TUSCANY.

Ferdinand III., grand-duke of Tuscany

(1769-1824).

|

Leopold II., grand-duke of Tuscany

(1797-1870).

|

+------------------------+--------------------+----------+--------------------+

| | | |

Ferdinand IV. Louis Salvator Charles Salvator John Nepomuck Salvator

grand-duke of Tuscany (b. 1847). (1839-1892). (1852-1891).

(b. 1835). |

| +--------+-------------+----------------+

+--------------------+---+--------------+-----------------+ | | |

| | | | Leopold Salvator Francis Salvator Albert Salvator

Leopold Ferdinand Joseph Ferdinand Peter Ferdinand Henry Ferdinand (b. 1863). (b. 1866). (1871-1896).

(b. 1872). (b. 1874). (b. 1878). | |

| | +----------+-+--------+-----------+

+-------+----+ | | | | |

| | | Francis Charles Hubert Theodore Clement

Godfrey George | Salvator Salvator Salvator Salvator

(b. 1902). (b. 1905). | (b. 1893). (b. 1894). (b. 1899). (b. 1904).

|

+--------------+-----------+--------------+

| | | |

Rainer Charles Leopold Antony Francis Joseph

(b. 1895). (b. 1897). (b. 1901). (b. 1905).

Immediately after the death of Charles the Pragmatic Sanction was

forgotten. A crowd of claimants called for various parts of the Habsburg

lands; Frederick the Great, talking less but acting more, invaded and

conquered Silesia, and it seemed likely that the dissolution of the

Habsburg monarchy would at no long interval follow the extinction of the

Habsburg race. A Wittelsbach prince, Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria,

the emperor Charles VII., and not Francis Stephen, was chosen emperor in

January 1742, and by the treaty of Breslau, made later in the same year,

nearly all Silesia was formally surrendered to Prussia. But the worst

was now over, and when in 1748 the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, which

practically confirmed the treaty of Breslau, had cleared away the dust

of war, Maria Theresa and her consort were found to occupy a strong

position in Europe. In the first place, in September 1745, Francis had

been chosen emperor; then the imperial pair ruled Hungary and Bohemia,

although the latter kingdom was shorn of Silesia; in spite of French

conquests the Austrian Netherlands remained in their hands; and in Italy

Francis had added Tuscany to his wife's heritage, although Parma and

Piacenza had been surrendered to Spain and part of Milan to the king of

Sardinia. The diplomatic _volte-face_ and the futile attempts of Maria

Theresa to recover Silesia which followed this treaty belong to the

general history of Europe.

The emperor Francis I. died in 1765 and was succeeded by his son Joseph

II., an ambitious and able prince, whose aim was to restore the

Habsburgs and the Empire to their former great positions in Europe, and

whose pride did not prevent him from learning from Frederick the Great,

the despoiler of his house. His projects, however, including one of

uniting Bavaria with Austria, which was especially cherished, failed

completely, and when he died in February 1790 he left his lands in a

state of turbulence which reflected the general condition of Europe. The

Netherlands had risen against the Austrians, and in January 1790 had

declared themselves independent; Hungary, angered by Joseph's despotic

measures, was in revolt, and the other parts of the monarchy were hardly

more contented. But the 18th century saw a few successes for the

Habsburgs. In 1718 a successful war with Turkey was ended by the peace

of Passarowitz, which advanced the Austrian boundary very considerably

to the east, and although by the treaty of Belgrade, signed twenty-one

years later, a large part of this territory was surrendered, yet a

residuum, the banate of Temesvar, was permanently incorporated with

Hungary. The struggle over the succession to Bavaria, which was

concluded in 1779 by the treaty of Teschen, was responsible for adding

Innviertel, or the quarter of the Inn, to Austria; the first partition

of Poland brought eastern Galicia and Lodomeria, and in 1777 the sultan

ceded Bukovina. Joseph II. was followed by his brother, Leopold II., who

restored the Austrian authority in the Netherlands, and the latter by

his son Francis II., who resigned the crown of the Holy Roman Empire in

August 1806, having two years before taken the title of emperor of

Austria as Francis I.

Before the abdication of the emperor Francis in 1806 Austria had met and

suffered from the fury of revolutionary France, but the cessions of

territory made by her at the treaties of Campo Formio (1797), of

Luneville (1801) and of Pressburg (1805) were of no enduring importance.

This, however, cannot be said for the treaties of Paris and of Vienna,

which in 1814 and 1815 arranged the map of Europe upon the conclusion of

the Napoleonic wars. These were highly favourable to the Habsburgs. In

eastern and central Europe Austria regained her former position, the

lands ceded to Bavaria and also eastern Galicia, which had been in the

hands of Russia since 1809, being restored; she gave up the Austrian

Netherlands, soon to be known as Belgium, to the new kingdom of the

Netherlands, and acquiesced in the arrangement which had taken from her

the Breisgau and the remnant of the Habsburg lands upon the Rhine. In

return for these losses Austria became the dominant power In Italy. A

mass of northern Italy, including her former possessions in Milan and

the neighbourhood, and also the lands recently forming the republic of

Venice, was made into the kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, and this owned

the emperor of Austria as king. Across the Adriatic Dalmatia was added

to the Habsburg monarchy, the population of which, it has been

estimated, was increased at this time by over four millions.

The illiberal and oppressive character of the Austrian rule in Italy

made it very unpopular; it was hardly less so in Hungary and Bohemia,

and the advent of the year 1848 found the subject kingdoms eager to

throw off the Habsburg yoke. The whole monarchy was quickly in a state

of revolution, in the midst of which the emperor Ferdinand, who had

succeeded his father Francis in 1835, abdicated, and his place was taken

by his young nephew Francis Joseph. The position of the Habsburg

monarchy now seemed desperate. But it was strong in its immemorial

tradition, which was enough to make the efforts of the Frankfort

parliament to establish German unity under Prussian hegemony abortive;

it was strong also in the general loyalty to the throne of the imperial

army; and its counsels were directed by statesmen who knew well how to

exploit in the interests of the central power the national rivalries

within the monarchy. With the crushing of the Hungarian revolt by the

emperor Nicholas I. of Russia in 1849 the monarchy was freed from the

most formidable of its internal troubles; in 1850 the convention of

Olmutz restored its influence in Germany.

Though the _status quo_ was thus outwardly re-established, the

revolutions of 1848 had really unchained forces which made its

maintenance impossible. In Germany Prussia was steadily preparing for

the inevitable struggle with Austria for the mastery; in France Napoleon

III. was preparing to pose as the champion of the oppressed

nationalities which had once more settled down sullenly under the

Habsburg yoke. The alliance of the French emperor and the king of

Sardinia, and the Italian war of 1859 ended in the loss of Lombardy to

the Habsburgs. Seven years later the crushing defeat of Koniggratz not

only ended their long rule in Italy, based on the tradition of the

medieval empire, by leading to the cession of Venetia to the new Italian

kingdom, but led to their final exclusion from the German confederation,

soon to become, under the headship of Prussia, the German empire.

By the loss of the predominance in Germany conceded to it by the

treaties of Vienna, and by the shifting of its "centre of gravity"

eastward, the Habsburg monarchy, however, perhaps gained more than it

lost. One necessary result, indeed, was the composition (_Ausgleich_)

with Hungary in 1867, by which the latter became an independent state

(Francis Joseph being crowned king at Pest in June 1867) bound to the

rest of the monarchy only by the machinery necessary for the carrying

out of a common policy in matters of common interest. This at least

restored the loyalty of the Hungarians to the Habsburg dynasty; it is

too soon yet to say that it secured permanently the essential unity of

the Habsburg monarchy. By the system of the Dual Monarchy the rest of

the Austrian emperor's dominions (Cis-Leithan) were consolidated under a

single central government, the history of which has been mainly that of

the rival races within the empire struggling for political predominance.

Since the development of the constitution has been consistently in a

democratic direction and the Slavs are in a great majority, the tendency

has been for the German element--strong in its social status and

tradition of predominance--to be swamped by what it regards as an

inferior race; and a considerable number of Austrian "Germans" have

learned to look not to their Habsburg rulers, but to the power of the

German empire for political salvation. The tendency eastwards of the

monarchy was increased when in 1878 the congress of Berlin placed Bosnia

and Herzegovina under Austrian rule. Old ambitions were now revived at

the expense of the Ottoman empire, the goal of which was the port of

Salonica; and not the least menacing aspect of the question of the near

East has been that the rivalry of Italy and the Habsburg monarchy has

been transferred to the Balkan peninsula. Yet, in spite of internal

dissensions arising out of questions fundamentally insoluble, and in

spite of the constant threat of external complications that may lead to

war, the Habsburg monarchy as the result of the changes in the 19th and

20th centuries is seemingly stronger than ever. The shadow of universal

claims to empire and sonorous but empty titles have vanished, but so

have the manifold rivalries and entanglements which accompanied the

Habsburg rule in Italy and the Netherlands and Habsburg preponderance in

Germany. The monarchy is stronger because its sphere is more defined;

because as preserving the _pax Romana_ among the jostling races of

eastern Europe, it is more than ever recognized as an essential element

in the maintenance of European peace, and is recognized as necessary and

beneficial even by the ambitious and restless nationalities that chafe

under its rule.

A few words must be said about the cadet branches of the Habsburg

family. When, in 1765, Francis I. died and Joseph II. became emperor,

the grand-duchy of Tuscany passed by special arrangement not to Joseph,

but to his younger brother Leopold. Then in 1791, after Leopold had

succeeded Joseph as emperor, he handed over the grand-duchy to his

second son, Ferdinand (1769-1824). In 1801 this prince was deposed by

Napoleon and Tuscany was seized by France. Restored to the Habsburgs in

the person of Ferdinand in 1814, it remained under his rule, and then

under that of his son Leopold (1797-1870), until the rising of 1859,

when the Austrians were driven out and the grand-duchy was added to the

kingdom of Sardinia. A similar fate attended the duchy of Modena, which

had passed to the Habsburgs through the marriage of its heiress Mary

Beatrice of Este (d. 1829) with the archduke Ferdinand (1754-1806),

brother of the emperor Leopold II. From 1814 to 1846 this duchy was

governed by Ferdinand's son, Duke Francis IV., and from 1846 to 1859 by

his grandson, Francis V. This family became extinct on the death of

Francis V. in 1875.

In addition to his successor Francis II., and to Ferdinand, grand-duke

of Tuscany, the emperor Leopold II. had eight sons, five of whom,

including the archduke John (1782-1859), who saw a good deal of service

during the Napoleonic Wars and was chosen regent (_Reichsverweser_) of

Germany in 1848, have now no living male descendants. Thus the existing

branches of the family are descended from Leopold's five other sons. The

descendants of Leopold, the dispossessed grand-duke of Tuscany, were in

1909 represented by his son, Ferdinand (b. 1835), who still claimed the

title of grand-duke of Tuscany, and his son and grandsons; by the

numerous descendants of the archduke Charles Salvator (1830-1892); and

by the archduke Louis Salvator (b. 1847), a great traveller and a

voluminous writer. The grand-duke's fourth son was the archduke John

Nepomuck Salvator, who, after serving in the Austrian army, resigned all

his rights and titles and under the name of Johann Orth took command of

a sailing vessel. He is supposed to have been drowned off the coast of

South America in 1891, but reports of his continued existence were

circulated from time to time after that date. Of the emperor Leopold's

other sons the archduke Charles, perhaps the most distinguished soldier

of the family, left four sons, including Albert, duke of Teschen

(1817-1895), who inherited some of his father's military ability.

Charles's family was in 1909 represented by his grandsons, the sons of

the archduke Charles Ferdinand (1818-1874). The archduke Joseph

(1776-1847), palatine of Hungary, was represented by a grandson, Joseph

Augustus (b. 1872), and the archduke Rainer (1783-1853), viceroy of

Lombardy-Venetia, by a son Rainer (b. 1827), and by several grandsons.

The eldest and reigning branch of the family was in 1909 represented by

the emperor Francis Joseph, whose father was the archduke Francis

Charles (1802-1878), and whose grandfather was the emperor Francis II.

Francis Joseph's only son Rudolph died in 1889; consequently the heir to

the Habsburg monarchy was the emperor's nephew Francis Ferdinand (b.

1863), the eldest of the three sons of his brother Charles Louis

(1833-1896). In 1875 Francis Ferdinand inherited the wealth of the Este

family and took the title of archduke of Austria-Este; in 1900 he

contracted a morganatic marriage with Sophia, countess of Chotek,

renouncing for his sons the succession to the monarchy. Thus after

Francis Ferdinand this would pass to the sons of his brother, the

archduke Otto (1865-1906). One of the emperor's three brothers was

Maximilian, emperor of Mexico from 1863 to 1867.

With the exception of Charles V. the Habsburgs have produced no

statesmen of great ability, while several members of the family have

displayed marked traces of insanity. Nevertheless they secured, and for

over 350 years they kept, the first place among the potentates of

Europe; a dignity in origin and theory elective becoming in practice

hereditary in their house. This position they owe to some extent to the

tenacity with which they have clung to the various lands and dignities

which have passed into their possession, but they owe it much more to a

series of fortunate marriages and opportune deaths. The union of

Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy, of Philip the Handsome and Joanna of

Spain, of Ferdinand and Anna of Hungary and Bohemia; the death of

Ottakar of Bohemia, of John, the only son of Ferdinand and Isabella of

Spain, of Louis of Hungary and Bohemia--these are the corner-stones upon

which the Habsburg monarchy has been built.

For the origin and early history of the Habsburgs see G. de Roo,

_Annales rerum ab Austriacis Habsburgicae gentis principibus a

Rudolpho I. usque ad Carolum V. gestarum_ (Innsbruck, 1592, fol.); M.

Herrgott, _Genealogia diplomatica augustae gentis Habsburgicae_

(Vienna, 1737-1738); E. M. Furst von Lichnowsky, _Geschichte des

Hauses Habsburg_ (Vienna, 1836-1844); A. Schulte, _Geschichte der

Habsburger in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten_ (Innsbruck, 1887); T. von

Liebenau, _Die Anfange des Hauses Habsburg_ (Vienna, 1883); W. Merz,

_Die Habsburg_ (Aarau, 1896); W. Gisi, _Der Ursprung der Hauser

Zahringen und Habsburg_ (1888); and F. Weihrich, _Stammtafel zur

Geschichte des Hauses Habsburg_ (Vienna, 1893). For the history of the

Habsburg monarchy see Langl, _Die Habsburg und die denkwurdigen

Statten ihrer Umgebung_ (Vienna, 1895); and E. A. Freeman, _Historical

Geography of Europe_ (1881). Two English books on the subject are J.

Gilbart-Smith, _The Cradle of the Hapsburgs_ (1907); and A. R. and E.

Colquhoun, _The Whirlpool of Europe, Austria-Hungary and the

Hapsburgs_ (1906). (A. W. H.*)

HACHETTE, JEAN NICOLAS PIERRE (1769-1834), French mathematician, was

born at Mezieres, where his father was a bookseller, on the 6th of May

1769. For his early education he proceeded first to the college of

Charleville, and afterwards to that of Reims. In 1788 he returned to

Mezieres, where he was attached to the school of engineering as

draughtsman to the professors of physics and chemistry. In 1793 he

became professor of hydrography at Collioure and Port-Vendre. While

there he sent several papers, in which some questions of navigation were

treated geometrically, to Gaspard Monge, at that time minister of

marine, through whose influence he obtained an appointment in Paris.

Towards the close of 1794, when the Ecole Polytechnique was established,

he was appointed along with Monge over the department of descriptive

geometry. There he instructed some of the ablest Frenchmen of the day,

among them S. D. Poisson, F. Arago and A. Fresnel. Accompanying Guyton

de Morveau in his expedition, earlier in the year, he was present at the

battle of Fleurus, and entered Brussels with the French army. In 1816,

on the accession of Louis XVIII., he was expelled from his chair by

government. He retained, however, till his death the office of professor

in the faculty of sciences in the Ecole Normale, to which he had been

appointed in 1810. The necessary royal assent was in 1823 refused to the

election of Hachette to the Academie des Sciences, and it was not till

1831, after the Revolution, that he obtained that honour. He died at

Paris on the 16th of January 1834. Hachette was held in high esteem for

his private worth, as well as for his scientific attainments and great

public services. His labours were chiefly in the field of descriptive

geometry, with its application to the arts and mechanical engineering.

It was left to him to develop the geometry of Monge, and to him also is

due in great measure the rapid advancement which France made soon after

the establishment of the Ecole Polytechnique in the construction of

machinery.

Hachette's principal works are his _Deux Supplements a la Geometrie

descriptive de Monge_ (1811 and 1818); _Elements de geometrie a trois

dimensions_ (1817); _Collection des epures de geometrie_, &c. (1795

and 1817); _Applications de geometrie descriptive_ (1817); _Traite de

geometrie descriptive_, &c. (1822); _Traite elementaire des machines_

(1811); _Correspondance sur l'Ecole Polytechnique_ (1804-1815). He

also contributed many valuable papers to the leading scientific

journals of his time.

For a list of Hachette's writings see the _Catalogue of Scientific

Papers of the Royal Society of London_; also F. Arago, _Oeuvres_

(1855); and Silvestre, _Notice sur J. N. P. Hachette_ (Bruxelles,

1836).

HACHETTE, JEANNE, French heroine. Jeanne Laine, or Fourquet, called

Jeanne Hachette, was born about 1454. We have no precise information

about her family or origin. She is known solely for her act of heroism

which on the 27th of June 1472 saved Beauvais when it was on the point

of being taken by the troops of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. The

town was defended by only 300 men-at-arms, commanded by Louis de

Balagny. The Burgundians were making an assault, and one of their number

had actually planted a flag upon the battlements, when Jeanne, axe in

hand, flung herself upon him, hurled him into the moat, tore down the

flag, and revived the drooping courage of the garrison. In gratitude for

this heroic deed, Louis XI. instituted a procession in Beauvais called

the Procession of the Assault, and married Jeanne to her chosen lover

Colin Pilon, loading them with favours.

See Georges Vallat, _Jeanne Hachette_ (Abbeville, 1898).

HACHETTE, LOUIS CHRISTOPHE FRANCOIS (1800-1864), French publisher, was

born at Rethel in the Ardennes on the 5th of May 1800. After studying

three years at a normal school with the view of becoming a teacher, he

was in 1822 on political grounds expelled from the seminary. He then

studied law, but in 1826 he established in Paris a publishing business

for the issue of works adapted to improve the system of school

instruction, or to promote the general culture of the community. He

published manuals in various departments of knowledge, dictionaries of

modern and ancient languages, educational journals, and French, Latin

and Greek classics annotated with great care by the most eminent

authorities. Subsequently to 1850 he, in conjunction with other

partners, published a cheap railway library, scientific and

miscellaneous libraries, an illustrated library for the young, libraries

of ancient literature, of modern foreign literature, and of modern

foreign romance, a series of guide-books and a series of dictionaries of

universal reference. In 1855 he also founded _Le Journal pour tous_, a

publication with a circulation of 150,000 weekly. Hachette also

manifested great interest in the formation of mutual friendly societies

among the working classes, in the establishment of benevolent

institutions, and in other questions relating to the amelioration of the

poor, on which subjects he wrote various pamphlets; and he lent the

weight of his influence towards a just settlement of the question of

international literary copyright. He died on the 31st of July 1864.

HACHURE (French for "hatching"), the term for the conventional lines

used in hill or mountain shading upon a map (q.v.) to indicate the slope

of the surface, the depth of shading being greatest where the slope is

steepest. The method is less accurate than that of contour lines, but

gives an indication of the trend and extent of a range or mountain

system, especially upon small-scale maps.

HACIENDA (O. Span, _facienda_, from the Latin, meaning "things to be

done"), a Spanish term for a landed estate. It is commonly applied in

Spanish America to a country estate, on which stock-raising,

manufacturing or mining may be carried on, usually with a dwelling-house

for the owner's residence upon it. It is thus used loosely for a country

house.

HACKBERRY, a name given to the fruit of _Celtis occidentalis_, belonging

to the natural botanical order _Ulmaceae_, to which also belongs the elm

(_Ulmus_). It is also known under the name of "sugar-berry,"

"beaver-wood" and "nettle-tree." The hackberry tree is of middle size,

attaining from 60 to 80 ft. in height (though sometimes reaching 130

ft.), and with the aspect of an elm. The leaves are ovate in shape, with

a very long taper point, rounded and usually very oblique at the base,

usually glabrous above and soft-pubescent beneath. The soft filmy

flowers appear early in the spring before the expansion of the leaves.

The fruit is oblong, about half to three-quarters of an inch long, of a

reddish or yellowish colour when young, turning to a dark purple in

autumn. This tree is distributed through the deep shady forests

bordering river banks from Canada (where it is very rare) to the

southern states. The fruit has a sweetish and slightly astringent taste,

and is largely eaten in the United States. The seeds contain an oil like

that of almonds. The bark is tough and fibrous like hemp, and the wood

is heavy, soft, fragile and coarse-grained, and is used for making

fences and furniture. The root has been used as a dye for linens.

HACKENSACK, a town and the county-seat of Bergen county, New Jersey,

U.S.A., on the Hackensack river, 13 m. N. of Jersey City. Pop. (1890),

6004; (1900), 9443, of whom 2009 were foreign-born and 515 were negroes;

(1905) 11,098; (1910) 14,050. It is served by the New York, Susquehanna

& Western, and the New Jersey & New York railways, both being controlled

by the Erie Company; and indirectly by the West Shore (at Bogota, 1/2 m.

S.E.). Electric lines connect Hackensack with Newark, Passaic and

Paterson, and with New York ferries. The town extends from the low bank

of the river W. to the top of a ridge, about 40 ft. higher up, from

which there are good views to the S. and E. Hackensack is principally a

residential town, though there are a number of manufacturing

establishments in and near it. Silk and silk goods and wall-paper are

the principal manufactures. In 1905 the value of the town's factory

product was $1,488,358, an increase of 90.3% since 1900. There are an

historic mansion-house and an interesting old Dutch church, both erected

during the 18th century; and a monument marks the grave of General Enoch

Poor (1736-1780), an officer in the War of Independence, who was born at

Andover, Mass., entered the Continental Army from New Hampshire, and

took part in the campaign against Burgoyne, in the battle of Monmouth

and in General Sullivan's expedition against the Iroquois. Hackensack

was settled by the Dutch about 1640, and was named after the Hackensack

Indians, a division of the Unami Delawares, who lived in the valleys of

the Hackensack and Passaic rivers, and whose best-known chief was

Oritany, a friend of the whites. Hackensack is coextensive with the

township of New Barbadoes, first incorporated with considerably larger

territory in 1693.

HACKET, JOHN (1592-1670), bishop of Lichfield and Coventry, was born in

London and educated at Westminster and Trinity College, Cambridge. On

taking his degree he was elected a fellow of his college, and soon

afterwards wrote the comedy of _Loiola_ (London, 1648), which was twice

performed before James I. He was ordained in 1618, and through the

influence of John Williams (1582-1650) became rector in 1621 of Stoke

Hammond, Bucks, and Kirkby Underwood, Lincolnshire. In 1623 he was

chaplain to James, and in 1624 Williams presented him to the livings of

St Andrew's, Holborn, and Cheam, Surrey. When the so-called

"root-and-branch bill" was before parliament in 1641, Hacket was

selected to plead in the House of Commons for the continuance of

cathedral establishments. In 1645 his living of St Andrew's was

sequestered, but he was allowed to retain the rectory of Cheam. On the

accession of Charles II. his fortunes improved; he frequently preached

before the king, and in 1661 was consecrated bishop of Lichfield and

Coventry. His best-known book is the excellent biography of his patron,

Archbishop Williams, entitled _Scrinia reserata: a Memorial offered to

the great Deservings of John Williams, D.D._ (London, 1693).

HACKETT, HORATIO BALCH (1808-1875), American biblical scholar, was born

in Salisbury, Massachusetts, on the 27th of December 1808. He was

educated at Phillips-Andover Academy, at Amherst College, where he

graduated as valedictorian in 1830, and at Andover Theological Seminary,

where he graduated in 1834. He was adjunct professor of Latin and Greek

Languages and Literature at Brown University in 1835-1838 and professor

of Hebrew Literature there in 1838-1839, was ordained to the Baptist

ministry in 1839--he had become a Baptist at Andover as the result of

preparing a paper on baptism in the New Testament and the Fathers--and

in 1839-1868 he was professor of Biblical literature and interpretation

in Newton Theological Institution where his most important work was the

introduction of the modern German methods of Biblical criticism, which

he had learned from Moses Stuart at Andover and with which he made

himself more familiar in Germany (especially under Tholuck at Halle) in

1841. He travelled in Egypt and Palestine in 1852, and in 1858-1859 in

Greece, becoming proficient in modern Greek. From 1870 until his death

in Rochester, New York, on the 2nd of November 1875, he was professor of

Biblical literature and New Testament exegesis in the Rochester

Theological Seminary. He was a great teacher but a greater critical and

exegetical scholar.

He wrote _Christian Memorials of the War_ (1864); an English version

of Winer's _Grammar of the Chaldee Language_ (1844); _Exercises in

Hebrew Grammar_ (1847); and various articles on the Semitic language

and literature in periodicals; but his best-known work was in general

commentary on the Bible and translation, and in the special text study

of the New Testament. Under these two headings fall: _Illustrations of

Scripture; suggested by a Tour through the Holy Land_ (1855); the

American revision, with Ezra Abbot, of Smith's _Dictionary of the

Bible_, to the British edition of which he had contributed about

thirty articles; _Commentary on the Original Text of the Acts of the

Apostles_ (1852; 2nd edition, 1858), for many years the best English

commentary; _Notes on the Greek Text of the Epistle of Paul to

Philemon_, and a _Revised Version_ of Philemon, both published in

1860; the English versions, in Schaff's edition of Lange's

_Commentaries_, of Van Oosterzee's _Philemon_ and Braune's

_Philippians_; and for the American Bible Union Version of the Bible

he translated the books of Ruth and Judges, and aided T. J. Conant in

editorial revision; and he was one of the American translators for the

English Bible revision.

See _Memorials of Horatio Batch Hackett_ (Rochester, N.Y., 1876),

edited by G. H. Whittemore.

HACKETT, JAMES HENRY (1800-1871), American actor, was born in New York.

After an unsuccessful entry into business, in 1826 he went on the stage,

where he soon established a reputation as a player of eccentric

character parts. As Falstaff he was no less successful in England than

in America. At various times he went into management, and he was the

author of _Notes and Comments on Shakespeare_ (1863).

His son, JAMES KETELTAS HACKETT (1869- ), born at Wolfe Island,

Ontario, and educated at the College of the City of New York, also

became an actor. He came into prominence at the Lyceum in Daniel

Frohman's company, and afterwards had considerable success in romantic

parts. As a manager he stood outside the American syndicate of theatres,

and organized several companies to play throughout the United States. In

1897 he married Mary Mannering, the Anglo-American actress.

HACKLANDER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM VON (1816-1877), German novelist and

dramatist, was born at Burtscheid near Aix-la-Chapelle on the 1st of

November 1816. Having served an apprenticeship in a commercial house, he

entered the Prussian artillery, but, disappointed at not finding

advancement, returned to business. A soldier's life had a fascination

for him, and he made his debut as an author with _Bilder aus dem

Soldatenleben im Frieden_ (1841). After a journey to the east, he was

appointed secretary to the crown prince of Wurttemberg, whom he

accompanied on his travels. _Wachtstubenabenteuer_, a continuation of

his first work, appeared in 1845, and it was followed by _Bilder aus dem

Soldatenleben im Kriege_ (1849-1850). As a result of a tour in Spain in

1854, appeared _Ein Winter in Spanien_ (1855). In 1857 he founded, in

conjunction with Edmund von Zoller, the illustrated weekly, _Uber Land

und Meer_. In 1859 Hacklander was appointed director of royal parks and

public gardens at Stuttgart, and in this post did much towards the

embellishment of the city. In 1859 he was attached to the headquarters

staff of the Austrian army during the Italian war; in 1861 he was raised

to an hereditary knighthood in Austria; in 1864 he retired into private

life, and died on the 6th of July 1877. Hacklander's literary talent is

confined within narrow limits. There is much in his works of lively,

adventurous and even romantic description, but the character-drawing is

feeble and superficial.

Hacklander was a voluminous writer; the most complete edition of his

works is the third, published at Stuttgart in 1876, in 60 volumes.

There is also a good selection in 20 volumes (1881). Among his novels,

_Namenlose Geschichten_ (1851); _Eugen Stillfried_ (1852); _Krieg und

Frieden_ (1859), and the comedies _Der geheime Agent_ (1850) and

_Magnetische Kuren_ (1851) may be specially mentioned. His

autobiography appeared in 1878 under the title, _Der Roman meines

Lebens_ (2 vols.). See H. Morning, _Erinnerungen an F. W. Hacklander_

(1878).

HACKNEY, a north-eastern metropolitan borough of London, England,

bounded W. by Stoke Newington and Islington, and S. by Shoreditch,

Bethnal Green and Poplar, and extending N. and E. to the boundary of the

county of London. Pop. (1901), 219,272. It is a poor and populous

district, in which the main thoroughfares are Kingsland Road, continued

N. as Stoke Newington Road and Stamford Hill; Mare Street, continued

N.W. as Clapton Road to join Stamford Hill; and Lea Bridge Road running

N.E. towards Walthamstow and Low Leyton. The borough includes the

districts of Clapton in the north, Homerton in the east, and Dalston and

part of Kingsland in the west. On the east lies the open flat valley of

the Lea, which flows in several branches, and is bordered, immediately

outside the confines of the borough, by the extensive reservoirs of the

East London water-works. In these low lands lie the Hackney Marshes (338

acres; among several so-called marshes in the Lea valley), and the

borough also contains part of Victoria Park and a number of open spaces

collectively called the Hackney Commons, including Mill Fields, Hackney

Downs, London Fields, &c. The total area of open spaces exceeds 500

acres. The tower of the ancient parish church of St Augustine, with the

chapel of the Rowe family, still stands, and is the only historic

building of importance. Among institutions are the German hospital,

Dalston, Metropolitan hospital, Kingsland Road, and Eastern Fever

hospital, Homerton; and the Hackney polytechnic institute, with which is

incorporated the Sir John Cass institute. Cass (1666-1718), a merchant

of the city of London, also a member of parliament and sheriff,

bequeathed L1000 for the foundation of a free school; in 1732 the

bequest was increased in accordance with an unfinished codicil to his

will; and the income provided from it is now about L6000, some 250 boys

and girls being educated. The parliamentary borough of Hackney comprises

north, central and south divisions, each returning one member; and the

northern division includes the metropolitan borough of Stoke Newington.

The metropolitan borough of Hackney includes part of the Hornsey

parliamentary division of Middlesex. The borough council consists of a

mayor, 10 aldermen and 60 councillors. Area, 3288.9 acres.

In the 13th century the name appears as _Hackenaye_ or _Hacquenye_, but

no certain derivation is advanced. Roman and other remains have been

found in Hackney Marshes. In 1290 the bishop of London was lord of the

manor, which was so held until 1550, when it was granted to Thomas, Lord

Wentworth. In 1697 it came into the hands of the Tyssen family.

Extensive property in the parish also belonged to the priory of the

Knights Hospitallers of St John of Jerusalem at Clerkenwell. From the

16th to the early 19th century there were many fine residences in

Hackney. The neighbourhood of Hackney had at one time an evil reputation

as the haunt of highwaymen.

HACKNEY (from Fr. _haquenee_, Lat. _equus_, an ambling horse or mare,

especially for ladies to ride; the English "hack" is simply an

abbreviation), originally a riding-horse. At the present day, however,

the hackney (as opposed to a thoroughbred) is bred for driving as well

as riding (see HORSE: _Breeds_). From the hiring-out of hackneys, the

word came to be associated with employment for hire (so "a hack," as a

general term for "drudge"), especially in combination, e.g.

hackney-chair, hackney-coach, hackney-boat. The hackney-coach, a coach

with four wheels and two horses, was a form of hired public conveyance

(see CARRIAGE).

HADAD, the name of a Syrian deity, is met with in the Old Testament as

the name of several human persons; it also occurs in compound forms like

Benhadad and Hadadezer. The divinity primarily denoted by it is the

storm-god who was known also as Ramman, Bir and Dadda. The Syrian kings

of Damascus seem to have habitually assumed the title of Benhadad, or

son of Hadad (three of this name are mentioned in Scripture), just as a

series of Egyptian monarchs are known to have been accustomed to call

themselves sons of Amon-Ra. The word Hadadrimmon, for which the inferior

reading Hadarrimmon is found in some MSS. in the phrase "the mourning of

(or at) Hadadrimmon" (Zech. xii. 11), has been a subject of much

discussion. According to Jerome and all the older Christian

interpreters, the mourning for something that occurred at a place called

Hadadrimmon (Maximianopolis) in the valley of Megiddo is meant, the

event alluded to being generally held to be the death of Josiah (or, as

in the Targum, the death of Ahab at the hands of Hadadrimmon); but more

recently the opinion has been gaining ground that Hadadrimmon is merely

another name for Adonis (q.v.) or Tammuz, the allusion being to the

mournings by which the Adonis festivals were usually accompanied (Hitzig

on Zech. xii. 11, Isa. xvii. 8; Movers, _Phonizier_, i. 196). T. K.

Cheyne (_Encycl. Bibl._ s.v.) points out that the Septuagint reads

simply Rimmon, and argues that this may be a corruption of Migdon

(Megiddo), in itself a corruption of Tammuz-Adon. He would render the

verse, "In that day there shall be a great mourning in Jerusalem, as the

mourning of the women who weep for Tammuz-Adon" (_Adon_ means lord).

HADDINGTON, EARL OF, a Scottish title bestowed in 1627 upon Thomas

Hamilton, earl of Melrose (1563-1637). Thomas, who was a member of the

great family of Hamilton, being a son of Thomas Hamilton of Priestfield,

was a lawyer who became a lord of session as Lord Drumcairn in 1592. He

was on very friendly terms with James VI., his legal talents being

useful to the king, and he was one of the eight men who, called the

Octavians, were appointed to manage the finances of Scotland in 1596.

Having also become king's advocate in 1596, Hamilton was entrusted with

a large share in the government of his country when James went to London

in 1603; in 1612 he was appointed secretary of state for Scotland, and

in 1613 he was created Lord Binning and Byres. In 1616 he became lord

president of the court of session, and three years later was created

earl of Melrose, a title which he exchanged in 1627 for that of earl of

Haddington. After the death of James I. the earl resigned his offices of

president of the court of session and secretary of state, but he served

Charles I. as lord privy seal. He died on the 29th of May 1637.

Haddington, who was both scholarly and wealthy, left a large and

valuable collection of papers, which is now in the Advocates' library at

Edinburgh. James referred familiarly to his friend as _Tam o' the

Cowgate_, his Edinburgh residence being in this street.

The earl's eldest son THOMAS, the 2nd earl (1600-1640), was a covenanter

and a soldier, being killed by an explosion at Dunglass castle on the

30th of August 1640. His sons, THOMAS (d. 1645) and JOHN (d. 1669),

became respectively the 3rd and 4th earls of Haddington, and John's

grandson THOMAS (1679-1735) succeeded his father CHARLES (c. 1650-1685),

as 6th earl in 1685, although he was not the eldest but the second son.

This curious circumstance arose from the fact that when Charles married

Margaret (d. 1700), the heiress of the earldom of Rothes, it was agreed

that the two earldoms should be left separate; thus the eldest son John

became earl of Rothes while Thomas became earl of Haddington. Thomas was

a supporter of George I. during the rising of 1715, and was a

representative peer for Scotland from 1716 to 1734. He died on the 28th

of November 1735.

The 6th earl was a writer, but in this direction his elder son, CHARLES,

Lord Binning (1697-1732), is perhaps more celebrated. After fighting by

his father's side at Sheriffmuir in 1715 and serving as member of

parliament for St Germans, Binning died at Naples on the 27th of

December 1732. His eldest son, THOMAS (c. 1720-1794), became the 7th

earl in 1735, and the latter's grandson THOMAS (1780-1858) became the

9th earl in 1828. The 9th earl had been a member of parliament from 1802

to 1827, when he was made a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Melros

of Tyninghame, a title which became extinct upon his death. In 1834 he

became lord-lieutenant of Ireland under Sir Robert Peel, leaving office

in the following year, and in Peel's second administration (1841-1846)

he served as first lord of the admiralty and then as lord privy seal.

When he died without sons on the 1st of December 1858 the earldom

passed to his kinsman, GEORGE BAILLIE (1802-1870), a descendant of the

6th earl. This nobleman took the name of Baillie-Hamilton, and his son

GEORGE (b. 1827) became 11th earl of Haddington in 1870.

See _State Papers of Thomas, Earl of Melrose_, published by the

Abbotsford Club in 1837, and Sir W. Fraser, _Memorials of the Earls of

Haddington_ (1889).

HADDINGTON, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and county town of

Haddingtonshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 3993. It is situated on the

Tyne, 18 m. E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway, being the

terminus of a branch line from Longniddry Junction. Five bridges cross

the river, on the right bank of which lies the old and somewhat decayed

suburb of Nungate, interesting as having contained the Giffordgate,

where John Knox was born, and where also are the ruins of the

pre-Reformation chapel of St Martin. The principal building in the town

is St Mary's church, a cruciform Decorated edifice in red sandstone,

probably dating from the 13th century. It is 210 ft. long, and is

surmounted by a square tower 90 ft. high. The nave, restored in 1892, is

used as the parish church, but the choir and transepts are roofless,

though otherwise kept in repair. In a vault is a fine monument in

alabaster, consisting of the recumbent figures of John, Lord Maitland of

Thirlestane (1545-1595), chancellor of Scotland, and his wife. The

laudatory sonnet composed by James VI. is inscribed on the tomb. In the

same vault John, duke of Lauderdale (1616-1682), is buried. In the choir

is the tombstone which Carlyle erected over the grave of his wife, Jane

Baillie Welsh (1801-1866), a native of the town. Other public edifices

include the county buildings in the Tudor style, in front of which

stands the monument to George, 8th marquess of Tweeddale (1787-1876),

who was such an expert and enthusiastic coachman that he once drove the

mail from London to Haddington without taking rest; the corn exchange,

next to that of Edinburgh the largest in Scotland; the town house, with

a spire 150 ft. high, in front of which is a monument to John Home, the

author of _Douglas_; the district asylum to the north of the burgh; the

western district hospital; the Tenterfield home for children; the free

library and the Knox Memorial Institute. This last-named building was

erected in 1879 to replace the old and famous grammar school, where John

Knox, William Dunbar, John Major and possibly George Buchanan and Sir

David Lindsay were educated. John Brown (1722-1787), a once celebrated

dissenting divine, author of the _Self-Interpreting Bible_, ministered

in the burgh for 36 years and is buried there; his son John the

theologian (1754-1832), and his grandson Samuel (1817-1856), the

chemist, noted for his inquiries into the atomic theory, were natives.

Samuel Smiles (1812-1904), author of _Character, Self-Help_ and other

works, was also born there, and Edward Irving was for years mathematical

master in the grammar school. In Hardgate Street is "Bothwell Castle,"

the town house of the earl of Bothwell, where Mary Queen of Scots rested

on her way to Dunbar. The ancient market cross has been restored. The

leading industries are the making of agricultural implements,

manufactures of woollens and sacking, brewing, tanning and

coach-building, besides corn mills and engineering works.

The burgh is the retail centre for a large district, and its grain

markets, once the largest in Scotland, are still of considerable

importance. Haddington was created a royal burgh by David I. It also

received charters from Robert Bruce, Robert II. and James VI. In 1139 it

was given as a dowry to Ada, daughter of William de Warenne, earl of

Surrey, on her marriage to Prince Henry, the only son of David I. It was

occasionally the residence of royalty, and Alexander II. was born there

in 1198. Lying in the direct road of the English invaders, the town was

often ravaged. It was burned by King John in 1216 and by Henry III. in

1244. Fortified in 1548 by Lord Grey of Wilton, the English commander,

it was besieged next year by the Scots and French, who forced the

garrison to withdraw. So much slaughter had gone on during that period

of storm and stress that it was long impossible to excavate in any

direction without coming on human remains. The town has suffered much

periodically from floods. One of the most memorable of these occurred on

the 4th of October 1775, when the Tyne rose 8 ft. 9 in. above its bed

and inundated a great part of the burgh. An inscription in the centre of

the town records the event and marks the point to which the water rose.

There are many interesting places within a few miles of Haddington.

Five miles E. is Whittingehame House, and 5 m. N.E. is the thriving

village of East Linton (pop. 919). About 2-1/2 m. N. lies

Athelstaneford (locally, Elshinford), so named from the victory of

Hungus, king of the Picts, in the 8th century over the Northumbrian

Athelstane. On a hill near Drem, 3-1/2 m. N. by W., are traces of a

Romano-British settlement, and the remains of the priest's house of

the Knights Templars, to whom the barony once belonged. On the coast

is the pretty village of Aberlady on a fine bay, and in the

neighbourhood are some of the finest golf links in Scotland, such as

Luffness, Gullane, Archerfield and Muirfield. On Gosford Bay is

Gosford House, an 18th-century mansion, the seat of the earl of

Wemyss. At Gladsmuir, 3-1/2 m. W. of Haddington, alleged by some to

have been the birthplace of George Heriot. Principal Robertson was

minister and wrote most of his _History of Scotland_. Of the old seat

of the Douglases at Longniddry few traces remain, and in the chapel,

now in ruins, at the eastern end of the village, John Knox is said to

have preached occasionally. At Gifford, 4 m. to the S., John

Witherspoon (1722-1794), president of the College of New Jersey

(Princeton), and Charles Nisbet (1736-1804), president of Dickinson

College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, were born. A little to the south of

Gifford are Yester House, a seat of the marquess of Tweeddale, finely

situated in a park of old trees, and the ruins of Yester Castle. The

cavern locally known as Hobgoblin Hall is described in _Marmion_, and

is associated with all kinds of manifestations of the black art.

Lennoxlove, 1-1/2 m. to the S., a seat of Lord Blantyre, was

originally called Lethington, and for a few centuries was associated

with the Maitlands. Amisfield, adjoining Haddington on the N.E., is

another seat of the earl of Wemyss.

HADDINGTONSHIRE, or _East Lothian_, a south-eastern county of Scotland,

bounded N. by the Firth of Forth, N.E. by the North Sea, E., S.E. and S.

by Berwickshire, and S.W. and W. by Edinburghshire. It covers an area of

171,011 acres, or 267 sq. m. Its sea-coast measures 41 m. The Bass Rock

and Fidra Isle belong to the shire, and there are numerous rocks and

reefs off the shore, especially between Dunbar and Gullane Bay. Broadly

speaking, the northern half of the shire slopes gently to the coast, and

the southern half is hilly. Several of the peaks of the Lammermuirs

exceed 1500 ft., and the more level tract is broken by Traprain Law

(724) in the parish of Prestonkirk, North Berwick Law (612), and

Garleton Hill (590) to the north of the county town. The only important

river is the Tyne, which rises to the south-east of Borthwick in

Mid-Lothian, and, taking a generally north-easterly direction, reaches

the sea just beyond the park of Tynninghame House, after a course of 28

m., for the first 7 m. of which it belongs to its parent shire. It is

noted for a very fine variety of trout, and salmon are sometimes taken

below the linn at East Linton. The Whiteadder rises in the parish of

Whittingehame, but, flowing towards the south-east, leaves the shire and

at last joins the Tweed near Berwick. There are no natural lakes, but in

the parish of Stenton is found Pressmennan Loch, an artificial sheet of

water of somewhat serpentine shape, about 2 m. in length, with a width

of some 400 yds., which was constructed in 1819 by damming up the ravine

in which it lies. The banks are wooded and picturesque, and the water

abounds with trout.

_Geology._--The higher ground in the south, including the Lammermuir

Hills, is formed by shales, greywackes and grits of Ordovician and

Silurian age; a narrow belt of the former lying on the north-western

side of the latter, the strike being S.W. to N.E. The granitic mass of

Priestlaw and other felsitic rocks have been intruded into these

strata. The lower Old Red Sandstone has not been observed in this

county, but the younger sandstones and conglomerates fill up ancient

depressions in the Silurian and Ordovician, such as that running

northward from Oldhamstocks towards Dunbar and the valley of

Lauderdale. A faulted-in tract of the same formation, about 1 m. in

breadth, runs westward from Dunbar to near Gifford. Carboniferous

rocks form the remainder of the county. The Calciferous Sandstone

series, shales, thin limestones and sandstones, is exposed on the

south-eastern coast; but between Gifford and North Berwick and from

Aberlady to Dunbar it is represented by a great thickness of volcanic

rocks consisting of tuffs and coarse breccias in the lower beds, and

of porphyritic and andesitic lavas above. These rocks are well exposed

on the coast, in the Garleton Hills and Traprain Law; the latter and

North Berwick Law are volcanic necks or vents. The Carboniferous

Limestone series which succeeds the Calciferous Sandstone consists of

a middle group of sandstones, shales, coals and ironstones, with a

limestone group above and below. The coal-field is synclinal in

structure, Port Seton being about the centre; it contains ten seams of

coal, and the area covered by it is some 30 sq. m. Glacial boulder

clay lies over much of the lower ground, and ridges of gravel and sand

flank the hills and form extensive sheets. Traces of old raised

sea-beaches are found at several points along the coast. At North

Berwick, Tynninghame and elsewhere there are stretches of blown sand.

Limestone is worked at many places, and hematite was formerly obtained

from the Garleton Hills.

_Climate and Agriculture._--Though the county is exposed to the full

sweep of the east wind during March, April and May, the climate is on

the whole mild and equable. The rainfall is far below the average of

Great Britain, the mean for the year being 25 in., highest in midsummer

and lowest in spring. The average temperature for the year is 47 deg. 5

F., for January 38 deg. and for July 59 deg. Throughout nearly the whole

of the 19th century East Lothian agriculture was held to be the best in

Scotland, not so much in consequence of the natural fertility of the

soil as because of the enterprise of the cultivators, several of whom,

like George Hope of Fenton Barns (1811-1876), brought scientific farming

almost to perfection. Mechanical appliances were adopted with

exceptional alacrity, and indeed some that afterwards came into general

use were first employed in Haddington. Drill sowing of turnips dates

from 1734. The threshing machine was introduced by Andrew Meikle

(1719-1811) in 1787, the steam plough in 1862, and the reaping machine

soon after its invention, while tile draining was first extensively used

in the county. East Lothian is famous for the richness of its grain and

green crops, the size of its holdings (average 200 acres) and the good

housing of its labourers. The soils vary. Much of the Lammermuirs is

necessarily unproductive, though the lower slopes are cultivated, a

considerable tract of the land being very good. In the centre of the

shire occurs a belt of tenacious yellow clay on a tilly subsoil which is

not adapted for agriculture. Along the coast the soil is sandy, but

farther inland it is composed of rich loam and is very fertile. The land

about Dunbar is the most productive, yielding a potato--the "Dunbar

red"--which is highly esteemed in the markets. Of the grain crops oats

and barley are the principal, and their acreage is almost a constant,

but wheat, after a prolonged decline, has experienced a revival. Turnips

and potatoes are cultivated extensively, and with marked success, and

constitute nearly all the green crops raised. Although pasture-land is

below the average, live-stock are reared profitably. About one-sixteenth

of the total area is under wood.

_Other Industries._--Fisheries are conducted from Dunbar, North Berwick,

Port Seton and Prestonpans, the catch consisting chiefly of cod,

haddock, whiting and shellfish. Fireclay as well as limestone is worked,

and there are some stone quarries, but the manufactures are mainly

agricultural implements, pottery, woollens, artificial manures,

feeding-stuffs and salt, besides brewing. Coal of a very fair quality is

extensively worked at Tranent, Ormiston, Macmerry and near Prestonpans,

the coal-field having an area of about 30 sq. m. Limestone is found

throughout the greater part of the shire. A vein of hematite of a

peculiarly fine character was discovered in 1866 at Garleton Hill, and

wrought for some years. Ironstone has been mined at Macmerry.

The North British Company possess the sole running powers in the county,

through which is laid their main line to Berwick and the south. Branches

are sent off at Drem to North Berwick, at Longniddry to Haddington and

also to Gullane, at Smeaton (in Mid-Lothian) to Macmerry, and at

Ormiston to Gifford.

_Population and Government._--The population was 37,377 in 1891, and

38,665 in 1901, when 459 persons spoke Gaelic and English, and 7 spoke

Gaelic only. The chief towns are Dunbar (pop. in 1901, 3581), Haddington

(3993), North Berwick (2899), Prestonpans (2614) and Tranent (2584). The

county, which returns one member to Parliament, forms part of the

sheriffdom of the Lothians and Peebles, and there is a resident

sheriff-substitute at Haddington, who sits also at Dunbar, Tranent and

North Berwick. The shire is under school-board jurisdiction, and besides

high schools at Haddington and North Berwick, some of the elementary

schools earn grants for higher education. The county council spends a

proportion of the "residue" grant in supporting short courses of

instruction in technical subjects (chiefly agriculture), in experiments

in the feeding of cattle and the growing of crops, and in defraying the

travelling expenses of technical students.

_History._--Of the Celts, who were probably the earliest inhabitants,

traces are found in a few place names and circular camps (in the

parishes of Garvald and Whittinghame) and hill forts (in the parish of

Bolton). After the Roman occupation, of which few traces remain, the

district formed part of the Saxon kingdom of Northumbria until 1018,

when it was joined to Scotland by Malcolm II. It was comparatively

prosperous till the wars of Bruce and Baliol, but from that period down

to the union of the kingdoms it suffered from its nearness to the Border

and from civil strife. The last battles fought in the county were those

of Dunbar (1650) and Prestonpans (1745).

See J. Miller, _History of Haddington_ (1844); D. Croal, _Sketches of

East Lothian_ (Haddington, 1873); John Martine, _Reminiscences of the

County of Haddington_ (Haddington, 1890, 1894); Dr Wallace James,

_Writs and Charters of Haddington_ (Haddington, 1898).

HADDOCK (_Gadus aeglefinus_), a fish which differs from the cod in

having the mental barbel very short, the first anal fin with 22 to 25

rays, instead of 17 to 20, and the lateral line dark instead of whitish;

it has a large blackish spot above each pectoral fin--associated in

legend with the marks of St Peter's finger and thumb, the haddock being

supposed to be the fish from whose mouth he took the tribute-money. It

attains to a weight of 15 [lb] and is one of the most valuable food

fishes of Europe, both fresh and smoked, the "finnan haddie" of Scotland

being famous. It is common round the British and Irish coasts, and

generally distributed along the shores of the North Sea, extending

across the Atlantic to the coast of North America.

HADDON HALL, one of the most famous ancient mansions in England. It lies

on the left bank of the river Wye, 2 m. S.E. of Bakewell in Derbyshire.

It is not now used as a residence, but the fabric is maintained in

order. The building is of stone and oblong in form, and encloses two

quadrangles separated by the great banqueting-hall and adjoining

chambers. The greater part is of two storeys, and surmounted by

battlements. To the south and south-east lie terraced gardens, and the

south front of the eastern quadrangle is occupied by the splendid

ball-room or long gallery. At the south-west corner of the mansion is

the chapel; at the north-east the Peveril tower. The periods of building

represented are as follows. Norman work appears in the chapel (which

also served as a church for the neighbouring villagers), also in certain

fundamental parts of the fabric, notably the Peveril tower. There are

Early English and later additions to the chapel; the banqueting-hall,

with the great kitchen adjacent to it, and part of the Peveril tower are

of the 14th century. The eastern range of rooms, including the

state-room, are of the 15th century; the western and north-western parts

were built shortly after 1500. The ball-room is of early 17th-century

construction, and the terraces and gardens were laid out at this time. A

large number of interesting contemporary fittings are preserved,

especially in the banqueting-hall and kitchen; and many of the rooms are

adorned with tapestries of the 16th and 17th centuries, some of which

came from the famous works at Mortlake in Surrey.

A Roman altar was found and is preserved here, but no trace of Roman

inhabitants has been discovered. Haddon was a manor which before the

Conquest and at the time of the Domesday Survey belonged to the king,

but was granted by William the Conqueror to William Peverel, whose son,

another William Peverel, forfeited it for treason on the accession of

Henry II. Before that time, however, the manor of Haddon had been

granted to the family of Avenell, who continued to hold it until one

William Avenell died without male issue and his property was divided

between his two daughters and heirs, one of whom married Richard Vernon,

whose successors acquired the other half of the manor in the reign of

Edward III. Sir George Vernon, who died in 1561, was known as the "King

of the Peak" on account of his hospitality. His daughter Dorothy married

John Manners, second son of the earl of Rutland, who is said to have

lived for some time in the woods round Haddon Hall, disguised as a

gamekeeper, until he persuaded Dorothy to elope with him. On Sir

George's death without male issue Haddon passed to John Manners and

Dorothy, who lived in the Hall. Their grandson John Manners succeeded to

the title of earl of Rutland in 1641, and the duke of Rutland is still

lord of the manor.

See _Victoria County History, Derbyshire_; S. Rayner, _History and

Antiquities of Haddon Hall_ (1836-1837); Haddon Hall, _History and

Antiquities of Haddon Hall_ (1867); G. le Blanc Smith, _Haddon, the

Manor, the Hall, its Lords and Traditions_ (London, 1906).

HADEN, SIR FRANCIS SEYMOUR (1818-1910), English surgeon and etcher, was

born in London on the 16th of September 1818, his father, Charles Thomas

Haden, being a well-known doctor and amateur of music. He was educated

at University College school and University College, London, and also

studied at the Sorbonne, Paris, where he took his degree in 1840. He was

admitted as a member of the College of Surgeons in London in 1842.

Besides his many-sided activities in the scientific world, during a busy

and distinguished career as a surgeon, he followed the art of original

etching with such vigour that he became not only the foremost British

exponent of that art but was the principal cause of its revival in

England. By his strenuous efforts and perseverance, aided by the

secretarial ability of Sir W. R. Drake, he founded the Royal Society of

Painter-Etchers and Engravers. As president he ruled the destinies of

that society with a strong hand from its first beginnings in 1880. In

1843-1844, with his friends Duval, Le Cannes and Col. Guibout, he had

travelled in Italy and made his first sketches from nature. Haden

attended no art school and had no art teachers, but in 1845, 1846, 1847

and 1848 he studied portfolios of prints belonging to an old second-hand

dealer named Love, who had a shop in Bunhill Row, the old Quaker quarter

of London. These portfolios he would carry home, and arranging the

prints in chronological order, he studied the works of the great

original engravers, Durer, Lucas van Leyden and Rembrandt. These

studies, besides influencing his original work, led to his important

monograph on the etched work of Rembrandt. By lecture and book, and with

the aid of the memorable exhibition at the Burlington Fine Arts Club in

1877, he endeavoured to give a just idea of Rembrandt's work, separating

the true from the false, and giving altogether a nobler idea of the

master's mind by taking away from the list of his works many dull and

unseemly plates that had long been included in the lists. His reasons

are founded upon the results of a study of the master's works in

chronological order, and are clearly expressed in his monograph, _The

Etched Work of Rembrandt critically reconsidered_, privately printed in

1877, and in _The Etched Work of Rembrandt True and False_ (1895).

Notwithstanding all this study of the old masters of his art, Haden's

own plates are perhaps more individual than any artist's, and are

particularly noticeable for a fine original treatment of landscape

subjects, free and open in line, clear and well divided in mass, and

full of a noble and dignified style of his own. Even when working from a

picture his personality dominates the plate, as for example in the large

plate he etched after J. M. W. Turner's "Calais Pier," which is a

classical example of what interpretative work can do in black and white.

Of his original plates, more than 250 in number, one of the most notable

was the large "Breaking up of the Agamemnon." An early plate, rare and

most beautiful, is "Thames Fisherman." "Mytton Hall" is broad in

treatment, and a fine rendering of a shady avenue of yew trees leading

to an old manor-house in sunlight. "Sub Tegmine" was etched in Greenwich

Park in 1859; and "Early Morning--Richmond," full of the poetry and

freshness of the hour, was done, the artist has said, actually at

sunrise. One of the rarest and most beautiful of his plates is "A

By-Road in Tipperary"; "Combe Bottom" is another; and "Shere Mill Pond"

(both the small study and the larger plate), "Sunset in Ireland,"

"Penton Hook," "Grim Spain" and "Evening Fishing, Longparish," are also

notable examples of his genius. A catalogue of his works was begun by

Sir William Drake and completed by Mr N. Harrington (1880). During later

years Haden began to practise the sister art of mezzotint engraving,

with a measure of the same success that he had already achieved in pure

etching and in dry-point. Some of his mezzotints are: "An Early Riser,"

a stag seen through the morning mists, "Grayling Fishing" and "A Salmon

Pool on the Spey." He also produced some remarkable drawings of trees

and park-like country in charcoal.

Other books by Haden not already mentioned are--_Etudes a l'eau forte_

(Paris, 1865); _About Etching_ (London, 1878-1879); _The Art of the

Painter-Etcher_ (London, 1890); _The Relative Claims of Etching and

Engraving to rank as Fine Arts and to be represented in the Royal

Academy_ (London, 1883); _Address to Students of Winchester School of

Art_ (Winchester, 1888); _Cremation: a Pamphlet_ (London, 1875); and

_The Disposal of the Dead, a Plea for Legislation_ (London, 1888). As

the last two indicate, he was an ardent champion of a system of "earth

to earth" burial.

Among numerous distinctions he received the Grand Prix, Paris, in 1889

and 1900, and was made a member of the Institut de France, Academie des

Beaux-Arts and Societe des Artistes Francais. He was knighted in 1894,

and died on the 1st of June 1910. He married in 1847 a sister of the

artist J. A. M. Whistler; and his elder son, Francis Seymour Haden (b.

1850), had a distinguished career as a member of the government in Natal

from 1881 to 1893, being made a C.M.G. in 1890. (C. H.*)

HADENDOA (from Beja _Hada_, chief, and _endowa_, people), a nomad tribe

of Africans of "Hamitic" origin. They inhabit that part of the eastern

Sudan extending from the Abyssinian frontier northward nearly to Suakin.

They belong to the Beja people, of which, with the Bisharin and the

Ababda, they are the modern representatives. They are a pastoral people,

ruled by a hereditary chief who is directly responsible to the

(Anglo-Egyptian) Sudan government. Although the official capital of the

Hadendoa country is Miktinab, the town of Fillik on an affluent of the

Atbara is really their headquarters. A third of the total population is

settled in the Suakin country. Osman Digna, one of the best-known chiefs

during the Madhia, was a Hadendoa, and the tribe contributed some of the

fiercest of the dervish warriors in the wars of 1883-98. So determined

were they in their opposition to the Anglo-Egyptian forces that the name

Hadendoa grew to be nearly synonymous with "rebel." But this was the

result of Egyptian misgovernment rather than religious enthusiasm; for

the Hadendoa are true Beja, and Mahommedans only in name. Their

elaborate hairdressing gained them the name of "Fuzzy-wuzzies" among the

British troops. They earned an unenviable reputation during the wars by

their hideous mutilations of the dead on the battlefields. After the

reconquest of the Egyptian Sudan (1896-98) the Hadendoa accepted the new

order without demur.

See _Anglo-Egyptian Sudan_, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 1905);

Sir F. R. Wingate, _Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan_ (London, 1891); G.

Sergi, _Africa: Anthropology of the Hamitic Race_ (1897); A. H. Keane,

_Ethnology of the Egyptian Sudan_ (1884).

HADERSLEBEN (Dan. _Haderslev_), a town of Germany, in the Prussian

province of Schleswig-Holstein, 31 m. N. from Flensburg. Pop. (1905)

9289. It lies in a pleasant valley on the Hadersleben fjord, which is

about 9 m. in length, and communicates with the Little Belt, and at the

junction of the main line of railway from Woyens with three vicinal

lines. The principal buildings are the beautiful church of St Mary,

dating from the 13th century, the theological seminary established in

1870, the gymnasium and the hospital. The industries include

iron-founding, tanning, and the manufacture of machines, tobacco and

gloves. The harbour is only accessible to small vessels.

Hadersleben is first mentioned in 1228, and received municipal rights

from Duke Waldemar II. in 1292. It suffered considerably during the wars

between Schleswig and Holstein in the 15th century. In November 1864 it

passed with Schleswig to Prussia. Two Danish kings, Frederick II. and

Frederick III., were born at Hadersleben.

See A. Sach, _Der Ursprung der Stadt Hadersleben_ (Hadersleben, 1892).

HADING, JANE (1859- ), French actress, whose real name was Jeanne

Alfredine Trefouret, was born on the 25th of November 1859 at

Marseilles, where her father was an actor at the Gymnase. She was

trained at the local Conservatoire and was engaged in 1873 for the

theatre at Algiers, and afterwards for the Khedivial theatre at Cairo,

where she played, in turn, coquette, soubrette and _ingenue_ parts.

Expectations had been raised by her voice, and when she returned to

Marseilles she sang in operetta, besides acting in _Ruy Blas_. Her Paris

debut was in _La Chaste Suzanne_ at the Palais Royal, and she was again

heard in operetta at the Renaissance. In 1883 she had a great success at

the Gymnase in _Le Maitre de forges_. In 1884 she married Victor Koning

(1842-1894), the manager of that theatre, but divorced him in 1887. In

1888 she toured America with Coquelin, and on her return helped to give

success to Lavedan's _Prince d'Aurec_, at the Vaudeville. Her reputation

as one of the leading actresses of the day was now established not only

in France but in America and England. Her later repertoire included _Le

Demi-monde_, Capus's _La Chatelaine_, Maurice Donnay's _Retour de

Jerusalem_, _La Princesse Georges_ by Dumas fils, and Emile Bergerat's

_Plus que reine_.

HADLEIGH, a market town in the Sudbury parliamentary division of

Suffolk, England; 70 m. N.E. from London, the terminus of a branch of

the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of Urban district (1901), 3245. It lies

pleasantly in a well-wooded country on the small river Brett, a

tributary of the Stour. The church of St Mary is of good Perpendicular

work, with Early English tower and Decorated spire. The Rectory Tower, a

turreted gate-house of brick, dates from c. 1495. The gild-hall is a

Tudor building, and there are other examples of this period. There are a

town-hall and corn exchange, and an industry in the manufacture of

matting and in malting. Hadleigh was one of the towns in which the

woollen industry was started by Flemings, and survived until the 18th

century. Among the rectors of Hadleigh several notable names appear,

such as Rowland Taylor, the martyr, who was burned at the stake outside

the town in 1555, and Hugh James Rose, during whose tenancy of the

rectory an initiatory meeting of the leaders of the Oxford Movement took

place here in 1833.

Hadleigh, called by the Saxons Heapde-leag, appears in Domesday Book as

Hetlega. About 885 Aethelflaed, lady of the Mercians, with the consent of

Aethelred her husband, gave Hadleigh to Christ Church, Canterbury. The

dean and chapter of Canterbury have held possession of it ever since the

Dissolution. In the 17th century Hadleigh was famous for the manufacture

of cloth, and in 1618 was sufficiently important to receive

incorporation. It was constituted a free borough under the title of the

mayor, aldermen and burgesses of Hadleigh. In 1635, in a list of the

corporate towns of Suffolk to be assessed for ship money, Hadleigh is

named as third in importance. In 1636, owing to a serious visitation of

the plague, 200 families were thrown out of work, and in 1687 so much

had its importance declined that it was deprived of its charter. An

unsuccessful attempt to recover it was made in 1701. There is evidence

of the existence of a market here as early as the 13th century. James

I., in his charter of incorporation, granted fairs on Monday and Tuesday

in Whitsun week, and confirmed an ancient fair at Michaelmas and a

market on Monday.

HADLEY, ARTHUR TWINING (1856- ), American political economist and

educationist, president of Yale University, was born in New Haven,

Connecticut, on the 23rd of April 1856. He was the son of James Hadley,

the philologist, from whom, as from his mother--whose brother, Alexander

Catlin Twining (1801-1884), was an astronomer and authority on

constitutional law--he inherited unusual mathematical ability. He

graduated at Yale in 1876 as valedictorian, having taken prizes in

English, classics and astronomy; studied political science at Yale

(1876-1877) and at Berlin (1878-1879); was a tutor at Yale in 1879-1883,

instructor in political science in 1883-1886, professor of political

science in 1886-1891, professor of political economy in 1891-1899, and

dean of the Graduate School in 1892-1895; and in 1899 became president

of Yale University--the first layman to hold that office. He was

commissioner of the Connecticut bureau of labour statistics in

1885-1887. As an economist he first became widely known through his

investigation of the railway question and his study of railway rates,

which antedated the popular excitement as to rebates. His _Railroad

Transportation, its History and Laws_ (1885) became a standard work, and

appeared in Russian (1886) and French (1887); he testified as an expert

on transportation before the Senate committee which drew up the

Interstate Commerce Law; and wrote on railways and transportation for

the Ninth and Tenth Editions (of which he was one of the editors) of the

_Encyclopaedia Britannica_, for Lalor's _Cyclopaedia of Political

Science, Political Economy, and Political History of the United Stales_

(3 vols., 1881-1884), for _The American Railway_ (1888), and for _The

Railroad Gazette_ in 1884-1891, and for other periodicals. His idea of

the broad scope of economic science, especially of the place of ethics

in relation to political economy and business, is expressed in his

writings and public addresses. In 1907-1908 he was Theodore Roosevelt

professor of American History and Institutions in the university of

Berlin.

Among his other publications are: _Economics: an Account of the

Relations between Private Property and Public Welfare_ (1896); _The

Education of the American Citizen_ (1901); _The Relations between

Freedom and Responsibility in the Evolution of Democratic Government_

(1903, in Yale Lectures on the Responsibilities of Citizenship);

_Baccalaureate Addresses_ (1907); and _Standards of Public Morality_

(1907), being the Kennedy Lectures for 1906.

HADLEY, JAMES (1821-1872), American scholar, was born on the 30th of

March 1821 in Fairfield, Herkimer county, New York, where his father was

professor of chemistry in Fairfield Medical College. At the age of nine

an accident lamed him for life. He graduated from Yale in 1842, having

entered the Junior class in 1840; studied in the Theological Department

of Yale, and in 1844-1845 was a tutor in Middlebury College. He was

tutor at Yale in 1845-1848, assistant professor of Greek in 1848-1851,

and professor of Greek, succeeding President Woolsey, from 1851 until

his death in Hew Haven on the 14th of November 1872. As an undergraduate

he showed himself an able mathematician, but the influence of Edward

Elbridge Salisbury, under whom Hadley and W. D. Whitney studied Sanskrit

together, turned his attention toward the study of language. He knew

Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, Hebrew, Arabic, Armenian, several Celtic

languages and the languages of modern Europe; but he published little,

and his scholarship found scant outlet in the college class-room. His

most original written work was an essay on Greek accent, published in a

German version in Curtius's _Studien zur griechischen und lateinischen

Grammatik_. Hadley's _Greek Grammar_ (1860; revised by Frederic de

Forest Allen, 1884) was based on Curtius's _Schulgrammatik_ (1852, 1855,

1857, 1859), and long held its place in American schools. Hadley was a

member of the American Committee for the revision of the New Testament,

was president of the American Oriental Society (1871-1872), and

contributed to Webster's dictionary an essay on the _History of the

English Language_. In 1873 were published his _Introduction to Roman

Law_ (edited by T. D. Woolsey) and his _Essays, Philological and

Critical_ (edited by W. D. Whitney).

See the memorial by Noah Porter in _The New Englander_, vol. xxxii.

(Jan. 1873), pp. 35-55; and the sketch by his son, A. T. Hadley, in

_Biographical Memoirs_ of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. v.

(1905), pp. 247-254.

HADLEY, a township of Hampshire county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the

Connecticut river, about 20 m. N. of Springfield, served by the Boston &

Maine railway. Pop. (1900), 1789; (1905, state census), 1895; (1910)

1999. Area, about 20 sq. m. The principal villages are Hadley (or Hadley

Center) and North Hadley. The level country along the river is well

adapted to tobacco culture, and the villages are engaged in the

manufacture of tobacco and brooms. Hadley was settled in 1659 by members

of the churches in Hartford and Wethersfield, Connecticut, who were

styled "Strict Congregationalists" and withdrew from these Connecticut

congregations because of ecclesiastical and doctrinal laxity there. At

first the town was called Norwottuck, but within a year or two it was

named after Hadleigh in England, and was incorporated under this name in

1661. Hopkins Academy (1815) developed from Hopkins school, founded here

in 1664. The English regicides Edward Whalley and his son-in-law William

Goffe found a refuge at Hadley from 1664 apparently until their deaths,

and there is a tradition that Goffe or Whalley in 1675 led the people in

repelling an Indian attack. From 1675 to 1713 Hadley, being in almost

constant danger of attack from the Indians, was protected by a palisade

enclosure and by stockades around the meeting-house. From Hadley,

Hatfield was set apart in 1670, South Hadley in 1753, and Amherst in

1759.

See Alice M. Walker, _Historic Hadley_ (New York, 1906); and Sylvester

Judd, _History of Hadley_ (Northampton, 1863; new ed., 1905).

HADRAMUT, a district on the south coast of Arabia, bounded W. by Yemen,

E. by Oman and N. by the Dahna desert. The modern Arabs restrict the

name to the coast between Balhaf and Sihut, and the valley of the Wadi

Hadramut in the interior; in its wider and commonly accepted

signification it includes also the Mahra and Gara coasts extending

eastwards to Mirbat; thus defined, its limits are between 14 deg. and 18

deg. N. and 47 deg. 30' to 55 deg. E., with a total length of 550 m. and

a breadth of 150 m.

The coastal plain is narrow, rarely exceeding 10 m. in width, and in

places the hills extend to the seashore. The principal ports are

Mukalla and Shihr, both considerable towns, and Kusair and Raida,

small fishing villages; inland there are a few villages near the foot

of the hills, with a limited area of cultivation irrigated by springs

or wells in the hill torrent beds. Behind the littoral plain a range

of mountains, or rather a high plateau, falling steeply to the south

and more gently to the north, extends continuously from the Yemen

highlands on the west to the mouth of the Hadramut valley, from which

a similar range extends with hardly a break to the border of Oman. Its

crest-line is generally some 30 m. from the coast, and its average

height between 4000 and 5000 ft. A number of wadis or ravines cutting

deeply into the plateau run northward to the main Wadi Hadramut, a

broad valley lying nearly east and west, with a total length from its

extreme western heads on the Yemen highlands to its mouth near Sihut

of over 500 m. Beyond the valley and steadily encroaching on it lies

the great desert extending for 300 m. to the borders of Nejd. The most

westerly village in the main valley is Shabwa, in ancient days the

capital, but now almost buried by the advancing desert. Lower down the

first large villages are Henan and Ajlania, near which the wadis 'Amd,

Duwan and el 'Ain unite, forming the W. Kasr. In the W. Duwan and its

branches are the villages of Haura, el Hajren, Kaidun and al Khureba.

Below Haura for some 60 m. there is a succession of villages with

fields, gardens and date groves; several tributaries join on either

side, among which the W. bin Ali and W. Adim from the south contain

numerous villages. The principal towns are Shibam, al Ghurfa, Saiyun,

Tariba, el Ghuraf, Tarim, formerly the chief place, 'Ainat and el

Kasm. Below the last-named place there is little cultivation Or

settled population. The shrines of Kabr Salih and Kabr Hud are looked

on as specially sacred, and are visited by numbers of pilgrims. The

former, which is in the Wadi Ser about 20 m. N.W. of Shibam, was

explored by Theodore Bent in 1894; the tomb itself is of no interest,

but in the neighbourhood there are extensive ruins with Himyaritic

inscriptions on the stones. Kabr Hud is in the main valley some

distance east of Kasm; not far from it is Bir Borhut, a natural

grotto, where fumes of burning sulphur issue from a number of volcanic

vents; al-Masudi mentions it in the 10th century as an active volcano.

Except after heavy rain, there is no running water in the Hadramut

valley, the cultivation therefore depends on artificial irrigation

from wells. The principal crops are wheat, millet, indigo, dates and

tobacco; this latter, known as Hamumi tobacco, is of excellent

quality.

Hadramut has preserved its name from the earliest times; it occurs in

Genesis as Hazarmaveth and Hadoram, sons of Joktan; and the old Greek

geographers mention Adramytta and Chadramotites in their accounts of the

frankincense country. The numerous ruins discovered in the W. Duwan and

Adim, as well as in the main valley, are evidences of its former

prosperity and civilization.

The people, known as Hadrami (plural Hadarim), belong generally to the

south Arabian stock, claiming descent from Ya'rab bin Kahtan. There is,

however, a large number of Seyyids or descendants of the Prophet, and

of townsmen of northern origin, besides a considerable class of African

or mixed descent. Van den Berg estimates the total population of

Hadramut (excluding the Mahra and Gara) at 150,000, of which he locates

50,000 in the valley between Shibam and Tarim, 25,000 in the W. Duwan

and its tributaries, and 25,000 in Mukalla, Shihr and the coast

villages, leaving 50,000 for the non-agricultural population scattered

over the rest of the country, probably an excessive estimate.

The Seyyids, descendants of [H.]osain, grandson of Mahomet, form a

numerous and highly respected aristocracy. They are divided into

families, the chiefs of which are known as Munsibs, who are looked on as

the religious leaders of the people, and are even in some cases

venerated as saints. Among the leading families are the Sheikh Abu Bakr

of Ainat, the el-Aidrus of Shihr and the Sakkaf of Saiyun. They do not

bear arms, nor occupy themselves in trade or manual labour or even

agriculture; though owning a large proportion of the land, they employ

slaves or hired labourers to cultivate it. As compared with the other

classes, they are well educated, and are strict in their observance of

religious duties, and owing to the respect due to their descent, they

exercise a strong influence both in temporal and spiritual affairs.

The tribesmen, as in Arabia generally, are the predominant class in the

population; all the adults carry arms; some of the tribes have settled

towns and villages, others lead a nomadic life, keeping, however, within

the territory which is recognized as belonging to the tribe. They are

divided into sections or families, each headed by a chief or abu (lit.

father), while the head of the tribe is called the mukaddam or sultan;

the authority of the chief depends largely on his personality: he is the

leader in peace and in war, but the tribesmen are not his subjects; he

can only rule with their support. The most powerful tribe at present in

Hadramut is the Kaiti, a branch of the Yafa tribe whose settlements lie

farther west. Originally invited by the Seyyids to protect the settled

districts from the attacks of marauding tribes, they have established

themselves as practically the rulers of the country, and now possess the

coast district with the towns of Shihr and Mukalla, as well as Haura,

Hajren and Shibam in the interior. The head of the family has

accumulated great wealth, and risen to the highest position in the

service of the nizam of Hyderabad in India, as Jamadar, or commander of

an Arab levy composed of his tribesmen, numbers of whom go abroad to

seek their fortune. The Kathiri tribe was formerly the most powerful;

they occupy the towns of Saiyun, Tarim and el-Ghuraf in the richest part

of the main Hadramut valley. The chiefs of both the Kaiti and Kathiri

are in political relations with the British government, through the

resident at Aden (q.v.). The 'Amudi in the W. Duwan, and the Nahdi,

Awamir and Tamimi in the main valley, are the principal tribes

possessing permanent villages; the Saiban, Hamumi and Manahil occupy the

mountains between the main valley and coast.

The townsmen are the free inhabitants of the towns and villages as

distinguished from the Seyyids and the tribesmen: they do not carry

arms, but are the working members of the community, merchants,

artificers, cultivators and servants, and are entirely dependent on the

tribes and chiefs under whose protection they live. The servile class

contains a large African element, brought over formerly when the slave

trade flourished on this coast; as in all Mahommedan countries they are

well treated, and often rise to positions of trust.

As already mentioned, a large number of Arabs from Hadramut go abroad;

the Kaiti tribesmen take service in India in the irregular troops of

Hyderabad; emigration on a large scale has also gone on, to the Dutch

colonies in Java and Sumatra, since the beginning of the 19th century.

According to the census of 1885, quoted by Van den Berg in his _Report_

published by the government of the Dutch East Indies in 1886, the number

of Arabs in those colonies actually born in Arabia was 2500, while those

born in the colonies exceeded 20,000; nearly all of the former are from

the towns in the Hadramut valley between Shibam and Tarim. Mukalla and

Shihr have a considerable trade with the Red Sea and Persian Gulf

ports, as well as with the ports of Aden, Dhafar and Muscat; a large

share of this is in the hands of Parsee and other British Indian traders

who have established themselves in the Hadramut ports. The principal

imports are wheat, rice, sugar, piece goods and hardware. The exports

are small; the chief items are honey, tobacco and sharks' fins. In the

towns in the interior the principal industries are weaving and dyeing.

The Mahra country adjoins the Hadramut proper, and extends along the

coast from Sihut eastwards to the east of Kamar Bay, where the Gara

coast begins and stretches to Mirbat. The sultan of the Mahra, to whom

Sokotra also belongs, lives at Kishin, a poor village consisting of a

few scattered houses about 30 m. west of Ras Fartak. Sihut is a

similar village 20 m. farther west. The mountains rise to a height of

4000 ft. within a short distance of the coast, covered in places with

trees, among which are the myrrh- and frankincense-bearing shrubs.

These gums, for which the coast was celebrated in ancient days, are

still produced; the best quality is obtained in the Gara country, on

the northern slope of the mountains. Dhafar and the mountains behind

it were visited and surveyed by Mr Bent's party in 1894. There are

several thriving villages on the coast, of which el-Hafa is the

principal port of export for frankincense; 9000 cwt. is exported

annually to Bombay.

Ruins of Sabaean buildings were found by J. T. Bent in the

neighbourhood of Dhafar, and a remarkable cove or small harbour was

discovered at Khor Rori, which he identified with the ancient port of

Moscha.

AUTHORITIES.--L. Van den Berg, _Le Hadramut et les colonies arabes_

(Batavia, 1885); L. Hirsch, _Reise in Sudarabien_ (Leiden, 1897); J.

T. Bent, _Southern Arabia_ (London, 1895); A. von Wrede, _Reise in

Hadhramut_ (Brunswick, 1870); H. J. Carter, _Trans. Bombay As. Soc._

(1845), 47-51; _Journal R.G.S._ (1837). (R. A. W.)

HADRIA [mod. _Atri_ (q.v.)], perhaps the original terminal point of the

Via Caecilia, Italy. It belonged to the Praetutii. It became a colony of

Rome in 290 B.C. and remained faithful to Rome. The coins which it

issued (probably during the Punic Wars), are remarkable. The crypt of

the cathedral of the modern town was originally a large Roman cistern;

another forms the foundation of the ducal palace; and in the eastern

portion of the town there is a complicated system of underground

passages for collecting and storing water.