Produced by Charles Bowen, from page scans provided by the Web Archive.
Transcriber's notes:
1. Page scan source:
http://www.archive.org/details/historyspanishc01canogoog
2. [=a] represents a with a macron above it.
3. The "open o" symbol ( like a reversed "c") is used here to
represent the sound of [ts] (following Gates); this is the
unicode Ɔ and ɔ.
4. [va], [vi] represents "a", "i" with an caron.
5. Errata have been corrected in the text as indicated.
PAPERS
OF THE
PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND
ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY
Vol. VII
* * * * *
HISTORY OF THE SPANISH CONQUEST
OF YUCATAN AND OF
THE ITZAS
BY
PHILIP AINSWORTH MEANS
* * * * *
Cambridge, Mass.
Published by the Museum
1917
Copyright, 1917,
By the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and
Ethnology, Harvard University
The University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
ERRATA
Substitute the accompanying page for the preliminary Note on Page iii.
Page 25. For the last two lines read "Cozumel. They also visited las
Mugers which takes its name from the female idols found there by the
Spaniards. This."
Page 58, note. For "may be" read "was."
Page 104, line 2 and elsewhere. For "Arumendi" read "Arismendi."
Page 180, line 30. For "was destroyed" read "were devastated."
NOTE
This Paper is the result of work carried on by Mr. Means as a graduate
student in the Division of Anthropology during the years 1915-1917. It
consists mainly of translations of early Spanish books and manuscripts.
It is gratifying to note that this is the first publication by the
Museum based upon the large collection of photographic reproductions of
early manuscripts from Mexico and Central America brought together by
Professor W. E. Gates of Point Loma, California, and presented to the
Museum by Mr. Charles P. Bowditch. Among these manuscripts is
Avendano's account of his journey to Peten, the greater part of which
is included in the present paper. The original of this manuscript is in
the British Museum. Cano's account of a trip to Guatemala is also given
here. This manuscript is in the Brinton Collection at the University of
Pennsylvania. It is through the kindness of Dr. George B. Gordon,
Director of that Museum, and of Miss Adela C. Breton, who copied the
manuscript, that it is possible to publish it at this time. The
Avendano and the Cano manuscripts were translated by Mr. Bowditch and
Senor G. Rivera.
CHARLES C. WILLOUGHBY
_Director_
INTRODUCTION
In the library of the Peabody Museum of Harvard University there is an
invaluable collection of photographs of old manuscripts relating to
Middle America. These photographs, made by Professor William E. Gates
of Point Loma, California, were given to the Peabody Museum by Charles
P. Bowditch, Esq., of Boston. One of the volumes contains a
photographic reproduction of an original manuscript entitled _Relacion
de las dos Entradas que hize a Peten Ytza_. The author, Fray Andres de
Avendano y Loyola, of the Order of Saint Francis, will receive much of
our attention later. Fortunately Mr. Bowditch and Sr. Guillermo Rivera
have deciphered and translated the crabbed old text, so that we have at
hand an account of the subjection of the Itzas of Tayasal, or Peten
Itza, which is not only invaluable as being the work of an eyewitness
of that subjection, but which also is filled with a rare charm. It was
largely with a view to bringing this old manuscript to the attention of
students that Mr. Bowditch and Dr. Tozzer asked me to work it up into a
study of the Itzas of Tayasal. At the same time we must not neglect to
notice here the translation, made by Mr. Bowditch and Sr. Rivera, of
another inedited work on the same subject. I refer to the account by
Fray Alonso Cano, which will be of great use to us later.
Though Avendano and Cano are, so to speak, the prime reasons for the
writing of this study, they have been supplemented in no inconsiderable
degree by two other early Spanish writers on the history of Yucatan and
its people, Diego Cogolludo and Juan de Villagutierre y Sotomayor. A
few comments on the works of these two authors will later prove useful
to the reader.
Though Villagutierre's Spanish style is far superior to that of such
writers as Fernando Montesinos and Antonio de la Calancha, it is,
nevertheless, atrocious. Although he wrote about 1700, Villagutierre's
style is excessively archaic; his grammatical construction can hardly
be called construction at all, so formless and ambiguous is it.
Villagutierre never hesitates to write several long sentences without a
single main verb between them, nor does he often refrain from going on
and on for a page or so without using a period. In the use of capitals
he is most whimsical; usually he has them when they are called for, but
he has many that are out of place as well.
The style of Cogolludo, on the other hand, is very good, and that, be
it noted, despite the fact that Cogolludo wrote prior to 1688. One
remarks with considerable surprise that in several cases Villagutierre
and Cogolludo use almost the same words. For example, in speaking of
the visit which Cortes made to the island of Tayasal, Cogolludo says:
"... _y aun la ida de Cortes se tuvo por ossadia, y demasiada
confianza...._" Villagutierre, in the same connection says: "... _que
lo tenian a grandissima temeridad, y ossadia, y por demasiada
confianza...._" This is an interesting point, and perhaps it is
significant that Cogolludo's book was published in 1688, whereas that
of Villagutierre was not brought out until 1701. It is to be noted that
Cogolludo, the earlier writer, uses only two epithets, and that
Villagutierre, the later writer, uses the same two, plus a new one of
his own. I know of two other cases where equally close and significant
similarity exists between the two. It is possible, then, that
Villagutierre copied (not to say plagiarized) the work of Cogolludo
without giving credit for it. But the important point for us in this
matter does not concern the personal integrity of Villagutierre. Rather
does the importance of the matter lie in this: if Villagutierre was
acquainted with the history of Yucatan by Cogolludo to such a degree
that he frequently borrowed whole phrases from it, he must have had a
very good reason for diverging widely now and again from the version of
events given by Cogolludo. Such a reason could only be supplied by the
fact that Villagutierre possessed information which he regarded as
superior to and more official than that of Cogolludo. Therefore, since
in several instances (as in his account of the events leading up to the
visit of Cortes to Tayasal) Villagutierre occasionally departs from the
footsteps of Cogolludo, we may safely assume that he was at once more
critical and better informed than the latter, whom, however, he valued
enough to be willing to draw from his work much of his information and
even some of his phraseology.
The virtues and defects of Avendano and of Cano are less subtle; so
much so, indeed, that it would be absurd to attempt a criticism of them
here. The reader will have ample opportunity to see their qualities for
himself in the body of the book.
A word as to the method adopted in translating is in order. In the
various passages taken from Cogolludo and Villagutierre I have
preserved the spelling and capitalization of proper names that appear
in the text. All passages from Avendano and Cano are from the
translations made by Mr. Bowditch and Sr. Rivera.
All the other works used are so well known that comment on them is
superfluous.
Finally, I wish to express my gratitude to Mr. Bowditch and to Dr.
Tozzer, both of whom have spent much time and thought in going over the
manuscript of this work. Among the others who have shown me kindness
and courtesy during the preparation of this study are Mr. Putnam of the
Library of Congress; Dr. George Byron Gordon of the University Museum,
Philadelphia; Professor Holmes of the United States National Museum;
Dr. Edward Luther Stevenson of the Hispanic Society of America, New
York; and, lastly, my mother, Mrs. James Means. These and others have
generously given me much of their time and information.
PHILIP AINSWORTH MEANS
February 23, 1917
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
THE PRE-COLUMBIAN HISTORY OF THE MAYAS
AND OF THE ITZAS, 1445
Migratory period
The Golden Age or Old Empire of the Maya
The Colonization period
Transitional period
Renaissance or League period
The period of the Toltec mercenaries
Disintegration
Note: Cogolludo's account of the early history of the Mayas and
of some of their customs
CHAPTER II
THE POLITICAL, SOCIAL, AND GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES OF
THE ITZA STATE DURING THE PERIOD OF 1445-1697
The significance of the Itzas
The location of Peten or Tayasal
Description of Peten and its surroundings
The lake neither rises nor falls
The temples of Tayasal described by Avendano
The palace of Canek, Chief of the Itzas
The districts of Peten Itza
Extent of the Itza dominion under the Chief Canek
Quincanek
Further information about the region
The Itzas described
CHAPTER III
THE FIRST SPANISH ENTRADAS INTO YUCATAN, 1517-1526
The first Spaniards in Yucatan
Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba, 1517
Juan de Grijalva and others, 1518
Cortes in Mexico, 1519
Villagutierre's account of the entrada of Cortes, 1524-1525
Cortes starts for Honduras
Cortes arrives at Izancanac
Description of a large town
The Spaniards suspect treachery
The Indians explain why their town was deserted
Cortes takes leave of them in a friendly spirit
The deer hunt
The army of Cortes proceeds on its way
The lake
They capture an Indian
The Indian is sent to Tayasal
Some Indians come to Cortes from Tayasal
Canek himself comes and is courteously received
Canek hears Mass and promises to put away his idols
Cortes goes to Tayasal with Canek
The Itzas give Cortes news of Olid
Cortes takes leave of Canek, leaving Morzillo
Idols not burnt
Cortes arrives in Honduras
Comparison of Villagutierre with other authorities
Canek's attitude toward Cortes
CHAPTER IV
THE ENTRADA OF FRANCISCO DE MONTEJO AND HIS SON,
AND THE ARRIVAL OF THE FRANCISCANS, 1526-1542
Francisco de Montejo and his son
Montejo's preparations and sacrifices
He sets out
Montejo and his men go along the shore of Yucatan
Description of the campaign
Davila and Vazquez search vainly for gold in the region of Chetemal
Foundation of Villa Real de Chetemal
Hardships of those who were at Chichen
Continual misfortunes
Chichen Itza and Villa Real both deserted
Davila goes to Honduras
The Elder Montejo goes to Tabasco in 1535
The Franciscans enter Yucatan, 1535
Renewal of the subjection of Yucatan by Montejo, 1537
Hostility of the Indians
The Elder Montejo's instructions to his son
The Younger Montejo founds Campeche, 1540-1541
Tutul Xiu of Mani offers his aid
Foundation of Merida and of Valladolid, 1542-1543
Bishop Bartolome de las Casas arrives in Yucatan
CHAPTER V
THE ENTRADA OF PADRES FUENSALIDA AND ORBITA, 1618
The name Canek
Increased power of the Itzas
The mock embassy from Tayasal
The mock embassy considered to be a rebellion
A new period in the history of the Itzas
Fuensalida and Orbita
Preliminaries to the departure of the Padres
Briceno's opposition
The Padres set out
Their route
The journey up the river from Tipu
Arrival at Tipu
Events at the village of Tipu
The friendliness of Carrillo and the Indians
Don Christoval Na, Cacique of the Indians of Tipu
Francisco Cumux goes with an embassy to Canek
Cumux returns from Canek with two chiefs of Tayasal
The two chiefs are cordially received
The Padres prepare to travel to Tayasal
Delays; the Padres' anger
The return to Tipu
All precautions taken, they set out once more
Lake Yaxha is crossed; arrival at Lake Zacpeten
The Padres camp beside Lake Peten
The Padres arrive at Tayasal and are well received
Mass is said
Fuensalida preaches; Orbita destroys an idol
The Padres urge the Itzas to be Christians
They refuse because the appointed time has not come
After a few days the Padres leave Tayasal
CHAPTER VI
THE ENTRADA OF PADRE FRAY DIEGO DELGADO AND THE
EVENTS THAT FOLLOWED, 1621-1624
Padre Fray Diego Delgado's offer to christianize the Itzas
Delgado travels to the convent of Xecchacan
He is well provided with guides and other Indians
Zaclun
The proposal of Mirones
Mirones and the Governor make an agreement
Mirones raises an army for his entrada
Mirones arrives at Zaclun
The wanton and foolish oppression caused by Mirones
Delgado opposes Mirones
Delgado determines to anticipate Mirones
Delgado's message to Canek
Delgado receives permission from Canek to come to Tayasal
The treachery of the Itzas
Delgado and others are put to death
Mirones sends Ek after Delgado
Revolt of the Indians
An epidemic of apostasy; the third phase of the conquest of the Itzas
begins
CHAPTER VII
THE EARLY HISTORY OF GUATEMALA AND THE ENTRADA
FROM THAT COUNTRY, 1694-1695
The Indian tribes of Guatemala
Account of the Cakchiquel and of the Quiche
The government and the cities of the Cakchiquel and of the Quiche
Spanish conquest
Gallegos and Delgado
The Indians are friendly to them
The route taken by the two Padres
Several villages founded
The Dominicans and the Franciscans
Struggles between the Dominicans and the Indians
The inception of the plan to subdue the Itzas, 1689
Soberanis ordered to cooperate
Ursua to succeed Soberanis in office
A letter from Ursua y Arizmendi to the King of the Spains
The King grants all that Ursua asks
President Barrios aids in the undertaking
Arrangements for the entrada; supplies, etc.
The voluntary contributions
Quarrels between Soberanis and the Bishop of Yucatan
President Barrios decides to join the entrada in person
The expedition sets out from Guatemala City
Events at Huehuetenango
Ursua's activities
An army sets out from Yucatan for the Montana
Padres Cano and Avendano y Loyola
Cano's account of the entrada from Guatemala
The route followed by Cano
The Chols and the Mopanes
From Mopan to the lake
Cano advises return
Explanations of their withdrawal sent to Guatemala
The decree of the General Assembly
Quarrels among the soldiers and the officials
The writers of the decree punished
CHAPTER VIII
THE FIRST AND UNSUCCESSFUL ATTEMPT MADE BY FRAY ANDRES
DE AVENDANO Y LOYOLA TO REACH THE ITZAS
OF TAYASAL, 1695-1699
Preamble
Preparations for the journey
The start
Indian singers
Arrival at Cauich
Departure from Cauich
Aguada of Hobon Ox; Chunzalam, Vecanxan
Nohhalal, Th[=a] Ayn, Sucte
Ix Kata-Kal
Nohku
Nohvecan
Hardships suffered by the Padres
Oppol; a bridge built across a river
Tanche
Deserted village of Temchay
Nohpek
Nohthub
Bacechac
Buete
Lack of supplies
Paredes seizes some farms
Fifty-one Indians of Buete surrender
Avendano argues with Paredes about his plundering
The royal decrees are mentioned by Avendano
Paredes promises to return the plunder
Paredes fails to keep his word
Tzucthok, once before reduced, had rebelled
The Padres endeavor to instruct the Indians
The captains promise to give warning before fighting
A skirmish
The avarice of Paredes
Chunpich is reached
Zuviaur goes to the Itzas; the Padres return
Further troubles
The Padres determine to get to the Itzas some other way
Letter to the captains
Governor Ursua vexed by the captains' letter
Return to Merida
CHAPTER IX
THE SECOND ENTRADA OF PADRE AVENDANO
Orders of the Governor
Departure of Avendano
The same route followed as before; Batcab is reached
Chuntuci
The hardships of the journey
Approaching the Itzas
Tan Xuluc Mul; temples on a great height
Chakan Itza
The Chakan Itzas
Treatment of the natives
The Padres please other Indians by means of little gifts
The Padres renew their march
Nich
Indians arrive from Tayasal
Bravery of Avendano
The landing at Tayasal; the idol
At the temple
The Padres read the letters
The curiosity of the Itzas
A baptism performed
Other Caciques arrive
The Caciques in war paint
Avendano makes inquiries as to their manner of reckoning time
Avendano explains the prophecies
Objection of Covoh
Discussion with Canek and others
Friendliness of Canek
Demonstrations against Canek
Leniency promised by the Padres
Avendano takes steps to protect the Itzas from further molestation
The letter of counsel
Before leaving Tayasal, Avendano shames Covoh
The hatred of the Chakan Itzas for the Padres increases
Canek helps the Padres to escape
Paredes' stupidity; the plot of the Chakan Itzas
The Chakan Itzas are foiled by God
The departure of the Padres from Tayasal
Avendano goes eastward to Yalain
Trouble with soldiers
The Padres suffer hardships and lose their way
Hard travel in the wilderness for fifteen days
Miracle of the bent branch
An uncomfortable night
Great want of food
The situation grows still worse
They find some miraculous honey
Two Padres go ahead
A desperate situation
They find some edible thistles
Some hills are reached
Deserted buildings
False hopes; further hardships
They face starvation
A sign from our Lady of the Apparition
They climb some high hills
Avendano left alone
The miracle of the sapote
Rescued
What had happened to the Indians whom Avendano sent off
The messenger from Tayasal
Reasons for Avendano's distrust
CHAPTER X
THE CONSUMMATION OF THE CONQUEST OF TAYASAL
BY THE SPANIARDS, 1695-1696
The expedition from Guatemala reaches Cahabon
Preliminary movements and plans
The fate of Diaz de Velasco; Amezquita follows him
Conclusion of the subjection of the Itzas begun
Paredes is ordered to march to Los Dolores
Canek's ambassador, Can, arrives at Merida
Zuviaur goes to the lake
Ursua determines to take vigorous measures
Lawsuits between Soberanis and Ursua
Captain Paredes at Tzucthok
Captain Hariza at Tipu
The Cacique Cintanek's villages
Can's report
The commands of King Charles II
Soberanis and Ursua in agreement at last
The part to be taken by Indian villages
The road completed as far as the lake
Quincanek feigns friendliness
The hostilities begin
The captains urge Ursua to fight; the battle
Tayasal becomes a Spanish possession
Later history of Tayasal
APPENDICES
I The Question of Orthography
II The Dialect of Peten. (From an unpublished manuscript by Dr. Berendt
in the Brinton Collection in the University Museum, Philadelphia)
III The Maps of Yucatan, 1501-1800
IV Itinerary of Avendano, together with geographical information
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LIST OF PLATES
Ia Avendano's Map of Lake Peten, circa 1697.
Ib Avendano's Map with English translation.
II Peten Itza in the Middle of the Eighteenth Century.
III Lake Peten and Flores.
n
IV Sketch (with English translation) of a Map of Yucatan, circa
1566, found with the Landa MS.
V Sketch (with English translation) of another Map of Yucatan,
circa 1566, found with the Landa MS.
VI Map showing Entradas to Lake Peten.
HISTORY OF THE SPANISH CONQUEST OF
YUCATAN AND OF THE ITZAS
CHAPTER I
THE PRECOLUMBIAN HISTORY OF THE MAYAS
AND OF THE ITZAS, 1445
In general it may be said that the Maya culture occupied the peninsula
of Yucatan, portions of the states of Tabasco and Chiapas in Mexico,
Guatemala, and the northern part of Honduras. That branch of the Mayas
who called themselves the Itzas and who form the chief subject of this
work occupied the southern portion of Yucatan and the greater part of
what is now the Department of Peten in Guatemala.
A few decades ago it was the fashion to credit the aboriginal peoples
of America with a civilization of enormous antiquity. But the whole
trend of modern scientific investigation tends to prove that the
American continent was one of the last parts of the world to be settled
and that, at the time of the Spanish conquest, the aboriginal cultures
were certainly not more than three thousand or so years old. Even this
estimate should be understood to include centuries of migratory
shiftings and centuries of development along lines which eventually led
to the erection of the earlier types of high culture in Middle and
South America. Roughly speaking, the time of Christ coincides with the
period at which the earliest high cultures in this hemisphere began to
flourish.
For the sake of convenience we shall follow the chronology suggested by
Mr. Morley (1915) and divide the pre-Columbian history of the Maya race
into eight periods. The first seven of these periods we shall discuss
briefly in this opening chapter; the eighth will furnish the subject
matter for the remainder of the book. The dates given should be
regarded as merely approximate.
APPROXIMATE DATES PERIODS
PERIODS A.D.
I Migratory period ?-200
II Golden Age or Old Empire 200-600
III Colonization period 450-700
IV Transitional period 700-1000
V Renaissance or League period 1000-1200
VI The period of the Toltec mercenaries 1200-1450
VII Disintegration 1450-1541
VIII Period of wars with Spain 1519-1697
Before taking up our review of the first seven periods we must remind
ourselves that the prehistoric cultures of Middle America have a
certain unity, showing beyond doubt that they were all of a common
origin. It is impossible to tell at what epoch the Maya became separate
and distinct from the other highly cultured peoples scattered over
Mexico and Central America. Fortunately, however, owing to the
investigations in the Valley of Mexico, we have abundant material for
the reconstruction of the sequence of cultures. Three successive strata
of occupation have been found in the Valley of Mexico. The earliest of
these, the Archaic, is also found in many other places throughout
Mexico and Central America. There is some reason to suppose that this
culture was at one time fairly uniform throughout the greater part of
Middle America. The local developments seen in the Maya, the Zapotec,
and the early Mexican cultures may have been the result of
modifications of the Archaic culture. Above this Archaic stratum in the
Valley of Mexico is found the Toltec or Teotihuacan culture. This is
synchronous with late Maya of the sixth period on our table.
Manifestations of its art are found in the latest buildings at Chichen
Itza.
I. Migratory Period (?-200 A.D.). The two earliest dated Maya
inscriptions that we have are those on the Tuxtla statuette and on the
Leyden plate. (Morley, 1915, p. 194 ff.; Holmes, 1916.) The former is
dated, in the Maya system of chronology, 8.6.2.4.17. (about 100 B.C.);
the date on the latter is 8.14.3.1.12. (about 50 A.D.).[1] Although, as
Mr. Morley points out, these are the earliest dates we know of from the
Maya area, it is to be noted that they do not differ essentially from
the more recent inscriptions. They ought, therefore, to be regarded as
introductory to the historic period, and it may be assumed that they
were themselves preceded by many decades of development during which
the first attempts at writing were gradually elaborated until the
extremely complex Maya hieroglyphics were evolved in the form in which
we know them.
II. The Golden Age or Old Empire of the Maya (200-600 A.D.). This
period extended, roughly, from 9.2.10.0.0. (210) to 10.2.0.0.0. (600).
In this time many cities rose, flourished, and fell. Of these Palenque,
Yaxchilan, Piedras Negras, Tikal, Seibal, Quirigua, Copan, and Nakum
are some of the more important. Like Seibal on the east and Piedras
Negras and Yaxchilan on the west, Tikal and Nakum were not far from the
Peten region to which our attention will be chiefly directed.[2]
Indeed, Lake Peten lies in what is almost the geographical center of
the area formerly occupied by the Old Empire. It is significant,
therefore, that Mr. Morley has found at the modern town of Flores (in
Lake Peten) two stelae dated approximately 10.1.0.0.0. and 10.2.0.0.0.
(580 and 600).
The various elaborate architectural features of the Old Empire cities
have been fully examined by many writers, and it is, therefore,
needless for us to speak of them except in the most general terms. One
predominating feature of all the ruins is the excessive use of
ornamentation. Because the country was devoid of any great natural
elevations which would give an effective setting for their buildings,
the people often used substructures of varying heights and
superstructures of several sorts. If one may judge from the sculptures
left by the inhabitants of the early cities, their life was mainly
taken up with an extremely involved ritualistic religion which, in the
hands of a priestly body, was at once the means by which they were
ruled and the outlet for the artistic gifts which they undeniably had.
Very probably the over-elaborate religion was responsible for the
tremendous mass of detail to be seen in so many of the ruined cities.
So great was the eagerness for space upon which to crowd ornamentation
that an architectural feature which served no purpose other than that
of affording more ample space for decoration was evolved. The roof-comb
is found in a high degree of development at Yaxchilan and elsewhere.
(Spinden, 1913, p. 112, fig. 148.) Sometimes, as at Tikal, this
cumbersome construction was carried to such lengths that the area
covered by walls was out of all natural proportion to that covered by
rooms.
One can only conjecture what brought about the downfall of these
ancient cities in which a very advanced culture once flourished. It is
not impossible that the priesthood became so oppressive that an
emigration took place; or, owing to a lack of proper agricultural
knowledge, the fields probably became spent so that the people were
forced to seek new homes; possibly also there was some sort of an
invasion from the west or east. Any one or all of these causes may have
brought about the succeeding period, one which lies within and at the
end of the Golden Age.
III. The Colonization Period (450-700 A.D.). This period is chiefly
notable for us because it marks the beginning of documentary history
and because the Itzas are first specifically mentioned in connection
with it.[3]
About 450 Ziyan Caan or Bakhalal was built, to be occupied only some
sixty years. (Spinden, 1913, Table 2; Brinton, 1882, Chr. I.) According
to Chronicle V the use of the name Itza dates from the founding of
Chichen Itza, an event which took place about 510.[4] At this time
there also occurred important changes in the calendar system, an event
symbolized in the Chronicles by the phrase "Pop was set in order."
There is, then, in this period of colonization, a well-defined
migration northward. The ancient cities in the south did not die out at
once, and we may suppose that the sixth century of our era was a time
of great cultural activity. It is interesting to know that the old Maya
culture and the Tiahuanaco culture (the two greatest American
civilizations) were probably in part at least contemporaries. (Cf.
Means, 1917.)
The Chronicles are vague and divergent on the question of how long the
first occupation of Chichen Itza lasted. Chronicle I says 120 years;
Chronicle II says 200; Chronicle III says 240. As two of the three
important Chronicles place the length of occupation at 200 years or
more, we may assume that it lasted from about 500 to 700 of our era.
To this period we may confidently attribute some of the structures at
Chichen. It has been shown that the Casa de Monjas at Chichen underwent
several periods of construction. It is what Mr. Thompson has called
"Old Chichen," however, that is most surely associated with the period
we are now discussing. In that portion of the ruins Mr. Thompson found
a lintel dated 10.2.9.1.9. (about 610). As the building in which the
lintel was found is one of a group that is quite distinct from the rest
of the ruins, it may be believed that they all date from the first
occupation.
We have, of course, no satisfactory data from which to derive an
opinion as to the territorial expansion of the kingdom ruled from Old
Chichen (if, indeed, it was ruled from there). Spinden (1913, p. 201),
however, has found ample reason for believing that Xcalumkin, Xlabpak,
Sayil, Kabah, and Tabi were flourishing at this period. Briefly, the
presence of a modified form of the "manikin scepter" and of the stela
(both characteristic of the ancient cities) convinces him that all
these places were erected before the influence of the Old Empire cities
had died out.
IV. Transitional Period (700-1000 A.D.). The Maya-Itza stock now
reentered upon their migrations. They moved, about 700, to Chakanputum,
where they stayed until about 950. The Chronicles all agree as to the
length of time the Itzas were at Chakanputum. Of this site we know
little beyond the fact that Cortes, when he visited it in 1519, found a
large village there.
Just before the Itzas left Champoton, or perhaps just after, Uxmal was
founded by Ahcuitok Tutul Xiu, who, according to the tradition,
probably came from the west. The lords of this city were destined to
have an important part to play in the history of the Itzas. About the
year 1000 the cities of Uxmal, Chichen, and Mayapan formed a
confederation which has been called the League of Mayapan. After three
or four hundred years of unrest after the disintegration of the Old
Empire a New Empire was about to begin its career.
V. Renaissance or League Period (1000-1200 A.D.). In the Golden Age or
Old Empire the civilization of the Maya race had centered about Lake
Peten, in the extreme south of the peninsula of Yucatan. In the time of
the New Empire the old cities in the south were gradually forgotten and
new ones, quite as remarkable, sprang up in the northern portion of the
peninsula. Three cities probably shared the sovereign power, forming,
by their alliance, the celebrated League of Mayapan. These cities were
Uxmal, ruled by the Xiu family, Mayapan, possibly ruled by the Cocom[5]
family, and Chichen Itza. The latter is, of course, our chief concern;
but as it has been often described we will only say that it may have
had, at one time, as many as one hundred thousand inhabitants and that
the culture that throve there was of a high order.
The political features of the League of Mayapan are difficult to
describe with accuracy. Each of the three great cities had its ruling
family. Below these was an order of personages called _batab_, each of
whom held and ruled a portion of the country. The _batab_ stood in much
the same relation to the ruler of the large city as a medieval baron to
the king. Doubtless each _batab_, ruling from his own city, had a
hierarchy of officers under him. Probably Labna, Kabah, Chacmultun,
Sayil, Hochob, Ake, Tihoo, Acanceh, Tinum, Kewick, and all the other
cities in northern Yucatan were once seats of _batabs_ who were more or
less intimately connected with the ruler of one of the three great
cities. There was ample machinery for the administration of justice,
and crimes were fittingly punished. Such positions as the Halach Uinic
(Real Man, i.e., king) of Mayapan and the office of batab of some
lesser city usually were inherited according to the rules of
primogeniture, but this custom could, for sufficient cause, be set
aside.[6]
VI. The Period of the Toltec Mercenaries (1200-1450 A.D.). However much
in the dark we may be as to the details of the events which brought
about the downfall of the League of Mayapan, we are in no doubt as to
the main causes of its disruption. Speaking in very general terms, the
situation was as follows. The ruler of Mayapan seems to have been the
trouble maker. Becoming ambitious to extend his power over the other
Halach Uinicil, he called in a number of mercenaries from Mexico. With
the aid of these allies the Halach Uinic of Mayapan made himself master
of the whole northern part of Yucatan, but he had to pay a heavy price
in the shape of giving Chichen Itza to his allies.
During all these troubles the Xius at Uxmal seem to have preserved a
certain amount of independence; certainly as time went on and as the
power of Mayapan became more and more tyrannically oppressive, the Xius
gradually became the champions of the oppressed. It was but natural
that those of the Itza _batabs_ who still remained at Chichen should
resent the alien dominion placed over them. If we may believe Chronicle
I, they made at least one attempt to get back their old power. The
discontent of the Itza element of the population, a discontent always
shared in by the Xius at Uxmal, continued to increase during two
hundred and fifty years. In that period Chichen Itza, under the
influence of its Toltec rulers, witnessed its final period of
architectural development. The Ball Court, the Castillo, the Group of
the Columns, and other buildings were erected under Toltec influence.
It is easy to recognize and identify the structures of this period
because they are usually distinguished by such features as serpent
columns, _tlaxtli_ or ball courts, Atlantean supports, feathered
monsters, and speech scrolls.
About 1450 the inevitable revolution against the tyranny of the Toltecs
took place, and with it civilization of the highest type came to an
end.
VII. Disintegration (1450-1541 A.D.). Centralized feudalistic
government destroyed, Yucatan fell into a sad plight. Where one or two
strong states had been before there were now a score of weak ones. In
the wars of this period the once great cities of the League were
destroyed and abandoned; new and far less advanced cities were founded
to take their place. The remnant of the Xiu family retired to Mani; the
Cocom became lords of Zotuta. Itzamal seems to have become a sacerdotal
state under the dominion of the Chel family. The Itzas, in whom our
chief interest lies, probably withdrew far to the south and founded
their power in the region about Lake Peten. Brinton (1882, p. 25.)
gives this list of the small independent states found by the Spaniards:
1 ACALAN (Bahia de Terminos)
2 TIXCHEL (Telchac)
3 KIN PECH (Campeche)
4 CHAKANPUTUN (Champoton)
5 CANUL
6 HOCABAIHUMUN
7 CEHPECH (Merida region)
8 ZIPATAN (northwest coast)
9 CHOACA (northeast coast)
10 EKAB (opposite Cozumel)
11 CONIL (north coast, west of Choaca)
12 -- -- -- -- -- --
13 CHETEMAL (southern end of east coast)
14 TAITZA (Itza, Peten district)
15 AH KIN CHEL (Itzamal region)
16 ZOTUTA (Cocom state, between Merida and Valladolid)
17 MANI (Xiu state, southwest of Zotuta)
In number 14 we recognize the Itzas of Peten. The close of this period
of Disintegration (period VII) ushers in the eighth period, which will
take up the remainder of our attention.
NOTE
COGOLLUDO'S ACCOUNT OF THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE
MAYAS AND OF SOME OF THEIR CUSTOMS
It is well to present the account of the pre-Columbian history of the
Mayas as given by Cogolludo. It will be seen to differ greatly from the
more scientific view just given, but it presents points of interest. It
will be found in lib. iv, cap. 3.
"Neither from the peoples who populated this Kingdom of Yucatan nor
from their ancient Histories have I been able to find more than I shall
say here. In some writings which those who first learned how to write
left behind them, and which are in the native idiom (which is still
used among the Indians), it says that some of the people came from the
East and some from the West. With those who were from the Occident was
one who, as it were, was a Priest of theirs, called _Zamna_; and they
say that he it was who gave the names by which they are called in that
tongue to all the Ports of the Sea, points of land, estuaries, coasts,
and all the regions, sites, mountains (forests), and all the places of
this entire land; and certain it is that it is a thing worthy of
admiration if it was so, for such a division did he make of everything
in order that each spot might be known by its own name that there is
scarcely a palm of land which has not a name in their tongue. The
opinion that the settlers came to this land from the Occident (although
they do not know who they were nor how they came) is in accord with
what Padre Torquemada says in his Monarquia Indiana. (Lib. iii, cap.
13.) This is, That the Teochichimecas, after that terrible battle with
the Huexotzincas, remained lords of the territory of Tlaxcalan, and
made peace with the other nations on account of the fame of that
victory of theirs. These Teochichimecas must needs found their towns
and distribute their lands in such a manner that they were constantly
increasing their power and gradually occupying the country in such a
way that in a little more than 300 years they had spread through the
greater part of New Spain from one coast on the North to the other on
the South, a territory which includes all the inland regions which are
to the East, and especially those of this province of Yucathan as far
as the province of Hibueras or Honduras. From this it seems that the
Yucatecs are descended from Chichimec and Aculhua families which,
coming from the West by way of the stopping-places told of by Father
Torquemada in his first books, settled New Spain.
"If from the Orient came other peoples who settled in this land, there
is among the people now there neither tradition nor writing telling
with certainty from whence they came nor what people they were,
although, however, it is said (by some) that they came from the Island
of Cuba. Difficulty arises now, for some came from some regions and
others from very different ones, yet all speak a very ancient tongue,
nor has there been any information saying that any other has existed in
the land. But this might have been occasioned by some tribes being more
numerous than others, or by reason of war, or by trade and
communication which, by strengthening the relations of the one race
with the other, may have caused the idiom, usages, and customs of those
who were of the greatest number to prevail over and obliterate those of
the less numerous people. From the very differences which exist between
the Yucatec tongue and the Mexican, it seems that the Settlers of this
land must have been they who came from the East; and they may even have
been the most ancient people since the Indian Zamna who came with them
was he who first gave names to the places and lands, as has been told
already, for if the others had been the first, they would have done so.
Padre Lizana says the opposite because, first calling attention to the
fact that these Indians call the East _Cenial_, and the West,
_Nohnial_, the first of which signifies Small Descent and the second
Large Descent, he says: 'And it is a fact that they relate that from
the East descended upon this land a small race and from the West a
large one; and by that phrase do they understand little and much, East
and West, few from the one, many from the other.' The Reader will judge
which seems to him the better.
"This land of Yucathan, which the natives of it call _Maya_, was
governed for a long time by a Supreme Lord, and the last descendant of
these Lords was Tutul Xiu, he who was Lord of Mani and its neighborhood
when, voluntarily, he came to do homage, making himself a friend of the
Spaniards on the day of San Ildefonso, 1541, as has been told. Thus it
appears that there has ever been in the land a Monarchical government
which, according to the most weighty opinion among Writers, is the best
for the conservation of Realms. This King had for the capital of his
Monarchy a very populous City called Mayapan (from which must have been
derived the name of this land, Maya); this capital, through wars and
discords between the King and his vassals, and because justice lay only
in the greatest power among them (unhappy the times in which the
Supreme Lord has not a power equal to his justice), this government
came to an end; many of the Lords and Caciques rebelled, each
dominating the greatest amount of land he could, and being always
engaged in continuous wars; thus the Spaniards found them (divided into
estates, like Dukes and Counts, albeit without recognizing any
Superior). When Yucathan was left entirely without a Supreme Lord, then
the ambition of private persons who united their forces and banded
together to effect their will, resulted in their ordering the
destruction of the City of Mayapan, Capital of the Kingdom; they
demolished it about the year of Our Lord fourteen hundred and twenty
(according to the computation of the ages [_Ahaus?_] of the Indians)
and about the 260th year of their establishment. By this rebellion he
who was King and Supreme Lord of all Yucathan was left only with the
Lordship of Mani whither he retired upon the destruction of the City of
Mayapan which was where now are to be seen the ruins of buildings, near
the Village of Telchaquillo. They left him with this small power partly
because of the fidelity of those vassals who did not deny him obedience
due, and partly because of the permission given by the rebels who knew
that he had not now more strength than any of themselves....
"When the Lords of the City of Mayapan were ruling all the land was
tributary to them. The tribute was in small cotton mantles, native
fowl, some cacao in those places where it was got, and a resin which
served as incense in the Temples, and all told it was very small in
quantity. All the citizens and dwellers who lived within the City of
Mayapan were free from tribute; and in the city all the nobles of the
land had houses; and by the year 1582 (in which was written the
relation from which all this is drawn) it is said that all those who
were held to be Lords and nobles of Yucathan still remembered, in that
place, their old lots. Now with the change of government and because of
the slight estimation in which they are held ... the descendants of
Tutul Xiu, who was King and by right natural Lord, if they do not work
with their hands at labor, have nothing to eat, and toil does not now
seem to them unworthy of consideration. In ancient times, the nobles of
Mayapan were wont to serve in the Temples of the Idols in the
ceremonies and feasts which were by right assigned to them, assisting
by day and by night; and though many themselves had vassals, they
recognized the Supreme Lord, and served him in his wars.
"They who dwelt without the City and in the rest of the Province were
vassals and tributaries, not being of those who had houses there in the
capacity of land-holders; but they were greatly favored by their Lords
because they themselves served them as Advocates looking out for their
welfare with great solicitude whenever anyone asked that it be so. They
(the vassals and tributaries) were not obliged to live in assigned
Villages since they had license to live and to marry with whomsoever
they wished; the object of this was to ensure multiplication, for they
said that if the people were hampered, there could not fail to result a
diminution. Lands were held in common, and so between the Villages
there were no boundaries or landmarks to divide them; although it is
true that between one Province and another because of wars, save some
fields for sowing fruit-bearing trees and land which had been bought
for some purpose of improvement [incomplete sentence in the Spanish].
Also the salt-works which are on the Shores of the Sea were held in
common, and those who dwelt nearest to them were wont to pay tribute to
the Lords of Mayapan with salt which they had got....
"The Lords were absolute in power and caused their orders to be
executed with severity. There were Caciques placed in the Villages, or
some other leading person to hear suits and public demands. This
officer received the litigants or disputants, heard the cause of their
coming, and, if the matter were a grave one, talked it over with the
Lord. In order to try the case, other Ministers were appointed who were
like Advocates and Constables and who always attended in the presence
of the judges.... They were not in the habit of writing down the
lawsuits, although they had characters (of which many are to be seen in
the ruins of their buildings). All was set forth in words by means of
the Ministers before referred to, and what was then and there
determined remained valid and permanent without either of the parties
venturing to work against it. But if the affair which was to be tried
concerned many, they had a great meeting of all the interested
together; then the gist was communicated, upon which followed the
decision of the matter.
"In sales and contracts they had neither writings to oblige them to
keep their word nor promissory notes with which to give satisfaction,
but still the contract remained valid provided only that the parties
drank together publicly before witnesses. This was particularly the
usage in sales of slaves or of cacao-lands, and even today (it is said)
they use it still among themselves in the sale of horses and cattle.
The debtor never denied the debt even though he could not pay at once;
but all was made certain by the debtor's confessing his debt, for the
wife, children and relatives of the debtor would pay the debt after his
death....
"In the wars which because of their ambition they made upon one
another, some were taken prisoners, those of the conquered who were
taken remaining slaves. In this situation they were very rigorous,
treating the enslaved with asperity, and making use of them in all
sorts of bodily labor.
"In food-supplies there were no bargains, because they were always
fixed at one price, save Maize, which was wont to go up when crops were
poor, but it never passed what it is now worth, a _real_ or so, the
load (which is half a Castillian fanega).
"The money that they used was little bells and jingles of copper, which
had value according to their size, and some red shells, which were
brought from far away from this land, which they strung, after the
manner of rosaries. Also they used as money grains of cacao, and of
these they made the most use in commerce, and certain precious stones
and discs of copper brought from New Spain which they exchanged for
other things, as happens elsewhere...."
Cogolludo (lib. iv, cap. 5) continues with the following account of the
customs:
"For display and on gala occasions, they used to scarify themselves
with certain small points of stone on the breasts, arms and thighs;
they even went so far as to draw blood, and in the wounds they rubbed a
black earth or powdered carbon. When they scarified with these knives
the scars remained, shaped like Eagles, serpents, birds and animals,
and they perforated the nose as well.... The Cupules, who are the
people of the territory of the Town of Valladolid, used this practice a
great deal.
"In the times of their heathenry, as now, they danced and sang after
the manner of the Mexicans, and they used to have, as indeed they still
do have, a chief Singer (or Chanter) who intones, and who appoints what
they shall sing; and him they venerate and reverence, giving him an
honorable seat in Church, and at their assemblies and weddings. They
call him _Holpop_, and in his charge are the kettle-drums or _Tuncules_
and other musical instruments, such as the flutes, little trumpets,
tortoise-shells, and others that they used. The _Tuncul_ is of thick
wood, and there are some so large that they can be heard at a distance
of two leagues to leeward. To the accompaniment of these instruments
they sing their fables and old legends; all this will be reformed, or
rather, the Religious have already done so in many places, giving the
Indians Histories of Saints and some of the Mysteries of the Faith to
sing, at least at public dances, Easter celebrations, and festivities,
so that the ancient times will be forgotten.
"They have Babblers [Farfante = babbler, boaster; may mean jester,
buffoon] who repeat fables and ancient Histories, which I am certain
would be well done away with, or at least the costumes in which they
are represented, because it appears that they are like those of their
Heathen Priests; and when there is no worse harm than the preservation
among them of that memory, it appears a very pernicious thing, for it
inclines them all the more to the idolatrous practices which they
indulge in when wearing the costume; but every one will have his own
opinion in this matter, conformable, more or less, to what his
observation has taught him. The babblers are apt to be graceful at
mottoes and in the witty sayings which they tell to their elders and
Judges if they are over-rigourous, ambitious, avaricious, laying before
them the events that have taken place and even that which concerns the
officer's own duties. They thus speak to the officers' very faces, and
sometimes they rebuke them with a single word. But he who would
understand them must be a great linguist and must listen well. They are
very dangerous, these representations, when they are held at night and
in the Indians' own houses, for God knows what goes on there, and at
the very least many of them end up in drunkenness. They call these
Farfantes _Balzam_, and they apply the word metaphorically to him who
is talkative and scurrilous; and in their representations they mimic
birds.
"They held, and still do hold, banquets on the occasion of weddings and
betrothals, using up in one day many turkeys that they have been
breeding for a whole year. Those who are leaving the office of Alcalde
entertain those who are entering it, on the pain of disgrace, and on
election nights there is much drunkenness.
"The Indians of this land were and are very dextrous with the bow and
arrows, and so they are mighty huntsmen, and they grow dogs so that
they may fetch deer, wild boar, badgers. Tigers, some little Lions,
rabbits, armadillos, iguanas, and other animals. They shoot with their
arrows peacocks [sic], some birds they call _faysanes_ [pheasants], and
many others.
"At present they are great imitators of all the different sorts of
handiwork that are made, and so they learn all the trades with ease.
There are many Indians in their villages, beside those who live in the
City and in the Towns, who are great workers as smiths, locksmiths,
bridlemakers, shoemakers, carpenters, wood-carvers, sculptors,
saddlers, tradesmen who make many curious things out of shell,
bricklayers, stonecutters, tailors, painters, and so on. What causes
wonder is that there are many Indians who work at four or six trades
where a Spaniard would have but one ... but with that almost innate
coolness for work they supply their wants and turn out good work, which
they sell more cheaply than the Spaniards do, so that those tradesmen
who go to Yucathan fare badly at their trades; so there are but few of
them, and they seek other means of earning a livelihood.
"They wear clothes of very white cotton, of which they make shirts,
breeches, and certain mantles a vara and a half square which they call
_tilmas_ or _hayantes_. These can be made to serve as capes by drawing
the two corners up on the shoulder and making a knot; indeed, very many
people use ones made out of somewhat coarse woven wool, and even many
of stuffs brought from Spain, such as damasks and other silks. Some use
jackets, and many wear shoes and hempe sandals. The usual custom,
however, is to go barefoot, especially in their own houses and fields,
but the opposite is true of some Caciques and leading men, and of
women. Most of the men wear hats of straw or palm-leaves, and nowadays
many buy felt hats. The women use _Uaipiles_, which is a garment that
falls from the throat to the middle of the leg, with an opening at the
top, where the head goes, and two others at the top of the sides for
the arms, which are covered half-way down. Because this garment is not
tied in at the waist, it also serves as a shirt. From the waist to the
feet is another garment called _Pic_, and it is like petticoats and
goes under the outer garment. Most of these are worked with blue and
red thread, which makes them sightly. If a Spanish woman is seen in
this dress it looks, on her, most improper. Little Indian girls who are
growing up with Spanish women become great embroiderers, seamstresses,
and patchers, and they make things that are sold at large prices and
much esteemed.
"For Sundays and Feast-days when they go to Mass, and when they are to
be confessed, both men and women have cleaner and neater clothes, which
they keep for this. Other customs and things of theirs will be learned
through the laws that have been given to remedy them, which will be
related in the Fifth Book.
"There were Indians in the past days of their ancestors who had larger
bodies than those now common, bodies which were found in the sepulchres
of this land and which had gigantic stature. In 1647 in the village of
Vecal, on the royal road of Campeche, Padre Fray Juan de Carrion (now
Provincial Commissioner for the next General Chapter) ordered his
Indians to make an arbor for a reception he was to hold. They had just
set up the sticks with which it was to be made when the tools hit upon
a very large sepulchre made of flag-stones placed one over another
without any peculiarities of carving whatever. The Indians ran away
from it and went to call the Padre, who, on arriving, ordered them to
take out whatever was in the sepulchre. The Indians did not want to do
this, saying that it was prohibited for them to touch anything of that
sort. So the Padre, with the aid of a small boy, got out the bones of a
man of formidable size. There were in the sepulchre three bowls of very
fine pottery having three hollow balls in place of feet, and there was
a small black box of what appeared to be jasper. The Padre burned the
bones, threw them away, and filled up the hole, rebuking the Indians
for not wishing to touch it, on the plea that it was forbidden to them
to do so...."