[1] Lord Brougham, overlooking the constitutional chapter in the
_Middle Ages_, censured Hallam for making an arbitrary beginning at
this point, and proposed to write a more complete history himself.
[2] Technical subjects like painting or English law have been
excluded by Hallam, and history and theology only partially treated.
HALLAM, ROBERT (d. 1417), bishop of Salisbury and English representative
at the council of Constance, was educated at Oxford, and was chancellor
of the university from 1403 to 1405. In the latter year the pope
nominated him to be archbishop of York, but the king objected. However,
in 1407 he was consecrated by Gregory XII. at Siena as bishop of
Salisbury. At the council of Pisa in 1409 he was one of the English
representatives. On the 6th of June 1411 Pope John XXIII. made Hallam a
cardinal, but there was some irregularity, and his title was not
recognized. At the council of Constance (q.v.), which met in November
1414, Hallam was the chief English envoy. There he at once took a
prominent position, as an advocate of the cause of Church reform, and of
the superiority of the council to the pope. In the discussions which led
up to the deposition of John XXIII. on the 29th of May 1415 he had a
leading share. With the trials of John Hus and Jerome of Prague he had
less concern. The emperor Sigismund, through whose influence the council
had been assembled, was absent during the whole of 1416 on a diplomatic
mission in France and England; but when he returned to Constance in
January 1417, as the open ally of the English king, Hallam as Henry's
trusted representative obtained increased importance. Hallam contrived
skilfully to emphasize English prestige by delivering the address of
welcome to Sigismund on his formal reception. Afterwards, under his
master's direction, he gave the emperor vigorous support in the
endeavour to secure a reform of the Church, before the council proceeded
to the election of a new pope. This matter was still undecided when
Hallam died suddenly, on the 4th of September 1417. After his death the
direction of the English nation fell into less skilful hands, with the
result that the cardinals were able to secure the immediate election of
a new pope (Martin V., elected on the 11th of November). It has been
supposed that the abandonment of the reformers by the English was due
entirely to Hallam's death; but it is more likely that Henry V.,
foreseeing the possible need for a change of front, had given Hallam
discretionary powers which the bishop's successors used with too little
judgment. Hallam himself, who had the confidence of Sigismund and was
generally respected for his straightforward independence, might have
achieved a better result. Hallam was buried in the cathedral at
Constance, where his tomb near the high altar is marked by a brass of
English workmanship.
For the acts of the council of Constance see H. von der Hardt's
_Concilium Constantiense_, and H. Finke's _Acta concilii
Constanciensis_. For a modern account see Mandell Creighton's _History
of the Papacy_ (6 vols., London, 1897). (C. L. K.)
HALLE, SIR CHARLES (originally KARL HALLE) (1819-1895), English pianist
and conductor, German by nationality, was born at Hagen, in Westphalia,
on the 11th of April 1819. He studied under Rink at Darmstadt in 1835,
and as early as 1836 went to Paris, where for twelve years he lived in
constant intercourse with Cherubini, Chopin, Liszt and other musicians,
and enjoyed the friendship of such great literary figures as Alfred de
Musset and George Sand. He had started a set of chamber concerts with
Alard and Franchomme with great success, and had completed one series of
them when the revolution of 1848 drove him from Paris, and he settled,
with his wife and two children, in London. His pianoforte recitals,
given at first from 1850 in his own house, and from 1861 in St James's
Hall, were an important feature of London musical life, and it was due
in great measure to them that a knowledge of Beethoven's pianoforte
sonatas became general in English society. At the Musical Union founded
by John Ella, and at the Popular Concerts from their beginning, Halle
was a frequent performer, and from 1853 was director of the Gentlemen's
Concerts in Manchester, where, in 1857, he started a series of concerts
of his own, raising the orchestra to a pitch of perfection quite unknown
at that time in England. In 1888 he married Madame Norman Neruda (b.
1839), the violinist, widow of Ludwig Norman, and daughter of Josef
Neruda, members of whose family had long been famous for musical talent.
In the same year he was knighted; and in 1890 and 1891 he toured with
his wife in Australia and elsewhere. He died at Manchester on the 25th
of October 1895. Halle exercised an important influence in the musical
education of England; if his pianoforte-playing, by which he was mainly
known to the public in London, seemed remarkable rather for precision
than for depth, for crystal clearness rather than for warmth, and for
perfect realization of the written text rather than for strong
individuality, it was at least of immense value as giving the
composer's idea with the utmost fidelity. Those who were privileged to
hear him play in private, like those who could appreciate the power,
beauty and imaginative warmth of his conducting, would have given a very
different verdict; and they were not wrong in judging Halle to be a man
of the widest and keenest artistic sympathies, with an extraordinary
gift of insight into music of every school, as well as a strong sense of
humour. He fought a long and arduous battle for the best music, and
never forgot the dignity of his art. In spite of the fact that his
technique was that of his youth, of the period before Liszt, the ease
and certainty he attained in the most modern music was not the less
wonderful because he concealed the mechanical means so completely.
Lady Halle, who from 1864 onwards had been one of the leading solo
violinists of the time, was constantly associated with her husband on
the concert stage till his death; and in 1896 a public subscription was
organized in her behalf, under royal patronage. She continued to appear
occasionally in public, notably as late as 1907, when she played at the
Joachim memorial concert. In 1901 she was given by Queen Alexandra the
title of "violinist to the queen." A fine classical player and artist,
frequently associated with Joachim, Lady Halle was the first of the
women violinists who could stand comparison with men.
HALLE (known as HALLE-AN-DER-SAALE, to distinguish it from the small
town of Halle in Westphalia), a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Saxony, situated in a sandy plain on the right bank of the
Saale, which here divides into several arms, 21 m. N.W. from Leipzig by
the railway to Magdeburg. Pop. (1875), 60,503; (1885) 81,982; (1895)
116,304; (1905) 160,031. Owing to its situation at the junction of six
important lines of railway, bringing it into direct communication with
Berlin, Breslau, Leipzig, Frankfort-on-Main, the Harz country and
Hanover, it has greatly developed in size and in commercial and
industrial importance. It consists of the old, or inner, town surrounded
by promenades, which occupy the site of the former fortifications, and
beyond these of two small towns, Glaucha in the south and Neumarkt in
the north, and five rapidly increasing suburbs. The inner town is
irregularly built and presents a somewhat unattractive appearance, but
it has been much improved and modernized by the laying out of new
streets.
The centre of the town proper is occupied by the imposing market square,
on which stand the fine medieval town hall (restored in 1883) and the
handsome Gothic Marienkirche, dating mainly from the 16th century, with
two towers connected by a bridge. In the middle of the square are a
clock-tower (_Der rote Turm_) 276 ft. in height, and a bronze statue of
Handel, the composer, a native of Halle. West of the market-square lies
the Halle, or the Tal, where the brine springs (see below) issue. Among
the eleven churches, nine Protestant and two Roman Catholic, may also be
mentioned the St Moritzkirche, dating from the 12th century, with fine
wood carvings and sculptures, and the cathedral (belonging since 1689 to
the Reformed or Calvinistic church), built in the 16th century and
containing an altar-piece representing Duke Augustus of Saxony and his
family. Of secular buildings the most noticeable are the ruins of the
castle of Moritzburg, formerly a citadel and the residence of the
archbishops of Magdeburg, destroyed by fire in the Thirty Years' War,
with the exception of the left wing now used for military purposes, the
university buildings, the theatre and the new railway station. The
famous university was founded by the elector Frederick III. of
Brandenburg (afterwards king of Prussia), in 1694, on behalf of the
jurist, Christian Thomasius (1655-1728), whom many students followed to
Halle, when he was expelled from Leipzig through the enmity of his
fellow professors. It was closed by Napoleon in 1806 and again in 1813,
but in 1815 was re-established and augmented by the removal to it of the
university of Wittenberg, with which it thus became united. It has
faculties of theology, law, medicine and philosophy. From the first it
has been recognized as one of the principal seats of Protestant
theology, originally of the pietistic and latterly of the rationalistic
and critical school. In connexion with the university there are a
botanical garden, a theological seminary, anatomical, pathological and
physical institutes, hospitals, an agricultural institute--one of the
foremost institutions of the kind in Germany--a meteorological
institute, an observatory and a library of 180,000 printed volumes and
800 manuscripts. Among other educational establishments must be
mentioned the Francke'sche Stiftungen, founded in 1691 by August Hermann
Francke (1663-1727), a bronze statue of whom by Rauch was erected in
1829 in the inner court of the building. They embrace an orphanage, a
laboratory where medicines are prepared and distributed, a Bible press
from which Bibles are issued at a cheap rate, and eight schools of
various grades, attended in all by over 3000 pupils. The other principal
institutions are the city gymnasium, the provincial lunatic asylum, the
prison, the town hospital and infirmary, and the deaf and dumb
institute. The salt-springs of Halle have been known from a very early
period. Some rise within the town and others on an island in the Saale;
and together their annual yield of salt is about 8500 tons.
The workmen employed at the salt-works are of a peculiar race and are
known as the _Halloren_. They have been usually regarded as descendants
of the original Wendish inhabitants, or as Celtic immigrants, with an
admixture of Frankish elements. They wear a distinct dress, the ordinary
costume of about 1700, observe several ancient customs, and enjoy
certain exemptions and privileges derived from those of the ancient
_Pfannerschaft_ (community of the salt-panners).
Among the other industries of Halle are sugar refining, machine
building, the manufacture of spirits, malt, chocolate, cocoa,
confectionery, cement, paper, chicory, lubricating and illuminating oil,
wagon grease, carriages and playing cards, printing, dyeing and coal
mining (soft brown coal). The trade, which is supervised by a chamber of
commerce, is very considerable, the principal exports being machinery,
raw sugar and petroleum. Halle is also noted as the seat of several
important publishing firms. The Bibelanstalt (Bible institution) of von
Castein is the central authority for the revision of Luther's Bible, of
which it sells annually from 60,000 to 70,000 copies.
Halle is first mentioned as a fortress erected on the Saale in 806 by
Charles, son of Charlemagne, during his expedition against the Sorbs.
The place was, however, known long before, and owes its origin as well
as its name to the salt springs (_Halis_). In 968 Halle, with the
valuable salt works, was given by the emperor Otto I. to the newly
founded archdiocese of Magdeburg, and in 981 Otto II. gave it a
charter as a town. The interests of the archbishop were watched over
by a _Vogt (advocatus)_ and a burgrave, and from the first there were
separate jurisdictions for the Halloren and the German settlers in the
town, the former being under that of the _Salzgraf_ (comes salis), the
latter of a _Schultheiss_ or bailiff, both subordinate to the
burgrave. The conflict of interests and jurisdictions led to the usual
internecine strife during the middle ages. The panners (_Pfanner_) of
the Tal, feudatories or officials, became a close hereditary
aristocracy in perpetual rivalry with the gilds in the town; and both
resisted the pretensions of the archbishops. At the beginning of the
12th century Halle had attained considerable importance, and in the
13th and 14th centuries as a member of the Hanseatic League it carried
on successful wars with the archbishops of Magdeburg; and in 1435 it
resisted an army of 30,000 men under the elector of Saxony. Its
liberty perished, however, as a result of the internal feud between
the democratic gilds and the patrician panners. On the 20th of
September 1478 a demagogue and cobbler named Jakob Weissak, a member
of the town council, with his confederates opened the gates to the
soldiers of the archbishop. The townsmen were subdued, and to hold
them in check the archbishop, Ernest of Saxony, built the castle of
Moritzburg. Notwithstanding the efforts of the archbishops of Mainz
and Magdeburg, the Reformation found an entrance into the city in
1522; and in 1541 a Lutheran superintendent was appointed. After the
peace of Westphalia in 1648 the city came into the possession of the
house of Brandenburg. In 1806 it was stormed and taken by the French,
after which, at the peace of Tilsit, it was united to the new kingdom
of Westphalia. After the battle between the Prussians and French, in
May 1813, it was taken by the Prussians. The rise of Leipzig was for a
long time hurtful to the prosperity of Halle, and its present rapid
increase in population and trade is principally due to its position as
the centre of a network of railways.
See Dreyhaupt, _Ausfuhrliche Beschreibung des Saalkreises_ (Halle, 2
vols., 1755; 3rd edition, 1842-1844); Hoffbauer, _Geschichte der
Universitat zu Halle_ (1806); _Halle in Vorzeit und Gegenwart_ (1851);
Knauth, _Kurze Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt Halle_ (3rd ed.,
1861); vom Hagen, _Die Stadt Halle_ (1866-1867); Hertzberg,
_Geschichte der Vereinigung der Universitaten von Wittenberg und
Halle_ (1867); Voss, _Zur Geschichte der Autonomie der Stadt Halle_
(1874); Schrader, _Geschichte der Friedrichs-Universitat zu Halle_
(Berlin, 1894); Karl Hegel, _Stadte und Gilden der germanischen
Volker_ (Leipzig, 1891), ii. 444-449.
HALLECK, FITZ-GREENE (1790-1867), American poet, was born at Guilford,
Connecticut, on the 8th of July 1790. By his mother he was descended
from John Eliot, the "Apostle to the Indians." At an early age he became
clerk in a store at Guilford, and in 1811 he entered a banking-house in
New York. Having made the acquaintance of Joseph Rodman Drake, in 1819
he assisted him under the signature of "Croaker junior" in contributing
to the New York _Evening Post_ the humorous series of "Croaker Papers."
In 1821 he published his longest poem, _Fanny_, a satire on local
politics and fashions in the measure of Byron's _Don Juan_. He visited
Europe in 1822-1823, and after his return published anonymously in 1827
_Alnwick Castle, with other Poems_. From 1832 to 1841 he was
confidential agent of John Jacob Astor, who named him one of the
trustees of the Astor library. In 1864 he published in the _New York
Ledger_ a poem of 300 lines entitled "Young America." He died at
Guilford, on the 19th of November 1867. The poems of Halleck are written
with great care and finish, and manifest the possession of a fine sense
of harmony and of genial and elevated sentiments.
His _Life and Letters_, by James Grant Wilson, appeared in 1869. His
_Poetical Writings_, together with extracts from those of Joseph
Rodman Drake, were edited by Wilson in the same year.
HALLECK, HENRY WAGER (1815-1872), American general and jurist, was born
at Westernville, Oneida county, N.Y., in 1815, entered the West Point
military academy at the age of twenty, and on graduating in 1839 was
appointed to the engineers, becoming at the same time assistant
professor of engineering at the academy. In the following year he was
made an assistant to the Board of Engineers at Washington, from 1841 to
1846 he was employed on the defence works at New York, and in 1845 he
was sent by the government to visit the principal military
establishments of Europe. After his return, Halleck delivered a course
of lectures on the science of war, published in 1846 under the title
_Elements of Military Art and Science_. A later edition of this work was
widely used as a text-book by volunteer officers during the Civil War.
On the outbreak of the Mexican War in 1846, he served with the
expedition to California and the Pacific coast, in which he
distinguished himself not only as an engineer, but by his skill in civil
administration and by his good conduct before the enemy. He served for
several years in California as a staff officer, and as secretary of
state under the military government, and in 1849 he helped to frame the
state constitution of California, on its being admitted into the Union.
In 1852 he was appointed inspector and engineer of lighthouses, and in
1853 was employed in the fortification of the Pacific coast. In 1854
Captain Halleck resigned his commission and took up the practice of law
with great success. He was also director of a quicksilver mine, and in
1855 he became president of the Pacific & Atlantic railway. On the
outbreak of the Civil War he returned to the army as a major-general,
and in November 1861 he was charged with the supreme command in the
western theatre of war. There can be no question that his administrative
skill was mainly instrumental in bringing order out of chaos in the
hurried formation of large volunteer armies in 1861, but the strategical
and tactical successes of the following spring were due rather to the
skill and activity of his subordinate generals Grant, Buell and Pope,
than to the plans of the supreme commander, and when he assumed command
of the united forces of these three generals before Corinth, the
methodical slowness of his advance aroused much criticism. In July,
however, he was called to Washington as general-in-chief of the armies.
At headquarters his administrative powers were conspicuous, but he
proved to be utterly wanting in any large grasp of the military problem;
the successive reverses of Generals McClellan, Pope, Burnside and Hooker
in Virginia were not infrequently traceable to the defects of the
general-in-chief. No co-ordination of the military efforts of the Union
was seriously undertaken by Halleck, and eventually in March 1864 Grant
was appointed to replace him, Major-General Halleck becoming chief of
staff at Washington. This post he occupied with credit until the end of
the war. In April 1865 he held the command of the military division of
the James and in August of the same year of the military division of the
Pacific, which he retained till June 1869, when he was transferred to
that of the South, a position he held till his death at Louisville, Ky.,
on the 9th of January 1872. Halleck's position as a soldier is easily
defined by bis uniform success as an administrative official, his
equally uniform want of success as an officer at the head of large
armies in the field, and the popularity of his theoretical writings on
war. His influence, for good or evil, on the course of the greatest war
of modern times was greater than that of any soldier on either side save
Grant and Lee, and whilst his interference with the dispositions of the
commanders in the field was often disastrous, his services in organizing
and instructing the Union forces were always of the highest value, and
in this respect he was indispensable.
Besides _Military Art and Science_, Halleck wrote _Bitumen, its
Varieties, Properties and Uses_ (1841); _The Mining Laws of Spain and
Mexico_ (1859); _International Law_ (1861; new edition, 1908); and
_Treatise on International Law and the Laws of War, prepared for the
use of Schools and Colleges_, abridged from the larger work. He
translated Jomini's _Vie politique et militaire de Napoleon_ (1864)
and de Fooz _On the Law of Mines_ (1860). The works on international
law mentioned above entitle General Halleck to be considered as one of
the great jurists of the 19th century.
HALLEFLINTA (a Swedish word meaning rock-flint), a white, grey, yellow,
greenish or pink, fine-grained rock consisting of an intimate mixture of
quartz and felspar. Many examples are banded or striated; others contain
porphyritic crystals of quartz which resemble those of the felsites and
porphyries. Mica, iron oxides, apatite, zircon, epidote and hornblende
may also be present in small amount. The more micaceous varieties form
transitions to granulite and gneiss. Halleflinta under the microscope is
very finely crystalline, or even cryptocrystalline, resembling the
felsitic matrix of many acid rocks. It is essentially metamorphic and
occurs with gneisses, schists and granulites, especially in the
Scandinavian peninsula, where it is regarded as being very
characteristic of certain horizons. Of its original nature there is some
doubt, but its chemical composition and the occasional presence of
porphyritic crystals indicate that it has affinities to the fine-grained
acid intrusive rocks. In this group there may also have been placed
metamorphosed acid tuffs and a certain number of adinoles (shales,
contact altered by intrusions of diabase). The assemblage is not a
perfectly homogeneous one but includes both igneous and sedimentary
rocks, but the former preponderate. Rocks very similar to the typical
Swedish halleflintas occur in Tirol, in Galicia and eastern Bohemia.
HALLEL (Heb. [Hebrew: hallel] a Mishnic derivative from [Hebrew: hillel]
hillel, "to praise"), a term in synagogal liturgy for (a) Psalms
cxiii.-cxviii., often called "the Egyptian Hallel" because of its
recitation during the paschal meal on the night of the Passover, (b)
Psalm cxxxvi. "the Great Hallel." C. A. Briggs[1] points out that the
term "Hallelujah" (Praise ye Yah) is found at the close of Pss. civ.,
cv., cxv., cxvi., cxvii., at the beginning of Pss. cxi., cxii. and at
both ends of Pss. cvi., cxiii., cxxxv., cxlvi. to cl. The Septuagint
also gives it at the beginning of Pss. cv., cvii., cxiv., cxvi. to
cxix., cxxxvi. There are thus four groups of Hallel psalms:--civ.-cvii.
(a tetralogy on creation, the patriarchal age, the Exodus, and the
Restoration); cxi.-cxvii. which includes most of the "Egyptian Hallel";
cxxxv.-cxxxvi.; cxlvi.-cl. All of these Hallels (except cxlvii. and
cxlix. which are Maccabean) belong to the Greek period, forming a
collection of sixteen psalms composed for public use by the choirs,
especially at the great feasts. Their distribution into four groups was
the work of the final editor of the psalter. Later liturgical use
regarded Pss. cxviii. and even cxix. as Hallels, as well as Pss. cxx. to
cxxxiv.
It will be observed that the extent of the official Hallel varied from
time to time. It would appear that in the time of Gamaliel (_Pesahim_
x. 5) the custom of its recitation at the paschal meal was still of
recent innovation. While the school of Shammai advised only Ps. cxiii.,
the school of Hillel favoured Pss. cxiii. and cxiv.[2] The further
extension so as to include Pss. cxv. to cxviii. probably dates from the
first half of the 2nd century A.D., and these four psalms were recited
after the pouring out of the fourth cup, the two earlier ones being
taken at the beginning of the meal. From the 3rd century the use of the
Hallel was extended to other occasions, and was gradually incorporated
into the liturgy of eighteen festal days.
The "Great Hallel" (Ps. cxxxvi. and its later extension to cxx.-cxxxvi.)
always served the wider purpose of a more general thanksgiving.
According to Rabbi Johanan it derived its name from the allusion in v.
25 to the Holy One who sits in heaven and thence distributes food to all
bis creatures.