THE EVIL EYE
THANATOLOGY
_AND OTHER ESSAYS_
ROSWELL PARK, M. D., LL.D. (YALE)
[Illustration: Man operating fruit press "Arti et Veritati"]
RICHARD G. BADGER
THE GORHAM PRESS
BOSTON
Copyright, 1912, by Richard G. Badger
All Rights Reserved
THE GORHAM PRESS, BOSTON, U. S. A.
To
Sir William Osler, M. D., LL.D.,
F. R. C. P., etc.
Regius Professor of Medicine,
Oxford University.
Ideal Scholar and Friend.
PREFACE
Responsibility for the following collection of essays and addresses
(occasional papers) rests perhaps not more with their writer, who was
not unwilling to see them presented in a single volume, than with those
of his friends who were complimentary enough to urge their assemblage
and publication in this shape. They partake of the character of studies
in that borderland of anthropology, biology, philology and history
which surrounds the immediate domain of medical and general science.
This ever offers a standing invitation and an enduring fascination
for those who will but raise their eyes from the fertile and arable
soil in which they concentrate their most arduous labors. Too close
confinement in this field may result in greater commercial yield, but
the fragrance of the clover detracts not at all from the value of the
hay, nor do borderland studies result otherwise than in enlargement of
the boundaries of one's storm center of work.
No strictly technical nor professional papers have been reprinted
herein, while several of those which appear do so for the first time.
Buffalo, December, 1912.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I The Evil Eye 9
II Thanatology 32
III Serpent-Myths and Serpent Worship 49
IV Iatro-Theurgic Symbolism 70
V The Relation of the Grecian Mysteries to
the Foundation of Christianity 92
VI The Knights Hospitaller of St. John of
Jerusalem 132
VII Giordano Bruno 164
VIII Student Life in the Middle Ages 199
IX A Study of Medical Words, Deeds and
Men 233
X The Career of the Army Surgeon 265
XI The Evolution of the Surgeon from the
Barber 296
XII The Story of the Discovery of the Circulation 314
XIII History of Anaesthesia and the Introduction
of Anaesthetics in Surgery 351
I
THE EVIL EYE[1]
[1] A Presidential Address before the Buffalo Society of Natural
Sciences.
Belief in magic has been called by Tylor, one of the greatest
authorities on the occult sciences, "one of the most pernicious
delusions that ever vexed mankind." It has been at all times among
credulous and superstitious people made the tool of envy, which Bacon
well described as the vilest and most depraved of all feelings.
Bacon, moreover, singled out love and envy as the only two affections
which have been noted to fascinate, or bewitch, since they both have
"vehement wishes, frame themselves readily into imaginations and
suggestions and come easily into the eye." He also noted the fact that
in the Scriptures envy was called the Evil Eye.
It is to this interesting subject in anthropological and folk-lore
study, namely, the Evil Eye, that I wish to invite your attention
for a time. Belief in it is, of course, inseparable from credence in
a personal devil or some personal evil and malign influence, but in
modern times and among people who are supposed to be civilized has
been regarded ordinarily as an attribute of the devil. Consideration
of the subject is inseparable, too, from a study of the expressions
"to fascinate" and "to bewitch." Indeed this word "fascination" has
a peculiar etymological interest. It seems to be a Latin form of the
older Greek verb "_baskanein_," or else to be descended from a common
root. No matter what its modern signification, originally it meant
to bewitch or to subject to an evil influence, particularly by means
of eyes or tongue or by casting of spells. Later it came to mean the
influencing of the imagination, reason or will in an uncontrollable
manner, and now, as generally used, means to captivate or to allure.
Its use in our language is of itself an indication of the superstition
so generally prevalent centuries ago. It is, however, rather a polite
term for which we have the more vulgar equivalent "to bewitch," used in
a signification much more like the original meaning.
Belief in an evil power constantly at work has existed from absolutely
prehistoric times. It has been more or less tacitly adopted and
sanctioned by various creeds or religious beliefs, particularly
so by the church of Rome, by mediaeval writers and by writers on
occult science. Even now it exists not only among savage nations but
everywhere among common people. We to-day may call it superstition,
but there was a time when it held enormous sway over mankind, and
exercised a tremendous influence. In its present form it consists
often of a belief that certain individuals possess a blighting power,
and the expression in England to "overlook" is not only very common,
but an easily recognizable persistence of the old notion. Evidently
St. Paul shared this prevalent belief when he rebuked the foolish
Galatians, saying as in our common translation, "Who hath bewitched
you that ye should not obey the truth?" In the Vulgate the word
translated "bewitch" is "_fascinare_," exactly the same word as used by
Virgil, and referring to the influence of the evil eye. Cicero himself
discussed the word "fascination," and he explained the Latin verb
_invidere_ and noun _invidia_ as meaning to look closely at; whence
comes our word envy, or evil eye.
All the ancients believed that from the eyes of envious or angry people
there was projected some malign influence which could infect the air
and penetrate and corrupt both living creatures and inanimate objects.
Woyciki, in his Polish Folk-lore, relates the story of a most unhappy
Slav, who though possessed of a most loving heart realized that he
was afflicted with the evil eye, and at last blinded himself in order
that he might not cast a spell over his children. Even to-day, among
the Scotch Highlanders, if a stranger look too admiringly at a cow the
people believe that she will waste away of the evil eye, and they give
him of her milk to drink in order to break the spell. Plutarch was sure
that certain men's eyes were destructive to infants and young animals,
and he believed that the Thebans could thus destroy not only the young
but strong men. The classical writers are so full of allusions to this
subject that it is easy to see where people during the Middle Ages
got their prevalent belief in witches. Thus, Pliny said that those
possessed of the evil eye would not sink in water, even if weighed down
with clothes; hence the mediaeval ordeal by water;--which had, however,
its inconveniences for the innocent, for if the reputed witch sank he
evidently was not guilty, but if he floated he was counted guilty and
then burned.
Not only was this effect supposed to be produced by the fascinating
eye, but even by the voice, which, some asserted, could blast trees,
kill children and destroy animals. In Pliny's time special laws were
enacted against injury to crops by incantation or fascination; but the
Romans went even farther than this, and believed that their gods were
envious of each other and cast their evil eyes upon the less powerful
of their own circle; hence the _caduceus_ which Mercury always carried
as a protection.
To be the reputed possessor of an evil eye was an exceeding great
misfortune. Solomon lent himself to the belief when he enjoined, "Eat
thou not the bread of him that hath an evil eye." (Prov. 23:6). The
most inconvenient country in which to have this reputation to-day
is Italy, and especially in Naples. The Italians apply the term
_jettatore_ to the individual thus suspected, and to raise the cry of
"_Jettatore_" in a Neapolitan crowd even to-day is to cause a speedy
stampede. For the Italians the worst of all is the "_jettatore di
bambini_," or the fascinator of infants. Elworthy relates the case of
a gentleman who on three occasions acted in Naples in the capacity of
sponsor; singularly all three children died, whereupon he at once
got the reputation of having the "_malocchio_" to such an extent that
mothers would take all sorts of precautions to keep their children
out of his sight. The great Bacon lent himself also to the belief to
such an extent as to advise the carrying on one's person of certain
articles, such as rue, or a wolf's tail or even an onion, by which the
evil influence was supposed to be averted.
A most interesting work was written by Valletta and published in
Naples in 1787. It was practically a treatise upon fascination and the
jettatore. Valletta himself was a profound believer in all this sort
of thing, and finished up his work by offering rewards for answers to
certain questions, among which were the following:--"Which jettatore is
most powerful, he who has or he who has not a wig? Whether monks are
more powerful than others? To what distance does the influence of the
jettatore extend, and whether it operates more to the side, front or
back? What words in general ought one to repeat to escape the evil eye?"
In ancient times it was believed that women had greater power of
fascination then men, a belief to which our sex still hold at the
present day, although in modern times the evil eye proper is supposed
to be possessed by men rather than by women; monks especially, ever
since the establishment of religious orders, being considered to
possess this fatal influence. Curiously enough, the late Pope, Pius
IX, was supposed to be a most pronounced jettatore, and the most
devout Catholics would point two fingers at him even while receiving
his blessing. Let me quote Elworthy in this connection:--"Ask a Roman
about the late Pope's evil eye, and he will answer, 'They say so, and
it really seems to be true. If he had not the jettatura it is very
odd that everything he blessed made fiasco. We did very well in the
campaign against the Austrians in '48; we were winning battle after
battle and all was gayety and hope, when suddenly he blessed the cause
and everything went to the bad at once. Nothing succeeds with anybody
or anything when he wishes well to them. When he went to S. Agnese
to hold a great festival down went the floor and the people were all
smashed together. Then he visited the Column to the Madonna in the
Piazza di Spagna and blessed it and the workmen. Of course one fell
from the scaffold the same day and killed himself. He arranged to meet
the King of Naples at Porto d'Anzio, when up came a violent gale and
storm that lasted a week. Another arrangement was made and then came
the fracas about the ex-Queen of Spain.'"
The superstition of the evil eye and of witchcraft goes everywhere with
the belief in the power of transformation, which at certain periods of
history has been so prevalent as to account for many of the stories of
ancient mythology, and will account even for such nursery stories as
that of Little Red Riding Hood, as well as for the old-world belief
in the _werewolf_. Indeed, a common expression of to-day reminds one
of this old belief, since it is a common saying to be ready to "jump
out of one's skin for joy." This belief in transformation has begotten
an ever-present dread of ill omens which is even now one of the most
prevalent of superstitions. In Somerset, to see a hare cross the path
in front of one is a sign of death. In India they fear to name any
sacred or dreaded animal. The black cat is everywhere an object of
aversion, and in some parts of England to meet a person who squints is
equal to meeting one possessing the evil eye. Surely I do not need to
remind this audience of the fear which many people have of taking any
important action on Friday. This fear goes so far in some instances
as to lead people to deprecate over-praise or apologize for a too
positive statement. Your courteous Turk will not take a compliment
without "Mashallah;" the Italians will not receive one without "Grazio
a Dio;" while the Irishman almost always says "Glory be to God," and
the English peasant "Lord be wi' us;" the idea in every instance being
to avert the danger of fascination by these acknowledgments of a higher
power.
In England during the horrible times when the Black Death raged it
was supposed that the disease was communicated by a glance from the
distorted eyes of a sick man. In 1603 Delrio, a Jesuit, published a
large six-volume folio work entitled "A Disquisition on Magic," in
which he takes it for granted that the calamities of mortals are the
work of evil spirits. He says, "Fascination is a power derived by
contact with the devil, who, when the so-called fascinator looks at
another with evil intent, or praises by means known to himself, infects
with evil the person at whom he looks." Those familiar with the history
of so-called animal magnetism, mesmerism or hypnotism, will see a close
connection between these beliefs and the practice of this peculiar
form of influence. Mesmerism, in fact, as ordinarily practiced, was
more or less dependent upon the influence of touch, or actual contact,
whose importance has always been by the credulous rated high. In fact,
it will be remembered that many of the miracles of the New Testament
were performed by the aid of touch, and in the Old Testament it is
recorded how disappointed Naaman was when he went to be cured of his
leprosy in that the prophet did not _touch_ him. The influence of the
_royal touch_ for the cure of scrofula, known for centuries as the
King's Evil, will also not be forgotten. In fact, our word to "bless"
signifies to touch by making the sign of the cross on the diseased
part, as, for instance, in the West of England, where goitre is rather
common, it is believed that the best cure is that the swelling should
be touched by the hand of a corpse of the opposite sex.
The more we deal with the superstitions now under consideration the
more evident it becomes that the principal thought among the simpler
peoples, or even among some of the religious sects of to-day, has
been the propitiation of angry deities, or of destructive influences,
rather than the worship and exaltation of beneficent attributes. As
Elworthy says, "We find that fear and dread have in all human history
been more potent factors in men's conduct than hope and gratitude or
love." Take for example the propitiatory sacrifices of Abel and Cain,
or the sacrifice which Abraham proposed to make of his own son, or the
very words which have crept into our language such as _atonement_, etc.
With this personification of an evil power or attribute in nature came
also belief in transformation, or metamorphosis, of which the Greek and
Roman mythology is full. How many of the Christian symbols of to-day,
nearly all of which are of pagan origin, convey to the initiated
instances of this belief, can hardly be mentioned in this place.
Suffice it to say that their number is very great. But I find too many
temptations to wander from my subject, which is essentially the evil
eye.
In mediaeval symbolism, as in ancient, the intent often was to
represent either on some amulet, charm or picture a figure of the thing
against which it was most desired that a protective influence should be
exercised, hence the general prevalence of the eye in some pictorial
representation. The ancient Egyptians, as well as the Etruscans, used
to paint a huge eye on the bows of their vessels, which was supposed
to be a charm against the evil eye. Even to-day in the Orient I have
seen Greek boats with eyes painted on either side of their prows. The
eye was a common adornment of Egyptian pottery, usually in combination
with various other pictures, but as a symbol it seems during the past
century or two to have passed out of common employ, except perhaps
in Malta, and among the Free-masons, who simply are perpetuating its
use. Nevertheless, wax or silver eyes are seen hung up in some foreign
churches. A curious feature of these superstitions has been this, that
any feature of indecency or obscenity when attaching to these symbols,
amulets, etc., has been supposed to make them much more potent. This
probably was because anything strange or unusual was more likely to
attract the eye, and therefore divert its influence from the individual
to the inanimate object, hence the prevalence of phallic emblems in
connection with these fancied protections. Many objects of this kind
can be to-day picked up in the jewelry stores of Rome and of Naples.
Another of the most efficacious of these amulets takes the general form
of a hideous mask, often called the _Gorgoneion_. In all probability
this was largely for the reason given above--that it was most likely
to attract attention. Symbols of this kind are in very general use
among people who know nothing of the reason therefore. Thus, we see
them on seals, coins, etc. The gargoyles of mediaeval architecture are
frequently given this fantastic appearance and for this same purpose.
In Roman times the dolphin was a favorite device for a potent charm
against the evil eye, and was pictured on many a soldier's shield.
Ulysses adopted it as his especial choice, both on his signet and his
shield, perhaps because it was supposed to have been through the
agency of the dolphin that Telemachus was saved from drowning.
To us in the medical profession it is of no little interest that in
Rome, according to Varro, there stood three temples on the Esquiline
dedicated to the goddess of Fever and one to Mephitis. Tacitus relates
that a temple to Mephitis was the only building left standing after the
destruction of Cremona, where there was also an altar dedicated to the
Evil Eye. We know, also, that in the very centre of the Forum there
stood an altar to Cloacina, the Goddess of Typhoid. What complete sway
this goddess has held from ancient times to the present I need scarcely
tell you. "When Rome, after the fall of the empire, relapsed into its
most insanitary condition this old worship reappeared in another shape,
and a chapel arose near the Vatican to the _Madonna della Febre_, the
most popular in Rome in times of sickness or epidemic." This simply
shows a transfer of ideas, the attributes of Diana being conveyed over
to her Christian successor, the virgin, whose cult became equally
supreme.
The principal symbol of this cult was the horned moon or crescent,
and, in consequence, horns in one form or another became the most
common of objects as amulets against the Evil Eye. So comprehensive
and persistent is this belief in Naples that, in the absence of a horn
in some shape, the mere utterance of the name _corno_ was supposed to
be an effectual protection. Even more than this, the name _Un Corno_
became applicable to any and every charm or amulet against the Evil
Eye. We may find many references to the Horn in Scripture, where it
served both as an emblem of dignity and as an amulet. Most curious it
is that the phylactery with which the Pharisees adorned their garments,
and which called forth the most scathing denunciation by the Master,
was undoubtedly an emblem of a horn, and worn as an amulet against
the Evil Eye. At the beginning of the Christian era it had become
fashionable to wear these, and how they were enlarged and made not only
badges of sanctity but marks of worldly honor, we may read in the New
Testament.
The horn has been an important feature of Christian symbolism, as of
pagan, and we constantly see the ram's horn, which was the successor of
the bull's horn, made such from economical reasons, all over the ruins
of ancient Rome. The married women of Lebanon wear silver horns upon
their heads to distinguish them from the single women. The Jewesses
of Northern Africa wear them as a part of their regular costume, and
even to-day curious spiral ornaments are worn on either side of the
head by the Dutch women. In Naples horns in all shapes are exceedingly
common upon the trappings of the cab horses. Indeed the heavy trappings
and harness of these overloaded animals are usually protected with a
perfect battery of potent charms, so that any evil glance must be fully
extinguished before it can light upon the animal itself. Thus, we may
frequently see upon the backs of these animals two little brazen flags,
said to be typical of the flaming sword which turned every way, and
which are supposed to be an unfailing attraction to the eye. The high
pommel ends usually in a piece of the inevitable wolf's skin, and many
colored ribbons or worsteds are wound about portions of the harness in
such a way as completely to protect all that it encloses.
But the most numerous of all these emblems is a _hand_ in various
positions or gestures. Probably every other cab horse in Naples carries
the hand about him in some form. In Rome these things are not seen
so much on horses' backs, although wolf skins, horns and crescents
are common enough, but we see large numbers of silver rings for human
fingers, to each of which a little pendant horn is attached. These
may be seen in the shop windows strung upon rods and plainly marked
_Annelli contra la Jettatura_. Those who have seen Naples thoroughly
have noted how cows' horns, often painted blue, are fixed against the
walls, especially at an angle, about the height of the first floor. But
one of the most remarkable amulets which I have ever seen hangs outside
one of the entries to the Cathedral in Seville, where over a door is
hung by a chain the tusk of an elephant, and further out, over the
same doorway, swung by another chain, an enormous crocodile, sent as a
present or charm of special power to Alfonso, in 1260, by the Sultan of
Egypt. These two strange charms hang over the doorway of a Christian
church of to-day, indicating the acceptance by a Christian people of a
Moslem emblem and amulet.
Again, in Rome it is very common to see a small cow's horn on the
framework of the Roman wine carts or dangling beneath the axle.
Much more common and better known among the Anglo-Saxon peoples is
the horse-shoe emblem, which with us has lost all of its original
signification, as an emblem of fecundity, and has become a charm
against evil. It is hung up over doorways, is nailed up in houses, it
guards stable doors and protects fields against malign influences. Even
in the Paris Exhibition of 1889, where there was a representation of a
street from old Cairo, there hung over several of the doors a crocodile
with a horse-shoe on his snout.
So far I have said very little about the positions of the hand and
certain gestures by which it is intended to ward off the evil eye.
The Mohammedans, like the Neapolitans, are profound believers in the
efficacy of manual signs; thus outside of many a door in Tangier I have
seen the imprint of a hand made by placing the outstretched hand upon
some sticky black or colored material, which was then transferred as
by a type or die to the doorway of the dwelling, where in the likeness
of the outstretched manus it serves to guard the dwellers within. This
is to me one of the most curious things to be observed in Mohammedan
countries. A relic of the same belief I have seen also over the great
gate of the Alhambra, in the Tower of Justice, where, in spite of the
very strict Moslem custom and belief against representation of any
living object, over the keystone of the outer Moorish arch is carved
an outstretched upright hand, a powerful protection against evil. It
is this position of the hand, by the way, which has been observed in
all countries in the administration of the judicial oath. Moreover, the
hand in this position is the modern heraldic sign of baronetcy.
The hand in the customary position of benediction is sometimes open
and extended, while at other times only the first and second fingers
are straightened. The power which the extended hand may exert is well
illustrated in the biblical account (Exodus 17: 11) "And it came to
pass when Moses held up his hand that Israel prevailed, and when he let
down his hand Amalek prevailed." And so it happened that when Moses
wearied of the constrained position his hand was supported by Aaron
and by Hur. This is only one of numerous illustrations in the holy
writings showing the talismanic influence of the human hand. There are
comparatively few people who realize, to-day, that the conventional
attitude of prayer as of benediction, with hands held up, is the old
charm as against the evil eye. In one of the great marble columns
in the Mosque of St. Sophia in Constantinople there is a remarkable
natural freak by which there seems to appear upon the dark marble
the white figure of an outspread hand. This is held in the highest
reverence by the superstitious populace, who all approach it to pray
for protection from the evil eye. The open hand has also been stamped
upon many a coin both in ancient and modern times, and the general
prevalence of the hand as a form of doorknocker can be seen alike in
the ruins of Pompeii and the modern dwelling.
The hand clenched in various forms has been used in more ways than as
a mere signal or sign of defiance. In Italy the _mano-fica_ implies
contempt or insult rather than defiance. Among all the Latin races this
peculiar gesture of the thumb between the first and second fingers
has a significant name and a significant meaning. It is connected
everywhere with the fig, and expresses in the most discourteous way
that which is implied in our English phrase "don't care a fig." It
is in common use as an amulet to be worn from the neck or about the
body, and conveys the same meaning as that which the Neapolitans
frequently express when they say "May the evil eye do you no harm."
Another position of the hand, namely, that with the index and little
fingers extended, while the middle and ring fingers are flexed and
clasped by the thumb, gives also the rude imitation of the head of
a horned animal, and is frequently spoken of as the _mano cornuta_.
A Neapolitan's right hand is frequently, in some instances almost
constantly, kept in that position pointing downwards, just as hand
charms are made to hang downwards, save when it is desired to use the
sign against some particular individual, when the hand is pointed
toward him, even at his very eyes if he appear much to be dreaded.
When, however, the hand in this position is pointed toward one's chin
it conveys a most insulting meaning and hints at conjugal infidelity.
As the Neapolitan cab-men pass each other the common sign is to wave
the hand in gesture and in this position. This is true also of many
other places.
The sign of the cross is very often made with the hand, usually with
the first two fingers extended, and seems to mean a benediction of
double potency, because both the hand and the cross itself are utilized
in the gesture. I have elsewhere discussed the signification of the
sign of the cross, and do not care to take it up again just now. It is
certainly of phallic origin and as certainly antedates the Christian
era by many hundred years. It is, in other words, a pagan symbol
to which a newer significance has been given. Talismanic power has
usually been ascribed to it, and in some form, either as the Greek
Tau or the Crux Ansata, has been most frequently employed. In one or
the other of these forms it was the mark set upon the houses of the
Israelites to preserve them from the destroying angel. In the roll of
the Roman soldiery, after a battle, it was placed after the names of
those still alive; and we read in Ezekiel 9:4 of the mark which was to
be set upon "the foreheads of the men that cry," which was certainly
the Greek Tau, because the Vulgate plainly states this. Upon some
of the old Anglo-Saxon coins there was placed a cross on each side,
usually the handled cross, and upon various seals it has been in use
until a comparatively recent period. It may be seen, also, in many
illustrations from the catacombs, for instance, dating back to a time
before the cross was a generally received Christian emblem, showing
both the use of the cross and the hand in the positions to which I have
already alluded. The sign of the cross is made by many a schoolboy in
his play before he shoots his marble, and I have often seen it made
upon the wooden ball before a man has bowled with it. Many a peasant
scratches it upon his field after sowing, and many a housewife has
scratched it upon her dough.
The hand with the first two fingers and thumb extended in the ordinary
position of sacerdotal benediction was certainly a charm against evil
long before the Christian era. This is not used so much by the common
people, but has been appropriated rather by the priests. By a sort of
general consent this has been especially the attitude permitted to the
Second Person of the Trinity, although there are numerous instances in
mediaeval painting where the hand of the First Person has been shown in
this position. Indeed, the expression "_dextera Dei_," or "right hand
of God," is conventionalized.
In many amulets, images and pictures, other charms are combined with
that supposed to be exercised by the human hand. An exceedingly common
one was the Egyptian scarab. The Egyptians believed that there were no
females of this kind of insect, hence it was considered a symbol of
virility and manly force, and in connection with the _mano pantea_
just alluded to gave the amulet power to guard both the living and
dead. In fact it was almost as common upon these emblems as the human
eye itself.
Again, the serpent was a frequent emblem in this same connection. As
I have elsewhere written upon the subject of serpent-worship I need
scarcely more than allude to it here, save to say that to the serpent
were ascribed numerous virtues and powers, and that its use upon any
charm was supposed to reinforce the virtues already possessed by it.
Among the most curious of all the Italian charms against the Evil Eye,
and yet one which has been singularly neglected by most writers, is
the sprig of rue or, as the Neapolitans call it, the _cimaruta_. In
its simplest form it was undoubtedly of Etruscan or Phoenician origin.
Later, however, it became curiously involved with other symbols and
quite complicated. It is worn especially upon the breasts of Neapolitan
babies, and is considered their especial protection against the
much-dreaded jettatura. In ancient times no plant had so many virtues
ascribed to it as had the rue. Pliny, indeed, cites it as being a
remedy for 84 different diseases. It used to be hung about the neck in
primeval times to serve as an amulet against fascination. In most of
these amulet forms it consists of three branches, which were supposed
to be typical of Diana Triformis, who used often to be represented in
three positions and as if having three pairs of arms.
Diana, by the way, was the especial protectress of women in
child-birth. Silver was her own metal and the moon her special emblem.
Therefore, the expression, "the silver moon" is not so meaningless
as it would appear. This will in some measure account for the fact
that corals, to which large virtues were ascribed, used always to be
mounted in silver, and that the crescent, or new moon, is also almost
invariably made of this same metal. Of the many charms which used to be
combined in the _cimaruta_ there is scarcely one which may not be more
or less considered as connected with Diana, the Goddess of Infants.
Frequently, also, we may see representations of the sea-horse quite
like the living hippocampi of to-day, which are worn alike by cab
horses and by women in Naples. They are known locally as the _Cavalli
marini_.
Protection supposed to be most efficient was and is frequently afforded
also by another method, namely, printed or written invocations,
prayers, formulae, etc., worn somewhere about the body. Sometimes
these were worn concealed from view and at others they were openly
displayed. Even today on Turkish horses and Arab camels are hung
little bags containing passages from the Koran, while the Neapolitan
horses frequently carry in little canvas bags prayers to the Madonna
or verses from scripture,--these as a sort of last resort in case the
other charms fail. The good Catholic of to-day, especially if of Irish
descent, wears his little scapulary suspended around the neck, which
is supposed to be a potent protection. Frommannd's large work on Magic
offers us a perfect mine of written spells against fascination, which
have often to be prepared with certain mystic observances. The various
written charms, as against the bite of the mad dog, are only other
illustrations of the same superstition. Indeed, many superstitious
people believe that the mere utterance of particular numbers exercises
a charm. Daily expression of this belief we see in the credulity about
the luck of odd numbers, and the old belief that the third time will be
lucky. Military salutes are always in odd numbers. More value attaches
in public estimation to the number seven than to any other, as we see
in the miraculous powers ascribed to the seventh son of a seventh son.
An appeal to luck to-day is the equivalent of the old prayer to the
Goddess Fortuna, and is voiced in the common idea about the lucky coin
and the various little observances for luck which are so popular. These
observances are everywhere inclusive of the popular importance attached
to expectoration, which is one of the most curious features of these
many widespread beliefs. The habit of spitting on a coin, for instance,
is very common, just as the schoolboy spits on his agate when playing
marbles or on his baseball, or the bowler upon his wooden ball before
rolling it. In fact, this whole matter of spitting has been in all
ages an expression of a deep-rooted popular belief. Among the ancient
Greeks and Romans the most common remedy against an envious look was
spitting, hence it was called "_despuere malum_." Old women would avert
the evil eye from their children by spitting three times (observe the
odd number) into their bosoms.
The virtues and properties attributed to saliva among various peoples
have been numerous and exalted. To lick a wart on rising in the
morning used to be one of its well-recognized cures, and is to-day
a popular remedy for any slight wound. Especially was the saliva of
a fasting person peculiarly efficacious. Pliny states that when a
person looks upon an infant asleep the nurse should spit three times
upon the ground. But the most marvellous virtues were attributed to
saliva in the direction of restoration of sight. The most conspicuous
illustration of this is the instance mentioned in the New Testament
when Christ healed the blind man, for it is related that:
"He spat on the ground and made clay of the spittle, and did anoint the
eyes of the blind man with the clay."
The practice of concealing the eyes is prevalent throughout the
Orient, and among the Mohammedans, cannot be referred entirely to male
jealousy, for the women themselves confess to the greatest reluctance
to show their faces to the stranger, fearing the influence of the evil
eye.
Again, inasmuch as from time immemorial diseases of all kinds have
been considered the direct result of fascination, it was most natural
that charms of varied form should be introduced as a protection.
Many persons even of considerable education lend themselves to this
superstition. The carrying in one's pocket of a potato, a lump of
camphor or an amulet is, among other alleged charms, but an everyday
illustration of this belief.
It would be possible to go on with an almost endless enumeration of
the forms of this still generally prevalent belief in the power of
the evil eye, and of the charms by which it may be averted. As has
been set forth, it is but a particulate expression of a general and
widespread belief in the existence of an evil being, for some vague
and almost unsubstantial, for others assuming almost the proportions
of the personal devil of mediaeval theology, or even of the Tyrolean
Passion Plays. A discussion in a general way of this topic I have held
to be not entirely foreign to the purpose of this society, it being one
of the most interesting subjects of folklore study, and it may perhaps
be considered just at the present to have a more particular interest
for us in that we have so recently been favored with a most delightful
and scholarly essay on the "Salem Witchcraft" by Prof. John Fiske, in
which he graphically set forth the mechanism and the consequences of
an aggravated expression of this belief, which constitutes the most
serious blot which can be found upon the history of the Protestant
white races in this country.
II
THANATOLOGY
A QUESTIONNAIRE AND A PLEA FOR A NEGLECTED STUDY[2]
[2] Appeared first in the Journal of the American Medical Association,
April 27, 1912.
Is it possible to watch the "vital spark of heavenly flame," as it
quits "this mortal frame" and not be overcome by the mystery of death
as the termination of that even greater mystery, life? Is there
inspiration in the pagan emperor's address to his soul--those Latin
verses which Pope has so beautifully translated?
To the speculative philosopher death may have a different
significance, and one not altogether included in that given to it by
the physiologist. To the former it is a subject for transcendental
speculation; to the latter it is the terminal stage of that adjustment
of internal and external relations which, for Spencer, constitutes
life. For us its primary and immediate significance is purely mundane,
yet it deserves such serious study from a practical viewpoint as it
seldom receives.
What is death? When does it actually occur? How can it occur when
the majority of cells in the previously living organism live on for
hours or for days or, under certain favoring circumstances, retain
potentialities of life for indefinite periods? These and numberless
related questions constitute a line of inquiry that may well call for
a separate department of science. Pondering in this wise, I long ago
coined an expression which years later I found had been incorporated
in the scientific dictionaries, though never before heard by me or
encountered in my reading. "Thanatology" is this word, and it may be
defined as the study of the nature and causes of death. Inseparable
from it, however, are certain considerations regarding the nature and
causes of life. Yet I would not introduce a compound term such as
"biothanatology," wishing so far as possible to limit the study and the
meaning.
Let us ask ourselves a few more questions. Does life inhere in any
particular cell? In the leukocytes? In the neurons? Both are capable
of stimulated activity long after the death of their host. In fact, by
suitable electric stimulation, nearly all the phenomena of life may
be reproduced after death, save consciousness and mentality alone. Do
these then constitute life, and their suppression or abolition death?
If so what about the condition of trance, or of absolute imbecility,
congenital or induced? Or, again, how can a decapitated frog go on
living for hours? Is it perhaps because the heart is _the_ vital organ
that the hearts of some animals will continue to palpitate for hours
after their removal from the bodies? Yet the animals which have lost
them certainly promptly die. Suddenly stop a man's heart-action by
electrocution, or the guillotine, or a bullet, and he dies, we say,
instantly. Let it stop equally suddenly under chloroform and there is
a period of several minutes during which it may be set going. Let a
man apparently drown and this viable period becomes even longer--say a
goodly fraction of an hour. During the interval is he alive or dead, or
is there an intermediate period of absolutely suspended animation? And
if so, in what does it consist?
Is there a vital principle? If so what is it? Is such a thing
conceivable? Can such a concept prevail among physicists? Can we
consent even to entertain in this direction the notion of what is so
vaguely called "the soul?" Of course, those who talk most lucidly
about the soul know least about it, and no man can define it in
comprehensible terms; but can consideration of the soul (whatever it
may be) be omitted from our thanatology? Probably not, at least by many
thinkers who cannot segregate their physics from their theology. Sad
it is that theology, which might be so consolatory had it any fixed
foundation, should be utterly impotent when so much is wanted of it.
Theology, however, has little if aught to do with thanatology.
Is protoplasm alive? If so, then why may we not believe, with Binet,
in the psychic life of micro-organisms? He seems to have advanced good
reason for assuming that we may do so, albeit such manifestations in
either direction may be scarcely more than expressions of chemiotaxis.
But if protoplasm be alive in any proper sense, as it would appear
(else where draw the line?), just when does it so appear and whence
comes its life? If it be alive, then life inheres in the nitrogen
compounds composing it, or else is an adjunct of matter, imponderable,
elusive, something _un_-conceivable if undeniable. The vitalists are
of late perhaps attaining an ascendency which for decades they had
lost, since they maintain that life is not to be explained by chemical
activities alone. And yet it is possible to set going in the eggs of
certain sea animals the phenomena of life, or to liberate them by
certain weak solutions of alkaline cyanides, without the pressure or
assistance of fructifying spermatozoa. In such cases life or death are
determined by ionization and certain chemicals, or by their absence.
Where then, again, is the vital principle? Or is it inherent in the
ion, and was Bion correct when he said "electricity is life?"
The life of a cell is then necessarily quite distinct from the life
of its host, nor can the latter be composed simply of the numerical
total lives of its components. Some lower animals bear semidivision,
in which case each half soon becomes a complete unit by itself. Others
seem to bear the loss of almost any individual part without loss of
life, and it is hard to say just which is the vital part. The central
pumping organ is perhaps the _sine qua non_, when it exists. But when
non-existent, then what?
Again, while a living organism may be artificially divided into viable
portions, no method seems known by which a series of separate cells may
be, as it were, assembled or combined into one, of which a new unit
may result from assemblage or combination. The more highly specialized
or complex the cell, the more easily does it part with life, and the
more difficult becomes its preservation and its reproduction. We may
assume that after the death of a man his most specialized cells are
the first to die, or more, that their death has perhaps preceded his
own. In the ante-mortem collapse seen in many diseases and poisonings,
has not this very thing occurred, i. e., that the patient has outlived
his most important cells? Certainly when a patient dies of progressive
gangrene he has outlived, perhaps, a large proportion of his millions
of competent cells. Viewed properly, what a strange spectacle is here
presented! Perhaps twenty per cent. of his cells actually dead, the
rest bathed in more or less poisonous media, still their host endures
yet a little while. "Behold, I show you a great mystery." About which
of the poisoned cells does the flame of life still flicker?
The life-giving germ-and sperm-cells may exist and persist for some
time after the body dies, as numerous experiences and experiments have
shown. Ova and spermatozoa do not die the instant the host dies. And
herein appears another great mystery, that cells from the undoubtedly
dead body may possess and unfold the potentialities of life when
properly environed. Among the lower forms of life cells but slightly
differentiated go on living and even creating new organisms, though the
larger organisms be dead. Moreover, in what way shall we regard the
division of one ameboid cell into two, equally alive and complete? Here
two living organisms are made out of one, without death intervening,
and by permutation alone may one calculate, through how few generations
cells need pass in order to be numbered by millions, without a death
necessary to the process.
Thus far we have had in mind life and death in the animal kingdom
alone. But most of what has been said, and much that has not, is
equally true in the vegetable kingdom. Even in the mineral kingdom--as
some think--the invariable and inevitable tendency to assume definite
crystalline form represents the lowest type of life. Indeed it might
fall in with Spencer's definition as evincing a tendency to adjust
internal to external relations, though exhibited only after such
ruthless disturbance as liquefaction by heat or solution. But then,
is not every disturbance of relations "ruthless," because it follows
inexorable habits of Nature? Even a crystal will reform as frequently
as appear certain other phenomena of life, if made to do so. Were atoms
alive they would suffer with every fresh chemical change, and who knows
but that they do?
But in the vegetable world we certainly have all the features of life
and death in complete form: fructification of certain cells by certain
others, development in unicellular form or in most profuse and complex
form, a selection of necessary constituents of growth from apparently
unpromising soil, and the production of startling results. Does not
the sensitive plant evince a contact sensibility almost equal to that
of the conjunctiva? And who shall say that it does not suffer when
rudely handled? Does not the production of the complex essential oils
and volatile ethers which give to certain flowers their wonderful
fragrance, indicating what strange combinations of crude materials have
been effected within their cells, show as wonderful a laboratory as any
concealed within the animal organisms? Yet death comes to these plants
with equal certainty, and presents equally perplexing mysteries. When
dies the flower? When plucked and separated from its natural supply
or when it begins to fade (a period made more or less variable by the
care given it), or when it ceases to emit its odor? And is then death
a matter of hours? When the floral stem was snapped what else snapped
with it? At what instant did the floral murder occur?
Every seed and every seedling possesses marvelous potentiality of life,
and so long as it does we say it is not dead; nor yet is it alive. It
resists considerable degrees of heat, will bear the lowest temperature,
will remain latent for long periods, and still its cells will instantly
respond to favoring stimuli. Its actual life is apparently aroused by
purely thermic and chemical (electrionic?) activities environing it. In
what do its life and its death consist?
But life and death are influenced--we say "strangely" only because it
all seems strange to us--by uncommon or purely artificial conditions.
Radium emanations have always an injurious effect on embryonic
development. Under their influence, for example, the eggs of amphibia
become greatly disturbed. Cells that should specialize into nerve,
ganglion and muscle fail to develop, and consequently there may be
produced minute amphibian monsters, destitute of nerves and muscles,
but otherwise nearly normal. Hertwig has submitted the sperm-cells of
sea urchins to these rays, without killing them, but invariably with
consequent abnormal development.
The effect of cathode or _x_-rays is even more widely recognized and
has been more generally demonstrated. They seem to possess properties
injurious to most cell-life and even fatal to some.
Still more puzzling, and weird in a way, are the results of
experiments, now widely practiced, which have to do with juggling, as
it were, with ova, larvæ and embryos, by all imaginable combinations
of subdivision and reattachment of parts, so that there have resulted
all kinds of monstrosities and abnormalities. To such an extent has
this laboratory play been carried that almost any desired product can
be furnished--living creatures with two heads, two tails, or whatever
combination may be determined.