for

drying socks?

29. Are the orders as to wearing equipment carried out?

30. Are my men using as firewood notice boards or wood from the defense

or from the engineer or trench stores?

31. Are my men drinking water from any but authorized sources?

32. Do I know the name of every N. C. O. and man in my platoon, and do

they know mine?

33. Do I insure that my men get sufficient sleep?

34. Have I sufficient periscopes and are they in good order?

35. Almost always remember that I am here for two purposes. Do as much

damage to the enemy with the minimum amount of casualties resulting

from retaliation, and to hold my part of the line at all costs.

[Illustration: _PLAN_]

[Illustration: MACHINE GUN EMPLACEMENT

A type of front line emplacement with which an infantry officer should

be familiar, but which are constructed by and are entirely under the

control of Machine Gun Companies.]

HOW TO FIRE A MACHINE GUN IN CASE OF EMERGENCY

As a machine gun textbook is very dry, and it is difficult for a man

who is not of a mechanical turn of mind to obtain the most elementary

knowledge of the action from a book, officers should lose no time in

getting in touch with a machine gun officer and learn from actual

experience, how to load, fire and rectify simple stoppage.

LEWIS GUN. To load, put a full magazine on the magazine post with the

cocking handle forward.

Pull back cocking handle to its fullest extent, and raise tangent sight

unless the target is within 200 yards.

To fire, press the trigger and the gun will continue to fire as long

as pressure on the trigger is maintained. It will only stop when (a)

the magazine is emptied; (b) stoppage is set up. To remedy this (1)

take off empty magazine and put on full one, reload relay and fire; (2)

cocking handle stops in one of three positions. To remedy this one must

have a thorough knowledge of remedying of stoppages.

VICKER’S AUTOMATIC. To load, pass the brass tack of belt through feed

plug (right to left), pull back crank handle and pull belt to the left;

release handle and belt; repeat this process and the gun is loaded.

Vertical adjustment for sighting is obtained by moving elevating wheel

on quadrant of tripod, horizontal adjustment by tapping the rear

cross-piece. The clamping handle is in front of the cross-band of the

tripod. To fire, raise safety catch with first or second finger (the

safety catch is a strip of steel which is under the thumb-piece or

double button) and press the thumb-piece. The gun will now fire until

pressure is released or until a stoppage occurs.

STOPPAGES. There are four common stoppages, distinguished by the

position of the crank handle. Remedy: (1) Pull crank handle back and

belt to the left, let go crank handle; (2) open rear cover, take out

lock, remove bent cartridge from face of lock; (3) hit crank handle

down. If it will not go, lift it a little, pull belt and hit again; (4)

raise crank handle, pull belt, let go of crank. If not effective, then

put in the spare lock, but unload first. To disable gun, remove lock

and fuse from fire belt through the breech casing.

PREVENTION OF FROST BITE AND TRENCH FEET

These conditions are generally caused by long standing in cold water

and mud, or the continuous wearing of wet socks, boots and puttees,

and the conditions are accelerated when the blood circulation in the

feet and legs is interfered with by the use of tight puttees, or

anything calculated to cause constriction of the lower limbs. They can

be prevented or diminished by constant improvement of trenches and

reducing the time spent in the trenches as far as the general situation

will permit by battalion arrangements; by insuring that men entering

the trenches are warmly clad in dry boots, socks, trousers and puttees,

and that before entering, the men’s legs and feet are thoroughly rubbed

with whale oil. Provisions are made for the men on coming out of the

trenches to get warm shelters, hot foods and facilities for washing the

feet and drying wet clothes, and all along the line just behind the

trenches soup kitchens are kept where the men may stop on the way to

billet and get hot soup, etc.

The arrangements made when a battalion is going into the trenches are

roughly as follows:

The men’s feet and legs are washed and dried and then thoroughly rubbed

with whale oil and dry socks put on. A second pair of dry socks is

carried by each man, and when it is possible, battalion arrangements

are made for wet socks to be brought down from the trenches one night

and dry ones exchanged, this taking place every night. This is

generally managed by the men changing in the early morning, the relief

party for that night taking down the wet socks and bringing in the dry

for the next morning.

Hot water must never be used, nor the feet held near a fire. Where

necessary, and circumstances permit, long gum boots are put on on

entering the trench, while the men’s feet are still dry, and taken off

as soon as they prepare to leave and handed over as trench stores.

In some parts of the line, where conditions are very favorable,

battalion rest posts are formed as close to the firing line as

permissible, and men showing signs of suffering from exposure are

frequently attended to.

Transcriber’s Notes

Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a

predominant preference was found in the original book; otherwise they

were not changed. More than twenty possible spelling and grammatical

errors in the original text were found but not changed.

Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced quotation

marks were remedied when the change was obvious, and otherwise left

unbalanced.

The hierarchical structure of the Table of Contents does not always

match the structure of the main text. Transcriber has not changed this.

Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between paragraphs and

outside quotations.

The descriptions of the Nobel and Brock lighters on pages 108 and 110

were treated as footnotes by the Transcriber, who added appropriate

anchors to them in the text.