(6) Mn^2[chi]_k + T(tan [alpha]_(k+1) - tan [alpha]_k) = 0,
with the geometrical relation
(7) [chi]_(k+1) - [chi]_k - [alpha](sin [theta]_(k+1) + sin [theta]_k)
- 2l sin{k + 1} = 0.
When the polygon is nearly coincident with Oz, these equations can be
replaced by
(8) (-An^2 + Kn + 2Ta)[theta]_k - Ta([alpha]_(k+1) + [alpha]_k) = 0,
(9) Mn^2x_k + T([alpha]_(k+1) - [alpha]_k) = 0,
(10) x_(k+1) - x_k - a([theta]_(k+1) + [theta]_k) - 2la_k = 0,
and the rest of the solution proceeds as before in S 14, putting
(11) x_k, [theta]_k, [alpha]_k = (L, P, Q) exp cki.
A half wave length of the curve of gyrostats is covered when ck =
[pi], so that [pi]/c is the number of gyrostats in a half wave, which
is therefore of wave length 2[pi](a + l)/c.
A plane polarized wave is given when exp cki is replaced by exp (nt +
ck)i, and a wave circularly polarized when w, [~omega], [sigma] of S
14 replace this x, [theta], [alpha].
_Gyroscopic Pendulum._--The elastic flexure joint is useful for
supporting a rod, carrying a fly-wheel, like a gyroscopic pendulum.
Expressed by Euler's angles, [theta], [phi], [psi], the kinetic energy
is
(12) T = 1/2A( .[theta]^2 + sin^2 [theta] .[psi]^2)
+ 1/2C'(1 - cos [theta])^2 .[psi]^2
+ 1/2C( .[phi] + .[psi] cos [theta])^2,
where A refers to rod and gyroscope about the transverse axis at the
point of support, C' refers to rod about its axis of length, and C
refers to the revolving fly-wheel.
The elimination of .[psi] between the equation of conservation of
angular momentum about the vertical, viz.
(13) A sin^2 [theta] .[psi] - C'(1 - cos [theta]) cos [theta] .[psi] +
C( .[phi] + .[psi] cos [theta]) cos [theta] = G, a constant, and the
equation of energy, viz.
(14) T - gMh cos [theta] = H, a constant, with [theta] measured from
the downward vertical, and
(15) .[phi] + .[psi] cos [theta] = R, a constant, will lead to an
equation for d[theta]/dt, or dz/dt, in terms of cos [theta] or z, the
integral of which is of hyperelliptic character, except when A = C'.
In the suspension of fig. 8, the motion given by .[phi] is suppressed
in the stalk, and for the fly-wheel .[phi] gives the rubbing angular
velocity of the wheel on the stalk; the equations are now
(16) T = 1/2A( .[theta]^2 + sin^2 [theta] .[psi]^2)
+ 1/2C' cos^2 [theta] .[psi]^2 + 1/2CR^2 = H + gMh cos [theta],
(17) A sin^2 [theta][.[psi]] + C' cos^2 [theta] .[psi] + CR cos [theta]
= G,
and the motion is again of hyperelliptic character, except when A =
C', or C' = 0. To realize a motion given completely by the elliptic
function, the suspension of the stalk must be made by a smooth ball
and socket, or else a Hooke universal joint.
Finally, there is the case of the general motion of a top with a
spherical rounded point on a smooth plane, in which the centre of
gravity may be supposed to rise and fall in a vertical line. Here
(18) T = 1/2(A + Mh^2 sin^2 [theta]) .[theta]^2 + 1/2A sin^2 [theta] .[psi]^2
+ 1/2CR^2 = H - gMh cos [theta],
with [theta] measured from the upward vertical, and
(19) A sin^2 [theta] .[psi] + CR cos [theta] = G,
where A now refers to a transverse axis through the centre of gravity.
The elimination of [.[psi]] leads to an equation for z, = cos [theta],
of the form
/dz\^2 g Z g (z1 - z)(z2 - z)(z3 - z)
(20) ( -- ) = 2 -- ---------------- = 2 -- ------------------------,
\dt/ h 1 - z^2 + A/Mh^2 h (z4 - z)(z - z5)
with the arrangement
(21) z1, z4 > / > z2 > z > z3 > - / > z5;
so that the motion is hyperelliptic.
AUTHORITIES.--In addition to the references in the text the following
will be found useful:--_Ast. Notices_, vol. i.; _Comptes rendus_,
Sept. 1852; Paper by Professor Magnus translated in Taylor's _Foreign
Scientific Memoirs_, n.s., pt. 3, p. 210; _Ast. Notices_, xiii.
221-248; _Theory of Foucault's Gyroscope Experiments_, by the Rev.
Baden Powell, F.R.S.; _Ast. Notices_, vol. xv.; articles by Major J.
G. Barnard in _Silliman's Journal_, 2nd ser., vols. xxiv. and xxv.; E.
Hunt on "Rotatory Motion," _Proc. Phil. Soc. Glasgow_, vol. iv.; J.
Clerk Maxwell, "On a Dynamical Top," _Trans. R.S.E._ vol. xxi.; _Phil.
Mag._ 4th ser. vols. 7, 13, 14; _Proc. Royal Irish Academy_, vol.
viii.; Sir William Thomson on "Gyrostat," _Nature_, xv. 297; G. T.
Walker, "The Motion of a Celt," _Quar. Jour. Math._, 1896; G. T.
Walker, _Math. Ency._ iv. 1, xi. 1; Gallop, _Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc._
xii. 82, pt. 2, 1903, "Rise of a Top"; Price's _Infinitesimal
Calculus_, vol. iv.; Worms, _The Earth and its Mechanism_; Routh,
_Rigid Dynamics_; A. G. Webster, _Dynamics_ (1904); H. Crabtree,
_Spinning Tops and Gyroscopic Motion_ (1909). For a complete list of
the mathematical works on the subject of the Gyroscope and Gyrostat
from the outset, Professor Cayley's Report to the British Association
(1862) on the _Progress of Dynamics_ should be consulted. Modern
authors will be found cited in Klein and Sommerfeld, _Theorie des
Kreisels_ (1897), and in the _Encyclopadie der mathematischen
Wissenschaften_. (G. G.)
GYTHIUM, the harbour and arsenal of Sparta, from which it was some 30 m.
distant. The town lay at the N.W. extremity of the Laconian Gulf, in a
small but fertile plain at the mouth of the Gythius. Its reputed
founders were Heracles and Apollo, who frequently appear on its coins:
the former of these names may point to the influence of Phoenician
traders, who, we know, visited the Laconian shores at a very early
period. In classical times it was a community of _perioeci_, politically
dependent on Sparta, though doubtless with a municipal life of its own.
In 455 B.C., during the first Peloponnesian War, it was burned by the
Athenian admiral Tolmides. In 370 B.C. Epaminondas besieged it
unsuccessfully for three days. Its fortifications were strengthened by
the tyrant Nabis, but in 195 B.C. it was invested and taken by Titus and
Lucius Quintius Flamininus, and, though recovered by Nabis two or three
years later, was recaptured immediately after his murder (192 B.C.) by
Philopoemen and Aulus Atilius and remained in the Achaean League until
its dissolution in 146 B.C. Subsequently it formed the most important of
the Eleutherolaconian towns, a group of twenty-four, later eighteen,
communities leagued together to maintain their autonomy against Sparta
and declared free by Augustus. The highest officer of the confederacy
was the general ([Greek: strategos]), who was assisted by a treasurer
([Greek: tamias]), while the chief magistrates of the several
communities bore the title of ephors ([Greek: ephoroi]).
Pausanias (iii. 21 f.) has left us a description of the town as it
existed in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, the agora, the Acropolis, the
island of Cranae (Marathonisi) where Paris celebrated his nuptials with
Helen, the Migonium or precinct of Aphrodite Migonitis (occupied by the
modern town of Marathonisi or Gythium), and the hill Larysium (Koumaro)
rising above it. The numerous remains extant, of which the theatre and
the buildings partially submerged by the sea are the most noteworthy,
all belong to the Roman period.
The modern town is a busy and flourishing port with a good harbour
protected by Cranae, now connected by a mole with the mainland: it is
the capital of the prefecture ([Greek: nomos]) of [Greek: Lakonike] with
a population in 1907 of 61,522.
See G. Weber, _De Gytheo et Lacedaemoniorum rebus navalibus_
(Heidelberg, 1833); W. M. Leake, _Travels in the Morea_, i. 244 foll.;
E. Curtius, _Peloponnesos_, ii. 267 foll. Inscriptions: Le
Bas-Foucart, _Voyage archeologique_, ii. Nos. 238-248 f.;
Collitz-Bechtel, _Sammlung d. griech. Dialekt-Inschriften_, iii. Nos.
4562-4573; _British School Annual_, x. 179 foll. Excavations: [Greek:
A. Skias, Praktika tes Arch. Hetaireias], 1891, 69 foll. (M. N. T.)
GYULA-FEHERVAR (Ger. _Karlsburg_), a town of Hungary, in Transylvania,
in the county of Also-Felier, 73 m. S. of Kolozsvar by rail. Pop. (1900)
11,507. It is situated on the right bank of the Maros, on the outskirts
of the Transylvanian Erzgebirge or Ore Mountains, and consists of the
upper town, or citadel, and the lower town. Gyula-Fehervar is the seat
of a Roman Catholic bishop, and has a fine Roman Catholic cathedral,
built in the 11th century in Romanesque style, and rebuilt in 1443 by
John Hunyady in Gothic style. It contains among other tombs that of John
Hunyady. Near the cathedral is the episcopal palace, and in the same
part of the town is the Batthyaneum, founded by Bishop Count Batthyany
in 1794. It contains a valuable library with many incunabula and old
manuscripts, amongst which is one of the _Nibelungenlied_, an
astronomical observatory, a collection of antiquities, and a mineral
collection. Gyula-Fehervar carries on an active trade in cereals, wine
and cattle.
Gyula-Fehervar occupies the site of the Roman colony _Apulum_. Many
Roman relics found here, and in the vicinity, are preserved in the
museum of the town. The bishopric was founded in the 11th century by
King Ladislaus I. (1078-1095). In the 16th century, when Transylvania
separated from Hungary, the town became the residence of the
Transylvanian princes. From this period dates the castle, and also the
buildings of the university, founded by Gabriel Bethlen, and now used as
barracks. After the reversion of Transylvania in 1713 to the Habsburg
monarchy the actual strong fortress was built in 1716-1735 by the
emperor Charles VI., whence the German name of the town.
H The eighth symbol in the Phoenician alphabet, as in its descendants,
has altered less in the course of ages than most alphabetic symbols.
From the beginning of Phoenician records it has consisted of two
uprights connected by transverse bars, at first either two or three in
number. The uprights are rarely perpendicular and the cross bars are not
so precisely arranged as they are in early Greek and Latin inscriptions.
In these the symbol takes the form of two rectangles [symbol] out of
which the ordinary H develops by the omission of the cross bars at top
and bottom. It is very exceptional for this letter to have more than
three cross bars, though as many as five are occasionally found in N.W.
Greece. Within the same inscription the appearance of the letter often
varies considerably as regards the space between and the length of the
uprights. When only one bar is found it regularly crosses the uprights
about the middle. In a few cases the rectangle is closed at top and
bottom but has no middle cross bar [symbol]. The Phoenician name for the
letter was Heth (Het). According to Semitic scholars it had two values,
(1) a glottal spirant, a very strong _h_, (2) an unvoiced velar spirant
like the German _ch_ in _ach_. The Greeks borrowed it with the value of
the ordinary aspirate and with the name [Greek: eta]. Very early in
their history, however, most of the Greeks of Asia Minor lost the
aspirate altogether, and having then no further use for the symbol with
this value they adopted it to represent the long _e_-sound, which was
not originally distinguished by a different symbol from the short sound
(see E). With this value its name has always been [Greek: eta] in Greek.
The alphabet of the Asiatic Greeks was gradually adopted elsewhere. In
official documents at Athens H represented the rough breathing or
aspirate ' till 403 B.C.; henceforth it was used for [eta]. The Western
Greeks, however, from whom the Romans obtained their alphabet, retained
their aspirate longer than those of Asia Minor, and hence the symbol
came to the Romans with the value not of a long vowel but of the
aspirate, which it still preserves. The Greek aspirate was itself the
first or left-hand half of this letter |-, while the smooth breathing '
was the right-hand portion -|. At Tarentum |- is found for H in
inscriptions. The Roman aspirate was, however, a very slight sound which
in some words where it was etymologically correct disappeared at an
early date. Thus the cognate words of kindred languages show that the
Lat. _anser_ "goose" ought to begin with _h_, but nowhere is it so
found. In none of the Romance languages is there any trace of initial or
medial _h_, which shows that vulgar Latin had ceased to have the
aspirate by 240 B.C. The Roman grammarians were guided to its presence
by the Sabine forms where _f_ occurred; as the Sabines said _fasena_
(sand), it was recognised that the Roman form ought to be _harena_, and
so for _haedus_ (goat), _hordeum_ (barley), &c. Between vowels _h_ was
lost very early, for _ne-hemo_ (no man) is throughout the literature
_nemo_, _bi-himus_ (two winters old) _bimus_. In the Ciceronian age
greater attention was paid to reproducing the Greek aspirates in
borrowed words, and this led to absurd mistakes in Latin words, mistakes
which were satirized by Catullus in his epigram (84) upon Arrius, who
said _chommoda_ for _commoda_ and _hinsidias_ for _insidias_. In Umbrian
_h_ was often lost, and also used without etymological value to mark
length, as in _comohota_ (= Lat. _commota_), a practice to which there
are some doubtful parallels in Latin.
In English the history of _h_ is very similar to that in Latin. While
the parts above the glottis are in position to produce a vowel, an
aspirate is produced without vibration of the vocal chords, sometimes,
like the pronunciation of Arrius, with considerable effort as a reaction
against the tendency to "drop the h's." Though _h_ survives in Scotland,
Ireland and America as well as in the speech of cultivated persons, the
sound in most of the vulgar dialects is entirely lost. Where it is not
ordinarily lost, it disappears in unaccented syllables, as "_Give it
'im_" and the like. Where it is lost, conscious attempts to restore it
on the part of uneducated speakers lead to absurd misplacements of _h_
and to its restoration in Romance words when it never was pronounced, as
_humble_ (now recognized as standard English), _humour_ and even
_honour_. (P. Gi.)
HAAG, CARL (1820- ), a naturalized British painter, court painter to
the duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, was born in Bavaria, and was trained
in the academies at Nuremburg and Munich. He practised first as an
illustrator and as a painter, in oil, of portraits and architectural
subjects; but after he settled in England, in 1847, he devoted himself
to water colours, and was elected associate of the Royal Society of
Painters in Water Colours in 1850 and member in 1853. He travelled much,
especially in the East, and made a considerable reputation by his firmly
drawn and carefully elaborated paintings of Eastern subjects. Towards
the end of his professional career Carl Haag quitted England and
returned to Germany.
See _A History of the "Old Water-Colour" Society, now the Royal
Society of Painters in Water Colours_, by John Lewis Roget (2 vols.,
London, 1891).
HAAKON (Old Norse _Hakon_), the name of several kings of Norway, of whom
the most important are the following:--
HAAKON I., surnamed "the Good" (d. 961), was the youngest son of Harald
Haarfager. He was fostered by King Aethelstan of England, who brought
him up in the Christian religion, and on the news of his father's death
in 933 provided him with ships and men for an expedition against his
half-brother Erik, who had been proclaimed king. On his arrival in
Norway Haakon gained the support of the landowners by promising to give
up the rights of taxation claimed by his father over inherited real
property. Erik fled, and was killed a few years later in England. His
sons allied themselves with the Danes, but were invariably defeated by
Haakon, who was successful in everything he undertook except in his
attempt to introduce Christianity, which aroused an opposition he did
not feel strong enough to face. He was killed at the battle of Fitje in
961, after a final victory over Erik's sons. So entirely did even his
immediate circle ignore his religion that a court skald composed a poem
on his death representing his welcome by the heathen gods into Valhalla.
HAAKON IV., surnamed "the Old" (1204-1263), was declared to be the son
of Haakon III., who died shortly before the former's birth in 1204. A
year later the child was placed under the protection of King Inge, after
whose death in 1217 he was chosen king; though until 1223 the church
refused to recognize him, on the ground of illegitimacy, and the Pope's
dispensation for his coronation was not gained until much later. In the
earlier part of his reign much of the royal power was in the hands of
Earl Skule, who intrigued against the king until 1239, when he proceeded
to open hostility and was put to death. From this time onward Haakon's
reign was marked by more peace and prosperity than Norway had known for
many years, until in 1263 a dispute with the Scottish king concerning
the Hebrides, a Norwegian possession, induced Haakon to undertake an
expedition to the west of Scotland. A division of his army seems to have
repulsed a large Scottish force at Largs (though the later Scottish
accounts claim this battle as a victory), and, having won back the
Norwegian possessions in Scotland, Haakon was wintering in the Orkneys,
when he was taken ill and died on the 15th of December 1263. A great
part of his fleet had been scattered and destroyed by storms. The most
important event in his reign was the voluntary submission of the
Icelandic commonwealth. Worn out by internal strife fostered by Haakon's
emissaries, the Icelandic chiefs acknowledged the Norwegian king as
overlord in 1262. Their example was followed by the colony of Greenland.
HAAKON VII. (1872- ), the second son of Frederick VIII., king of
Denmark, was born on the 3rd of August 1872, and was usually known as
Prince Charles of Denmark. When in 1905 Norway decided to separate
herself from Sweden the Norwegians offered their crown to Charles, who
accepted it and took the name of Haakon VII., being crowned at Trondhjem
in June 1906. The king married Maud, youngest daughter of Edward VII.,
king of Great Britain, their son, Prince Olav, being born in 1903.
HAARLEM, a town of Holland in the province of North Holland, on the
Spaarne, having a junction station 11 m. by rail W. of Amsterdam. It is
connected by electric and steam tramways with Zandvoort, Leiden,
Amsterdam and Alkmaar. Pop. (1900) 65,189. Haarlem is the seat of the
governor of the province of North Holland, and of a Roman Catholic and a
Jansenist bishopric. In appearance it is a typical Dutch town, with
numerous narrow canals and quaintly gabled houses. Of the ancient city
gates the Spaarnewouder or Amsterdam gate alone remains. Gardens and
promenades have taken the place of the old ramparts, and on the south
the city is bounded by the Frederiks and the Flora parks, between which
runs the fine avenue called the Dreef, leading to the Haarlemmer Hout or
wood. In the Frederiks Park is a pump-room supplied with a powerful
chalybeate water from a spring, the Wilhelminabron, in the Haarlemmer
Polder not far distant, and in connexion with this there is an
orthopaedic institution adjoining. In the great market place in the
centre of the city are gathered together the larger number of the most
interesting buildings, including the quaint old Fleshers' Hall, built by
Lieven de Key in 1603, and now containing the archives; the town hall;
the old Stadsdoelen, where the burgesses met in arms; the Groote Kerk,
or Great Church; and the statue erected in 1856 to Laurenz Janszoon
Koster, the printer. The Great Church, dedicated to St Bavo, with a
lofty tower (255 ft.), is one of the most famous in Holland, and dates
from the end of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th centuries. Its
great length (460 ft.) and the height and steepness of its vaulted
cedar-wood roof (1538) are very impressive. The choir-stalls and screen
(1510) are finely carved, and of further interest are the ancient pulpit
sounding-board (1432), some old stained glass, and the small models of
ships, copies dating from 1638 of yet earlier models originally
presented by the Dutch-Swedish Trading Company. The church organ was
long considered the largest and finest in existence. It was constructed
by Christian Muller in 1738, and has 4 keyboards, 64 registers and 5000
pipes, the largest of which is 15 in. in diameter and 32 ft. long. Among
the monuments in the church are those of the poet Willem Bilderdyk (d.
1831) and the engineer Frederik Willem Conrad (d. 1808), who designed
the sea-sluices at Katwyk. In the belfry are the _damiaatjes_, small
bells presented to the town, according to tradition, by William I.,
count of Holland (d. 1222), the crusader. The town hall was originally a
palace of the counts of Holland, begun in the 12th century, and some old
13th-century beams still remain; but the building was remodelled in the
beginning of the 17th century. It contains a collection of antiquities
(including some beautiful goblets) and a picture gallery which, though
small, is celebrated for its fine collection of paintings by Frans Hals.
The town library contains several _incunabula_ and an interesting
collection of early Dutch literature. At the head of the scientific
institutions of Haarlem may be placed the Dutch Society of Sciences
(_Hollandsche Maatschappij van Wetenschappen_), founded in 1752, which
possesses valuable collections in botany, natural history and geology.
Teyler's Stichting (i.e. foundation), enlarged in modern times, was
instituted by the will of Pieter Teyler van der Hulst (d. 1778), a
wealthy merchant, for the study of theology, natural science and art,
and has lecture-theatres, a large library, and a museum containing a
physical and a geological cabinet, as well as a collection of paintings,
including many modern pictures, and a valuable collection of drawings
and engravings by old masters. The Dutch Society for the Promotion of
Industry (_Nederlaandsche Maatschappij ter Bevordering van Nijverheid_),
founded in 1777, has its seat in the Pavilion Welgelegen, a villa on the
south side of the Frederiks Park, built by the Amsterdam banker John
Hope in 1778, and afterwards acquired by Louis Bonaparte, king of
Holland. The colonial museum and the museum of industrial art were
established in this villa by the society in 1871 and 1877 respectively.
Besides these there are a museum of ecclesiastical antiquities, chiefly
relating to the bishopric of Haarlem; the old weigh-house (1598) and the
orphanage for girls (1608), originally an almshouse for old men, both
built by the architect Lieven de Key of Ghent.
The staple industries of Haarlem have been greatly modified in the
course of time. Cloth weaving and brewing, which once flourished
exceedingly, declined in the beginning of the 16th century. A century
later, silk, lace and damask weaving were introduced by French refugees,
and became very important industries. But about the close of the 18th
century this remarkable prosperity had also come to an end, and it was
not till after the Belgian revolution of 1830-1831 that Haarlem began to
develop the manufactures in which it is now chiefly engaged. Cotton
manufacture, dyeing, printing, bleaching, brewing, type-founding, and
the manufacture of tram and railway carriages are among the more
important of its industries. One of the printing establishments has the
reputation of being the oldest in the Netherlands, and publishes the
oldest Dutch paper, _De Opragte Haarlemmer Courant_. Market-gardening,
especially horticulture, is extensively practised in the vicinity, so
that Haarlem is the seat of a large trade in Dutch bulbs, especially
hyacinths, tulips, fritillaries, spiraeas and japonicas.
Haarlem, which was a prosperous place in the middle of the 12th century,
received its first town charter from William II., count of Holland and
king of the Romans, in 1245. It played a considerable part in the wars
of Holland with the Frisians. In 1492 it was captured by the insurgent
peasants of North Holland, was re-taken by the duke of Saxony, the
imperial stadholder, and deprived of its privileges. In 1572 Haarlem
joined the revolt of the Netherlands against Spain, but on the 13th of
July 1573, after a seven months' siege, was forced to surrender to
Alva's son Frederick, who exacted terrible vengeance. In 1577 it was
again captured by William of Orange and permanently incorporated in the
United Netherlands.
See Karl Hegel, _Stadte und Gilden_ (Leipzig, 1891); Allan,
_Geschiedenis en beschrijving van Haarlem_ (Haarlem, 1871-1888).
HAARLEM LAKE (Dutch _Harlemmer Meer_), a commune of the province of
North Holland, constituted by the law of the 16th of July 1855. It has
an area of about 46,000 acres, and its population increased from 7237 in
1860 to 16,621 in 1900. As its name indicates, the commune was formerly
a lake, which is said to have been a relic of a northern arm of the
Rhine which passed through the district in the time of the Romans. In
1531 the Haarlemmer Meer had an area of 6430 acres, and in its vicinity
were three smaller sheets of water--the Leidsche Meer or Leiden Lake,
the Spiering Meer, and the Oude Meer or Old Lake, with a united area of
about 7600 acres. The four lakes were formed into one by successive
inundations, whole villages disappearing in the process, and by 1647 the
new Haarlem Lake had an area of about 37,000 acres, which a century
later had increased to over 42,000 acres. As early as 1643 Jan
Adriaanszoon Leeghwater proposed to endike and drain the lake; and
similar schemes, among which those of Nikolaas Samuel Cruquius in 1742
and of Baron van Lijnden van Hemmen in 1820 are worthy of special
mention, were brought forward from time to time. But it was not till a
furious hurricane in November 1836 drove the waters as far as the gates
of Amsterdam, and another on Christmas Day sent them in the opposite
direction to submerge the streets of Leiden, that the mind of the nation
was seriously turned to the matter. In August 1837 the king appointed a
royal commission of inquiry; the scheme proposed by the commission
received the sanction of the Second Chamber in March 1839, and in the
following May the work was begun. A canal was first dug round the lake
for the reception of the water and the accommodation of the great
traffic which had previously been carried on. This canal was 38 m. in
length, 123-146 ft. wide, and 8 ft. deep, and the earth which was taken
out of it was used to build a dike from 30 to 54 yds. broad containing
the lake. The area enclosed by the canal was rather more than 70 sq. m.,
and the average depth of the lake 13 ft. 1-1/2 in., and as the water had
no natural outfall it was calculated that probably 1000 million tons
would have to be raised by mechanical means. This amount was 200
million tons in excess of that actually discharged. Pumping by
steam-engines began in 1848, and the lake was dry by the 1st of July
1852. At the first sale of the highest lands along the banks on the 16th
of August 1853, about L28 per acre was paid; but the average price
afterwards was less. The whole area of 42,096 acres recovered from the
waters brought in 9,400,000 florins, or about L780,000, exactly covering
the cost of the enterprise; so that the actual cost to the nation was
only the amount of the interest on the capital, or about L368,000. The
soil is of various kinds, loam, clay, sand and peat; most of it is
sufficiently fertile, though in the lower portions there are barren
patches where the scanty vegetation is covered with an ochreous deposit.
Mineral springs occur containing a very high percentage (3.245 grams per
litre) of common salt; and in 1893 a company was formed for working
them. Corn, seeds, cattle, butter and cheese are the principal produce.
The roads which traverse the commune are bordered by pleasant-looking
farm-houses built after the various styles of Holland, Friesland or
Brabant. Hoofddorp, Venneperdorp or Nieuw Vennep, Abbenes and the
vicinities of the pumping-stations are the spots where the population
has clustered most thickly. The first church was built in 1855; in 1877
there were seven. In 1854 the city of Leiden laid claim to the
possession of the new territory, but the courts decided in favour of the
nation.
HAASE, FRIEDRICH (1827- ), German actor, was born on the 1st of
November 1827, in Berlin, the son of a valet to King Frederick William
IV., who became his godfather. He was educated for the stage under
Ludwig Tieck and made his first appearance in 1846 in Weimar, afterwards
acting at Prague (1849-1851) and Karlsruhe (1852-1855). From 1860 to
1866 he played in St Petersburg, then was manager of the court theatre
in Coburg, and in 1869 (and again in 1882-1883) visited the United
States. He was manager of the Stadt Theater in Leipzig from 1870 to
1876, when he removed to Berlin, where he devoted his energies to the
foundation and management of the Deutsches Theater. He finally retired
from the stage in 1898. Haase's aristocratic appearance and elegant
manner fitted him specially to play high comedy parts. His chief roles
were those of Rocheferrier in the _Partie Piquet_; Richelieu; Savigny in
_Der feiner Diplomat_, and der Furst in _Der geheime Agent_. He is the
author of _Ungeschminkte Briefe and Was ich erlebte 1846-1898_ (Berlin,
1898).
See Simon, _Friedrich Haase_ (Berlin, 1898).
HAASE, FRIEDRICH GOTTLOB (1808-1867), German classical scholar, was born
at Magdeburg on the 4th of January 1808. Having studied at Halle,
Greifswald and Berlin, he obtained in 1834 an appointment at
Schulpforta, from which he was suspended and sentenced to six years'
imprisonment for identifying himself with the _Burschenschaften_
(students' associations). Having been released after serving one year of
his sentence, he visited Paris, and on his return in 1840 he was
appointed professor at Breslau, where he remained till his death on the
16th of August 1867. He was undoubtedly one of the most successful
teachers of his day in Germany, and exercised great influence upon all
his pupils.
He edited several classic authors: Xenophon ([Greek: Lakedaimonion
politeia], 1833); Thucydides (1840); Velleius Paterculus (1858);
Seneca the philosopher (2nd ed., 1872, not yet superseded); and
Tacitus (1855), the introduction to which is a masterpiece of
Latinity. His _Vorlesungen uber lateinische Sprachwissenschaft_ was
published after his death by F. A. Eckstein and H. Peter (1874-1880).
See C Bursian, _Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland_
(1883); G. Fickert, _Friderici Haasii memoria_ (1868), with a list of
works; T. Oelsner in _Rubezahl (Schlesische Provinzialblatter)_, vii.
Heft 3 (Breslau, 1868).
HAAST, SIR JOHANN FRANZ JULIUS VON (1824-1887), German and British
geologist, was born at Bonn on the 1st of May 1824. He received his
early education partly in that town and partly in Cologne, and then
entered the university at Bonn, where he made a special study of geology
and mineralogy. In 1858 he started for New Zealand to report on the
suitability of the colony for German emigrants. He then became
acquainted with Dr von Hochstetter, and rendered assistance to him in
the preliminary geological survey which von Hochstetter had undertaken.
Afterwards Dr Haast accepted offers from the governments of Nelson and
Canterbury to investigate the geology of those districts, and the
results of his detailed labours greatly enriched our knowledge with
regard to the rocky structure, the glacial phenomena and the economic
products. He discovered gold and coal in Nelson, and he carried on
important researches with reference to the occurrence of _Dinornis_ and
other extinct wingless birds (Moas). His _Geology of the Provinces of
Canterbury and Westland, N.Z._, was published in 1879. He was the
founder of the Canterbury museum at Christchurch, of which he became
director, and which he endeavoured to render the finest collection in
the southern hemisphere. He was surveyor-general of Canterbury from 1861
to 1871, and professor of geology at Canterbury College. He was elected
F.R.S. in 1867; and he was knighted for his services at the time of the
colonial exhibition in London in 1887. He died at Wellington, N.Z., on
the 15th of August 1887.
HABABS (AZ-HIBBEHS), a nomadic pastoral people of Hamitic stock, living
in the coast region north-west of Massawa. Physically they are Beja, by
language and traditions Abyssinians. They were Christians until the 19th
century, but are now Mahommedans. Their sole wealth consists in cattle.
HABAKKUK, the name borne by the eighth book of the Old Testament "Minor
Prophets." It occurs twice in the book itself (i. 1, iii. 1) in titles,
but nowhere else in the Old Testament. The meaning of the name is
uncertain. If Hebrew, it might be derived from the root [Hebrew: habak]
(to embrace) as an intensive term of affection. It has also been
connected more plausibly with an Assyrian plant name, _[h)]ambakuku_
(Delitzsch, _Assyrisches Handworterbuch_, p. 281). The Septuagint has
[Greek: Ambakoum]. Of the person designated, no more is known than may
be inferred from the writing which bears his name. Various legends are
connected with him, of which the best known is given in the Apocryphal
story of "Bel and the Dragon" (v. 33-39); but none of these has any
historic value.[1]
The book itself falls into three obvious parts, viz. (1) a dialogue
between the prophet and God (i. 2-ii. 4); (2) a series of five woes
pronounced on wickedness (ii. 5-ii. 20); (3) a poem describing the
triumphant manifestation of God (iii.). There is considerable difficulty
in regard to the interpretation of (1), on which that of (2) will turn;
while (3) forms an independent section, to be considered separately.
In the dialogue, the prophet cries to God against continued violence and
injustice, though it is not clear whether this is done _within_ or _to_
Israel (i. 2-4). The divine answer declares that God raises up the
Chaldaeans, whose formidable resources are invincible (i. 5-11). The
prophet thereupon calls God's attention to the tyranny which He
apparently allows to triumph, and declares his purpose to wait till an
answer is given to his complaint (i. 12-ii. 2). God answers by demanding
patience, and by declaring that the righteous shall live by his
faithfulness (ii. 3-4).
The interpretation of this dialogue which first suggests itself is that
the prophet is referring to wickedness _within_ the nation, which is to
be punished by the Chaldaeans as a divine instrument; in the process,
the tyranny of the instrument itself calls for punishment, which the
prophet is bidden to await in patient fidelity. On this view of the
dialogue, the subsequent woes will be pronounced against the Chaldaeans,
and the date assigned to the prophecy will be about 600 B.C., i.e. soon
after the battle of Carchemish (605 B.C.), when the Chaldaean victory
over Egypt inaugurated a period of Chaldaean supremacy which lasted till
the Chaldaeans themselves were overthrown by Cyrus in 538 B.C. Grave
objections, however, confront this interpretation, as is admitted even
by such recent defenders of it as Davidson and Driver. Is it likely that
a prophet would begin a complaint against Chaldaean tyranny (admittedly
central in the prophecy) by complaining of that wickedness of his
fellow-countrymen which seems partly to justify it? Are not the terms of
reference in i. 2 f. and 1. 12 f. too similar for the supposition that
two distinct, even contradictory, complaints are being made (cf.
"wicked" and "righteous" in i. 4 and i. 13, interchanged in regard to
Israel, on above theory)? And if i. 5-11 is a genuine _prophecy_ of the
raising up of the Chaldaeans, whence comes that long experience of their
rule required to explain the _detailed_ denunciation of their tyranny?
To meet the last objection, Davidson supposes i. 5-11 to be really a
reference to the past, prophetic in form only, and brings down the whole
section to a later period of Chaldaean rule, "hardly, one would think,
before the deportation of the people under Jehoiachin in 597" (p. 49).
Driver prefers to bisect the dialogue by supposing i. 2-11 to be written
at an earlier period than i. 12 f. (p. 57). The other objections,
however, remain, and have provoked a variety of theories from Old
Testament scholars, of which three call for special notice. (1) The
first of these, represented by Giesebrecht,[2] Nowack and Wellhausen,
refers i. 2-4 to Chaldaean oppression of Israel, the same subject being
continued in i. 12 f. Obviously, the reference to the Chaldaeans as a
divine instrument could not then stand in its present place, and it is
accordingly regarded as a misplaced earlier prophecy. This is the
minimum of critical procedure required to do justice to the facts. (2)
Budde, followed by Cornill, also regards i. 2-4 as referring to the
oppression of Israel by a foreign tyrant, whom, however, he holds to be
Assyria. He also removes i. 5-11 from its present place, but makes it
part of the divine answer, following ii. 4. On this view, the Chaldaeans
are the divine instrument for punishing the tyranny of the Assyrians, to
whom the following woes will therefore refer. The date would fall
between Josiah's reformation (621) and his death (609). This is a
plausible and even attractive theory; its weakness seems to lie in the
absence of any positive evidence in the prophecy itself, as is
illustrated by the fact that even G. A. Smith, who follows it, suggests
"Egypt from 608-605" as an alternative to Assyria (p. 124). (3) Marti
(1904) abandons the attempt to explain the prophecy as a unity, and
analyses it into three elements, viz. (a) The original prophecy by
Habakkuk, consisting of i. 5-10, 14 f., belonging to the year 605, and
representing the emergent power of the Chaldaeans as a divine scourge of
the faithless people; (b) Woes against the Chaldaeans, presupposing not
only tyrannous rule over many peoples, but the beginning of their
decline and fall, and therefore of date about 540 B.C. (ii. 5-19); (c) A
psalm of post-exilic origin, whose fragments, i. 2-4, 12 a, 13, ii. 1-4,
have been incorporated into the present text from the margins on which
they were written, its subject being the suffering of the righteous.
Each of these three theories[3] encounters difficulties of detail; none
can be said to have secured a dominant position. The great variety of
views amongst competent critics is significant of the difficulty of the
problem, which can hardly be regarded as yet solved; this divergence of
opinion perhaps points to the impossibility of maintaining the unity of
chs. i. and ii., and throws the balance of probability towards some such
analysis as that of Marti, which is therefore accepted in the present
article.
In regard to the poem which forms the third and closing chapter of the
present book of Habakkuk, there is much more general agreement. Its most
striking characteristic lies in the superscription ("A prayer of
Habakkuk the prophet, set to Shigionoth"), the subscription ("For the
chief musician, on my stringed instruments"), and the insertion of the
musical term "Selah" in three places (v. 3, 9, 13). These liturgical
notes make extremely probable the supposition that the poem has been
taken from some collection like that of our present book of Psalms,
probably on the ground of the authorship asserted by the superscription
there attached to it. It cannot, however, be said that the poem itself
supports this assertion, which carries no more intrinsic weight than
the Davidic titles of the Psalms. The poem begins with a prayer that God
will renew the historic manifestation of the exodus, which inaugurated
the national history and faith; a thunderstorm moving up from the south
is then described, in which God is revealed (3-7); it is asked whether
this manifestation, whose course is further described, is against nature
only (8-11); the answer is given that it is for the salvation of Israel
against its wicked foes (12-15); the poet describes the effect in terror
upon himself (16) and declares his confidence in God, even in utter
agricultural adversity (17-19). As Wellhausen says (p. 171): "The poet
appears to believe that in the very act of describing enthusiastically
the ancient deed of deliverance, he brings home to us the new; we are
left sometimes in doubt whether he speaks of the past to suggest the new
by analogy, or whether he is concerned directly with the future, and
simply paints it with the colours of the past." In any case, there is
nothing in this fine poem to connect it with the conception of the
Chaldaeans as a divine instrument. It is the nation that speaks through
the poet (cf. v. 14), but at what period of its post-exilic history we
have no means of inferring.
Our estimate of the theological teaching of this book will naturally be
influenced by the particular critical theory which is adopted. The
reduction of the book to four originally independent sections requires
that the point of each be stated separately. When this is done, it will,
however, be found that there is a broad unity of subject, and of natural
development in its treatment, such as to some extent justifies the
instinct or the judgment of those who were instrumental in effecting the
combination of the separate parts. (1) The poem (iii.), though possibly
latest in date,[4] claims first consideration, because it avowedly moves
in the circle of primitive ideas, and supplicates a divine intervention,
a direct and immediate manifestation of the transcendent God. He is
conceived as controlling or overcoming the forces of nature; and though
an earlier mythology has supplied some of the ideas, yet, as with the
opening chapters of Genesis, they are transfigured by the moral purpose
which animates them, the purpose to subdue all things that could
frustrate the destiny of God's anointed (v. 13). The closing verses
strike that deep note of absolute dependence on God, which is the glory
of the religion of the Old Testament and its chief contribution to the
spirit of the Gospels. (2) The prophecy of the Chaldaeans as the
instruments of the divine purpose involves a different, yet related,
conception of the divine providence. The philosophy of history, by which
Hebrew prophets could read a deep moral significance into national
disaster and turn the flank of resistless attack, became one of the most
important elements in the nation's faith. If the world-powers were hard
as flint in their dealings with Israel, the people of God were steeled
to such moral endurance that each clash of their successive onsets
kindled some new flame of devotion. Through the Chaldaeans God worked a
work which required centuries of life and literature to disclose its
fulness (i. 5). (3) When we turn from this view of the Chaldaeans to the
denunciation of their tyranny in "taunt songs" (ii. 5-20), we have
simply a practical application of the doctrine of divine government. God
being what He is, at once moral and all-powerful, the immoral life is
doomed to overthrow, whether the immorality consist in grasping
rapacity, proud self-aggrandizement, cruel exaction, exulting triumph or
senseless idolatry. (4) Yet, because the doom so often tarries, there
arises the problem of the suffering of the innocent and the upright. How
can God look down with tolerance that seems favour on so much that
conflicts with His declared will and character? This is the great
problem of Israel, finding its supreme expression for all time in the
book of Job (q.v.). In that book the solution of the problem of innocent
suffering lies hidden from the sufferer, even to the end, for he is not
admitted with the reader to the secret of the prologue; it is the
practical solution of faithfulness resting on faith which is offered to
us. So here, with the principle of ii. 4, "the righteous shall live by
his faithfulness." The different application of these words in the New
Testament to "faith" is well known (Rom. i. 17; Gal. iii. 11; Heb. x.
38) though the difference is apt to be exaggerated by those who forget
how much of the element of [Hebrew: emuna]: lies in Paul's conception of
[Greek: pistis]. In G. A. Smith's words, "as Paul's adaptation, 'the
just shall live by faith,' has become the motto of evangelical
Christianity, so we may say that Habakkuk's original of it has been the
motto and the fame of Judaism: 'the righteous shall live by his
faithfulness.'"
The Hebrew text of this impressive and varied book is unfortunately
corrupt in many places; even so cautious a critic as Driver accepts or
favourably notices eighteen textual emendations in the three chapters,
and suspects the text in at least seven other cases. For the
interpretation of the book in detail, the English reader will find
Driver's commentary (1906) the most useful.
References to earlier literature will be found in the following
noteworthy studies of recent date: Davidson, "Nahum, Habakkuk and
Zephaniah," in _Cambridge Bible_ (1896); Nowack, _Die kleinen
Propheten_ (Hdkr.) (1897); Wellhausen, _Die kleinen Propheten_^3
(1898); G. A. Smith, "The Book of the Twelve Prophets," in _The
Expositor's Bible_, vol. ii. (1898); Driver, article "Habakkuk" in
Hastings' _Dictionary of the Bible_, vol. ii. pp. 269-272 (1900);
Budde, article "Habakkuk" in _Ency. Biblica_, vol. ii., c. 1921-1928
(1901); Stevenson, "The Interpretation of Habakkuk," in _The
Expositor_ (1902), pp. 388-401; Peake, _The Problem of Suffering in
the Old Testament_ (1904), pp. 4-11 and app. A, "Recent Criticism of
Habakkuk"; Marti, _Dodekapropheton_ (K. H. C.) (1904); Driver, "Minor
Prophets," vol. ii., in _Century Bible_ (1906); Duhm, _Das Buch
Habakkuk_ (Text, Ubersetzung und Efklarung), 1906 (regards the book as
a unity belonging to the time of Alexander the Great). Max L. Margolis
discusses the anonymous Greek version of Habakkuk iii. in a volume of
_Old Test. and Semitic Studies: in Memory of William Rainey Harper_
(Chicago, 1908). (H. W. R.*)