GRAMMAR
In this short discussion of grammar the attempt is not made to discuss
exhaustively all the features of English grammar. The purpose is only
to survey and to identify all the elements of an ordinary sentence. The
definitions are few, and are descriptions rather than formal definitions.
The parts of speech are treated as they become important in the structure
of the sentence. Such a treatment of essentials as this is necessary
partly as a review, but especially because a teacher and a student
cannot discuss many of the commonest sentence faults unless they have a
mutually intelligible terminology. A student must be able to recognize
such grammatical elements as a subject or an object, a participle or
an infinitive, a phrase or a clause, in order to produce correct and
effective sentences. There is a minimum amount of grammatical knowledge
without which a writer cannot rewrite his compositions so as to avoid the
commonest errors and imperfections.
What Grammar Is
Grammar is the study of the structure of sentences, and of the forms and
functions of words and word-groups within sentences. In simple terms,
grammar is the examination of the machinery of language.
Sentences
Sentences make assertions (declarative sentences), or ask questions
(interrogative sentences), or give commands (imperative sentences), or
express emotion (exclamatory sentences). Written sentences begin with a
capital letter and end with a period, a question mark, or an exclamation
point.
The most common kind of written sentence is that which makes an
assertion. This kind, called declarative, may well be taken, therefore,
as the most available basis for the discussion of the machinery of the
sentence. The word sentence in this chapter will accordingly mean a
declarative sentence.
The Parts of a Sentence—Subject and Predicate
A sentence has at least two parts—a subject and a predicate.
The _subject_ is that part which designates what the assertion is about.
The _predicate_ is that part which makes the assertion.
Many students earn their way through college.
It is obvious that _Many students_ designates what the assertion is
about, and is therefore the subject. _Earn their way through college_
makes the assertion about _Many students_, and is, therefore, the
predicate.
Although the sentence may contain other elements, although the subject
or the predicate or both may be long and complicated, and although
the elements making up the subject and the predicate may be variously
arranged, nevertheless every normal declarative sentence contains these
two parts, and can be divided into these two parts.
Subjects
The fundamental word or element in the subject is a noun, a pronoun, a
gerund, an infinitive, or a clause.
A _noun_ is simply a name word. It may signify a person or an animate
being (Frank, boy, dog), an object (tree, box), a color (red), an action
(walking, step, discussion), a quality (goodness), an abstract idea
(truth, space), a general idea (speed, thing), to name only a few kinds
of nouns. But it is always the name of an individual or of a class of
persons or things.
A _pronoun_ is a substitute or symbol word which signifies a noun which
is either expressed near the pronoun or implied by the circumstances (he,
it, who, anyone, I, you).
A _gerund_ is a noun made by adding the suffix -ing to a verb (walking,
hoping, sitting, being).
An _infinitive_ is a form of a verb, usually preceded by the word _to_,
often used to name the action signified by the verb (to think, to have
gone).
A _clause_ is a sentence element consisting of a subject (in the
nominative case) and a predicate (with the verb in a finite form—that is,
not an infinitive or a participle).
1. _Noun_: Time flies.
2. _Pronoun_: He arrived late. Everybody was late. I can do it.
3. _Gerund_: Standing on the corner made him cold.
4. _Infinitive_: To tell the truth was easy.
5. _Clause_: That he hath wronged me doth appear in this. Where
he stood makes no difference.
Predicates
The fundamental word in the predicate is the verb.
A _verb_ is a word—or a word-group—the function of which is to assert
something about the subject.
The tide rises.
The sun shone.
I bought a book.
The box is small.
The verb may consist of one word—as in the examples given—or it may
consist of a group of words, called a verb-group, containing sometimes as
many as five words. This verb group consists of one, two, three, or four
auxiliary verbs, followed by a form of the verb expressing the meaning or
sense. The form of the sense-verb is an infinitive, a present participle,
or a past participle.
The moon will rise.
The moon is rising.
The moon has risen.
He may light the lamp.
He is going to light the lamp.
The lamp at last was lighted.
The lamp has been lighted.
The lamp may have been lighted.
He may have been going to light the lamp.
Structural Parts of the Predicate—Objects
_Intransitive verbs_ are those which, like _rise_, make assertions the
action of which does not involve any person or thing other than the
subject.
_Transitive verbs_ are those which, like _light_, make assertions which
involve some person or thing other than the subject in the action of the
verb. In the sentence _He lighted the lamp_, _lamp_ is such an _object_.
The same verb may sometimes assert one, and sometimes the other kind of
action.
The door opened.
He opened the door.
Some transitive verbs make an assertion which involves two nouns, both
signifying the same thing or person.
The club elected Frank president.
Some transitive verbs make an assertion which involves two different
objects or persons.
I gave Frank an apple.
She bought Frank an apple.
I told him a story.
Here _apple_ or _story_ is the object directly affected by the action of
the verb, and is, therefore, called the _direct object_. _Frank_ or _him_
designates the person for whose benefit the action of the verb affects
the direct object, and is called the _indirect object_.
Copulas and Complements
Still another kind of verb, called a _copula_, though it does not take
a direct object, makes only part of the assertion. The rest is made by
means of another word (or element) which characterizes the subject but
which is an essential part of the assertion. In fact, the _complement_,
as the element completing the verb is called, is the most significant
part of the predicate; the verb is merely a bit of machinery by means of
which the complement is turned into an assertion.
The sky is red.
The dark shape was a house.
The car looks cheap.
He is in the house.
Home is where the heart is.
In these sentences, _red_, _a house_, _cheap_, _in the house_, and _where
the heart is_, are parts of the predicate, though they characterize the
subject. Such elements are called _complements_ because they complete
the assertion of the verb; if adjectives, they are called _adjective
complements_, or better, _predicated adjectives_; if nouns, they are
called _noun complements_, or _predicated nouns_; if clauses or phrases,
they are called _complements_, or _predicated phrases_ or _clauses_.
The verbs by means of which these complements are predicated are called
_copulas_.
Modifiers
Almost every word in the sentence is capable of having its meaning
described, restricted, emphasized, or toned down in some way—that is, any
meaning in the sentence may be characterized or modified.
Heavy automobiles run smoothly.
_Heavy_ both describes and restricts _automobiles_.
Words which characterize nouns in this way are called _adjectives_.
_Smoothly_ describes and restricts run.
Words which characterize verbs are called _adverbs_.
Very heavy automobiles run much more smoothly.
_Very_ emphasizes _heavy_. A word which thus characterizes an adjective
is called an _adverb_.
_More_ characterizes _smoothly_. _Much_ characterizes _more_. A word
which characterizes an adverb is called an _adverb_.
Prepositional Phrases
Nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are also frequently
described or limited in the same way by an element or group of words
called a _prepositional phrase_. This usually consists of a noun,
pronoun, or gerund whose exact relationship to the modified word is
shown by means of a _preposition_. The preposition is placed before the
modifying noun or pronoun and its adjective modifiers.
At home
In the house
With large tires
Over rough roads
Heavy automobiles with large tires run smoothly over rough
roads.
_With large tires_ is a prepositional phrase, consisting of the
preposition _with_ and its object _tires_; the phrase modifies or
characterizes _automobiles_.
_Over rough roads_ is a prepositional phrase which characterizes _run_.
A prepositional phrase characterizing a noun is called an _adjective
prepositional phrase_. One characterizing a verb is called an _adverbial
prepositional phrase_.
Subordinate Clauses
A _clause_ is any part of a sentence consisting of a subject in the
nominative case and a predicate containing a verb in a finite form (not
a participle or an infinitive). Some clauses are used as nouns; others
are used to characterize or modify nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, or
adverbs. Clauses used as nouns are called _noun clauses_. Those used as
adjectives are called _adjective_ or _relative clauses_. Those used to
modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs are called _adverb clauses_.
Noun Clauses
_Noun clauses_ may be used in practically any construction in which a
noun is used.
_Subject_: That he is a good workman is clear enough.
_Appositive_: The fact that the paper is new disproves
his claim.
_Predicated noun_: The weather will be what fate determines.
_Object of verb_: I saw that he had finished.
_Object of preposition_: The book is satisfactory except that it
omits one essential feature.
Adjective Clauses
_Adjective clauses_ are those which modify a noun or a pronoun.
Heavy automobiles which carry large loads run smoothly.
Adverb Clauses
_Adverb clauses_ usually modify a verb. They characterize the verb in
several different ways.
_Time_: He hurt his wrist when he fell.
_Place_: I put the glass where I could reach it.
_Cause_: We stopped the car because it was raining.
_Concession_: Although it was still dark I awoke.
_Condition_: If you read widely you will not be ignorant.
_Purpose_: He broke the stone that he might find a fossil.
_Result_: He struck the vase so that it fell over.
_Manner_: They work as they please.
Adverb clauses of degree, and sometimes those of manner and of result
modify an adverb or an adjective.
The cherries tasted sweeter than they looked.
He sawed the plank as carefully as he could.
We traveled so slowly that I despaired of reaching our
destination.
Participles
The _participle_ is any form of the verb used as an adjective. There are
several forms: _rising_, _risen_, _having risen; raising, raised, having
raised, being raised, having been raised._
The rising sun awakened me.
The fallen tree lay across the ravine.
The wind, howling a gale, swept the sea.
Twisting out of my hands, he escaped in the darkness.
The tree, twisted and broken, rotted away.
Infinitives
The _infinitive_ is usually preceded by its sign, _to_, but after some
verbs (_do_, _shall_, _will_, _may_, _can_, _dare_, _help_, _need_,
_see_, _hear_, _feel_, _let_, _make_, _bid_) and after the expressions
_had better_, _had rather_, it is usually the pure or root infinitive
without _to_.
There are six forms of the infinitive:
_Simple_ _Progressive_ _Passive_
_Pres._ to take to be taking to be taken
_Perf._ to have taken to have been taking to have been taken
The infinitive has various uses:
_Subject_: To command is his ambition.
_Predicated noun_: To know is to act.
_Object of verb_: I prefer to travel slowly.
_After nouns_: We have work to do.
_After verbs_: He failed to pass his examinations.
He seemed to be in trouble.
Children had better be silent.
_After verbs_ (with noun
or pronoun subject):
Our neighbors helped us move.
_After adjectives_: They are glad to hear the news.
He is so foolish as to believe the tale.
Conjunctions
It is often necessary or desirable to join together two or more similar
words, elements, or clauses in a sentence. Two nouns constituting the
subject, for example, may have the same assertion made about them.
Time and tide wait for no man.
_And_, which joins _time_ and _tide_, is a _conjunction_.
Two adjectives, two verbs, two adverbs, two prepositional phrases, or two
clauses may be joined together with a conjunction.
The flag is colored red and blue.
Time came and went.
Men and women laughed and cried.
The rains descended, and the floods came.
The automobile is fast, but the airplane is faster.
Words like _and_ and _but_ are conjunctions.
Conjunctions which connect words, phrases, or clauses of equal
grammatical value are called _co-ordinating conjunctions_.
The most frequent are _and_, _but_, _or_, _nor_, _for_.
_Subordinating conjunctions_ are used to join a subordinate clause—noun,
adjective, or adverb—to another clause or to some word in another clause.
At the same time they show the exact significance and bearing of the
subordinate clause.
We heard that the train was wrecked.
He came because I called him.
He remained though he wanted to go.
If it rains I shall stay at home.
Subordinating conjunctions are also sometimes used to join participles or
adjectives to the rest of the sentence. In such cases, the participle or
the adjective modifies a noun.
Though moving slowly, the train was gaining.
Though faithful to his master, the dog was shot.
Structure of Sentences
According to certain features of their structure, sentences are
classified as _simple_, _compound_, or _complex_.
A _simple sentence_ is one consisting of a single clause or assertion.
Time flies.
Time came and went.
Time and tide wait for no man.
Men and women laughed and cried.
The subject of a simple sentence may consist of one noun or pronoun
with its modifiers, or of two or more nouns with their modifiers. In
the latter case, the subject is called a _compound subject_. Similarly,
the predicate may contain one verb or two or more verbs. Occasionally a
sentence will have a compound subject and a compound predicate, as in the
last example given.
Compound Sentences
A _compound sentence_ is one which consists of two or more assertions
of equal grammatical value—that is, neither assertion is grammatically
subordinate to the other or to any part of the other.
The rain descended, and the floods came.
The automobile is fast, but the airplane is faster.
Complex Sentences
A _complex sentence_ is one which contains not only a main assertion (or
more than one), but also one or more subordinate assertions—that is, it
contains one or more assertions which are grammatically incorporated as
a noun or an adjective or an adverb into the main clause or into another
subordinate clause.
I saw that he had finished.
Heavy automobiles which carry large loads run smoothly.
The weather will be what fate determines.
He broke the stone that he might find a fossil.
Absolute Elements
Most of the elements of a sentence have a clear grammatical relation to
one another. But there are pieces of structure which have no evident
relationship to anything else.
_Noun absolute_:
He lay down, his heart heavy with sorrow.
Hat in hand, he came down stairs.
The _participle absolute_ is more frequent.
_Participle absolute_:
This said, he sat down.
One of them having fallen, the rest ran away.
The teacher absenting himself, there was no school.
Parenthetical Elements
_Parenthetical elements_, like _so to speak_, _it is hoped_, _it is
reported_, _they remark_, which have no grammatical connection with the
rest of the assertion, occur frequently. Sometimes they are inclosed
within dashes, sometimes within parentheses, sometimes within commas.
This action, it is expected, will produce results.
Flexibility of the Sentence Elements
Although the sentence has a normal order—subject, verb, object; or
subject, verb, complement—it is rich and varied in the possibilities it
possesses of variety and rearrangement, especially in the position of
adjective, participial, and adverbial elements, and in the case of adverb
clauses.
_Adjective_:
The gloomy and portentous mountains towered above him.
Gloomy and portentous, the mountains towered above him.
The mountains, gloomy and portentous, towered above him.
_Adverb_:
The building may have been entered immediately.
The building may have been immediately entered.
The building may have immediately been entered.
Immediately the building was entered.
The building was immediately entered.
The building was entered immediately.
_Adverb Clauses_:
As soon as he had knocked, he opened the door.
He opened the door as soon as he had knocked.
Inflections
Nouns, pronouns, verbs, and two adjectives show changes in function and
meaning by means of changes in form, by endings, or, sometimes in the
case of verbs, by prefixing auxiliary verbs.
Noun Declension
Nouns are declined to show case and number.
_Singular_ _Plural_
_Common_ boy boys
_Possessive_ boy’s boys’
_Common_ man men
_Possessive_ man’s men’s
_Common_ child children
_Possessive_ child’s children’s
Pronoun Declension
Pronouns are declined to show case and number.
_Singular_ _Plural_
_Nominative_ I we
_Possessive_ my our
_Objective_ me us
thou you
thy your
thee you
he she it they
his her its their
him her it them
who
whose
whom
Adjective Declension
Two adjectives show differences in number.
_Singular_ _Plural_
this these
that those
Verb Conjugation
Verbs are conjugated to show person, number, tense, mood, and voice.
Most of these changes are shown by the use of auxiliary verbs, which are
placed before the infinitive or the past or present participle of the
sense-verb. The combinations are called verb-groups.
Indicative Mood
PRESENT (Simple or habitual)
_Active_ _Passive_
I take I am taken
You take You are taken
He takes He is taken
We take We are taken
PRESENT (Progressive or definite)
I am taking I am being taken
PAST (Simple)
I took I was taken
PAST (Progressive or definite)
I was taking I was being taken
FUTURE (Formal)
I shall take I shall be taken
You will take You will be taken
He will take He will be taken
We shall take We shall be taken
You will take You will be taken
They will take They will be taken
FUTURE (Colloquial)
I am going to take I am going to be taken
You are going to take You are going to be taken
He is going to take He is going to be taken
We are going to take We are going to be taken
PRESENT PERFECT (Simple)
I have taken I have been taken
He has taken He has been taken
We have taken We have been taken
PRESENT PERFECT (Progressive or definite)
I have been taking (Wanting)
PAST PERFECT (Simple)
I had taken I had been taken
PAST PERFECT (Progressive or definite)
I had been taking (Wanting)
FUTURE PERFECT
I shall have taken I shall have been taken
COLLOQUIAL PASSIVE WITH _GET_
PRESENT It is getting broken
PAST It got broken
FUTURE It will get broken
Subjunctive Mood
PRESENT
_Active_ _Passive_
I may take I may be taken
I can take I can be taken
I must take I must be taken
PAST
I might take I might be taken
I should take I should be taken
He would take He would be taken
I could take I could be taken
Conjugation of _Be_
_Be_ is an extremely irregular composite verb. It is made up of three
verbs, _is_ (_am_, _are_, _art_), _be_, and _was_ (_were_).
Indicative
_Present_ _Past_
I am I was
You are You were
He is He was
We are We were
You are You were
They are They were
Subjunctive
_Present_ _Past_
I be I were
You be You were
He be He were
We be We were
You be You were
They be They were