THE OVERTHROW IN THE EAST: THE TURKISH EMPIRE.
Having narrated the disintegration of the western half of the Empire, we
will now recount the events which involved the overthrow of the eastern
half. The impoverishment of the imperial power at Rome, and the
weakening effect of the Germanic attacks upon it, tended to enhance the
power of the Emperor at Constantinople. Indeed the eastern Empire was
soon regarded as the more important of the two, and for some time after
the barbarian invasions in Italy the Emperors at Constantinople
claimed supremacy over the west.
Mohammed and the Khaliphs.
The seventh century saw the ascendency of Mohammed (born A.D. 570) in
Arabia, to which country his personal power, temporal and religious, was
limited. Upon his death, in 632, his followers determined on the
invasion of Persia and the Asiatic dominions of the Emperor at
Constantinople. Mohammed's successor, Abubekr, the first of the Khaliphs
(_i.e._, "representatives" of the prophet), at once waged war in both
directions. Persia speedily succumbed; Syria and Palestine were
subjugated after seven years by the Khaliph Omar. The reduction of Egypt
followed, and during the remainder of this century the Saracens, the
name by which the followers of Mohammed became termed in Christendom,
extended their territory across the entire length of North Africa, and
shortly afterwards even into Spain, where they overpowered the then
disunited Visigoths.
The Saracen power in Western Asia was distracted during the next century
by civil war, and was further weakened by unsuccessful wars against the
Greeks. At length, in 750, the seat of government was moved from
Damascus to Bagdad. From the eighth century onward, though the religion
of Mohammed gained ground, and continues to do so to-day, the empire
established by his followers dwindled rapidly, one province after
another shaking off its allegiance until at the end of the tenth century
its shattered dominions lay open to the nearest invader. The foe
appeared in the shape of the formidable Turk.
Eastern Empire at End of 10th Century.
In view of the entrance of this new enemy we may note the extent of the
territory belonging at this time to the eastern branch of the old Roman
world, the Byzantine Empire, as it is termed (from Byzantium, the
ancient name of Constantinople). The Eastern Emperors had recovered some
of their lost ground in Asia, and at the close of the tenth century they
held all Asia Minor, Armenia, a part of Syria, a considerable portion of
Italy, and all the Balkan Peninsula.
The Appearance of the Turks.
Beyond the north-eastern border of the Saracen dominions lay the country
of Turkestan, inhabited by the Turks, a branch of the warlike nation of
the Tartars of Central Asia. With them the Saracens, after the
establishment of their Government at Bagdad, waged successful warfare
for a time, taking numbers of Turks captive and dispersing them over the
Empire. This only facilitated the eventual downfall of the Saracen
sovereignty. The Turks in Western Asia grew in influence, and at length
the Turkish troops, breaking into open revolt, assumed control over the
Khaliphate, deposing and nominating the Khaliphs at their will.
The Turks Embrace Mohammedanism.
Early in the eleventh century the bulk of the Turkish nation, under its
leader Tongrol Bek, moving out from Turkestan, swept down upon Persia.
The Khaliphate at Bagdad was, however, permitted to remain, and not only
so, but Tongrol Bek and all his tribes embraced the Mohammedan religion.
The invaders then marched west in vast numbers to make an attack upon
Christendom, and in the course of time subdued Armenia and most of Asia
Minor. Europe became alarmed, and the Byzantine Emperors eagerly sought
the assistance of the nations of the west. Hence arose the Crusades,
which had as their chief object the deliverance of Palestine from both
Saracens and Turks, and which served to retard, though not to prevent,
the advance of the Turkish power in Europe.
The Turks Enter Europe.
Early in the thirteenth century a mighty movement of Mongols south-west
from Central Asia, involving the immediate destruction of the Khaliphate
at Bagdad, exerted an important influence upon the Turks, in driving
those Turkish tribes which had remained east of Armenia westward into
Asia Minor. This resulted in the establishment of various Turkish
dynasties in that country. At the close of the thirteenth century the
paramount power over these was exercised by Osman (or Othman, whence the
name Ottoman), who seized all that remained of the ancient Roman world
in Asia, and thus practically founded the Ottoman Empire. In the middle
of the fourteenth century the way was opened for the Ottomans to advance
into Europe. They were invited by one of the rival factions at
Constantinople to undertake their cause. The Turks accordingly crossed
the Hellespont and seized Gallipoli and the territory in the vicinity of
the capital. Constantinople itself was left unattacked for the time.
Under Murad I., the grandson of Osman, Roumania and several kingdoms
south of the Danube, including Bulgaria, were subdued. The kings of
Hungary, Bosnia and Serbia rose against the invader, but were severely
defeated, and by the decisive victory of Kosovo, in 1389, Serbia and
Bosnia were annexed.
Constantinople Taken.
Constantinople was temporarily saved by another advance of the Mongol
Tartars upon the Turkish dominions in Asia, where, in 1402, the Ottomans
suffered a severe defeat. From this check they recovered, and during the
first part of the fifteenth century were at war with the Hungarians and
neighbouring races, whom they eventually overthrew. In 1451 Mohammed II.
ascended the Ottoman throne, and in 1453 led an immense army against
Constantinople. The city was taken by storm, the last of the Roman
Emperors of the east died fighting, and Mohammed II. rode in triumph to
the cathedral of St. Sophia, where he established the Moslem worship.
For over a hundred years after this the Turkish Empire continued to
extend. Egypt was annexed in 1517, and in the middle of this century
Tripoli and Algeria were added, as well as considerable districts in
Europe and Asia. The Turks were now at the zenith of their power.
A Comparison of the Two Divisions.
Recapitulating, we may compare the two divisions of the Roman Empire
since their overthrow, from the _prophetic_, _religious_ and _political_
standpoints. From the _prophetic_ point of view our interest in the west
has thus far centred in the fact that the ten kingdoms were not formed
by the fifth century invasions; our interest in the east centres chiefly
in the land of Palestine, wrenched, as we have seen, from the eastern
Emperor by the Saracens, and then occupied by the Turks, who still
possess it. From the _religious_ standpoint, the Germanic tribes in the
west accepted Roman Catholicism, hence its progress in that part of
Europe; in the east the Turks had accepted Mohammedanism when invading
the Empire of the Khaliphs, hence the establishment of Islamism
throughout the Turkish dominions. _Politically_, the western invasion in
the fifth century, and the consequent amalgamation of the Teutonic
tribes with the peoples formerly under Roman control, led eventually to
the formation of the various mediaeval monarchies of Western Europe
which are to-day either kingdoms or republics. Affairs in the eastern
half of the Roman world have moved more slowly in this respect, owing to
the prolonged existence of the Ottoman Empire. The slow decay of the
Turkish power from the middle of the sixteenth century onward has
already resulted in the formation of some Eastern States, and the
process still continues.
The Decline of the Turkish Empire.
The decline of the power of the Turks set in during the latter half of
the sixteenth century, when their dominions passed under incapable
rulers. In the reign of Selim II. (1566-1574) occurred the first
conflict between the Turks and Russians, the former being driven back
from Astrakkan. In 1593, during a war between Turkey and Austria, the
provinces of Transylvania, Moldavia, and Wallachia rose in revolt. As
the result of intermittent wars in the latter half of the seventeenth
century Austria acquired almost the whole of _Hungary_. In 1770 Russia
occupied _Moldavia_ and _Wallachia_, which though nominally for a time
under Turkey were practically Russian protectorates. During the next
few years Russia regained the Crimea and all the neighbouring district
north of the Black Sea. At the commencement of the nineteenth century
the Ottoman Empire was in a perilous condition. Napoleon had plans for
its partition. Provincial governors were everywhere acting independently
of the Sultan. In 1804 _Serbia_ revolted, and after a few years of
persistent struggle obtained its autonomy. _Greece_ revolted in 1820,
and, though subdued for a time, gained its independence in 1829 through
the intervention of England, France, and Russia, and chiefly as the
result of the naval battle of Navarino, in which the Turco-Egyptian
fleet was annihilated. In the same year _Algeria_ was annexed by the
French. European rivalries prevented for a time any rapid diminution of
the Empire.
The Crimean War of 1854-5 had important consequences for the Balkan
peoples. It gave them, under the slackening grasp of the Porte, twenty
years of comparatively quiet national development. In 1860 Wallachia and
Moldavia formed themselves into the single state of _Roumania_. In 1866
the Pasha of Egypt assumed the title of Khedive (_i.e._, king), thereby
securing a measure of independence for the country. In 1875 the misrule
of the Sultan led to the insurrection of Bosnia, Herzegovina, and
Bulgaria. Serbia and Montenegro then took up arms. In 1877 a war with
Russia saw Turkey without an ally. A complete Russian victory in 1878
issued in the treaties first of San Stefano and then of Berlin, by which
Turkey yielded to Russia the state of _Bessarabia_ and districts south
of the Caucasus, the independence of _Serbia_, _Montenegro_, and
_Roumania_ were recognised by the Porte, _Bulgaria_ was constituted an
autonomous state, _Bosnia_ and _Herzegovina_ were ceded to Austria,
_Thessaly_ to Greece, and _Cyprus_ to Britain. In 1885, as the result of
a revolution, Eastern _Roumelia_ became united to Bulgaria. Shortly
after that date German influence began to gain ascendancy at the court
of the Sultan, and, among other affairs, largely dominated the granting
of railway concessions in Western Asia. The effects of that influence
have been evidenced in the present war. In 1912 Italy annexed _Tripoli_
after a brief war. In 1913 a short but sanguinary war with the Balkan
States deprived Turkey of all her European dominions save for a small
piece of territory in the vicinity of Constantinople. _Egypt_, which
has been chiefly under British control for a considerable period, has in
1915 been practically annexed by Britain as a protectorate, the Khedive
being deposed and a nominee of the British Government being placed in
authority. Britain has likewise annexed a district north of the Persian
Gulf.
The Coming Overthrow.
The continual decrease of the Turkish Empire, and more especially during
the past hundred years, affords ground, apart from other considerations,
for the expectation of its overthrow and the eventual cession of
Palestine to the Jews, perhaps by a general agreement among the European
Powers, events which seem not far distant. National jealousies would not
permit the permanent annexation of Palestine by any one of these Powers,
in whatever way the remaining Asiatic Turkish dominions may be divided.
A proposal has already been put forward for its annexation to Egypt.
Such an arrangement would in any case be merely temporary. To the Jews
the land belongs, and by Divine decree the Jews are to possess it
again.
[Illustration: The Turkish Empire in 1914.]
A Blank in Prophecy.
It should be observed, in passing, that Scripture is apparently silent
concerning the occupation of Palestine by the Saracens and Turks. Such
silence is noticeable when we remember how definitely the occupation by
the other Gentile powers, the Chaldean, Medo-Persian, Greek, and Roman,
and the order and character of their rule, were predicted. The cause of
the silence is not difficult to ascertain. The four Gentile powers just
mentioned had to do with the Jews as the recognised possessors of
Palestine, either by way of removing them from their country or
restoring them to it, or during such time as they were permitted to
remain in it with liberty to continue their temple worship and
sacrifice. The Chaldeans removed the Jews from the land, the
Medo-Persians repatriated them, the Greeks permitted their continuance
in it, the Romans did so too, until A.D. 70, when they crushed them.
When, however, the Saracens and the Turks seized the land the Jews had
been scattered, nor have they received national recognition while under
them. Gentile occupation of Palestine during such times as the Jews
remain in their present condition seems therefore to receive no direct
notice in prophecy.
The restoration of Palestine to the Jews is closely connected with the
revival of the Roman Empire in its tenfold form. Prior to considering
the manner of this revival we must notice how during the period between
the overthrow of that Empire and its coming resuscitation, its dominions
and their government have remained Roman in character, thus affording a
further proof that the coming and final world-power will not be entirely
a new one, but will be a revival of the ancient Roman or fourth empire
indicated in the prophecies of Daniel.
The Continuation of Roman Government and Influence.
Such was the prestige of the Roman name and authority that the
chieftains of the Germanic tribes which in the fifth century subdued the
western half of the Empire governed the conquered territories, not so
much as tribal chiefs, but as successors to, and in continuation of, the
imperial rule; they introduced no radical changes in the provincial and
municipal forms of government of their predecessors. Civil organisation
remained distinctly Roman, and has continued so; upon it are based some
of the chief municipal institutions of modern life. Indeed Roman civil
law still remains the foundation of modern jurisprudence.
In south-eastern Europe, too, countries which were for centuries under
the power of the Turk retained, in their municipal institutions and
organisation, the impress of Roman authority. It should be remembered
that though the eastern or Byzantine portion of the ancient Roman Empire
was distinct from the western, its emperors being designated as Grecian
in contrast to the Roman, yet its legislative foundations were laid in
the Roman Empire prior to the division of the east from the west.
Byzantine imperialism was therefore really Roman under an eastern title.
According as the states in the east have become freed from the Turkish
yoke, so the character of their government and legislation has conformed
in a large degree to those of the west. The further diminution of the
Turkish Empire will doubtless see a corresponding revival of western
conditions and methods.
Roman Imperialism Continued.
It is important also to observe that notwithstanding the passing away of
the Roman Empire as such, the principle of imperialism remained, and,
amidst the vicissitudes of national government in Europe, has continued
to the present time. The imperial power in the west was not abolished
when in 476 the last Roman Emperor was deposed. On the contrary, there
was a kind of reunion imperially of the west with the east. For a
considerable time the tribal kings of the west received recognition from
the eastern emperors, and were regarded as their associates in imperial
control. This was the case even with the Saxon kings in Britain, and on
Saxon coins may be seen to-day the same title, _basileus_ (_i.e._,
king), as was borne by the emperors at Constantinople. Italy itself was
wrested from the Teutons by the eastern Emperor Justinian in the sixth
century, and remained under the Byzantine Caesars till 731.
Meanwhile the Roman Senate continued to exercise its authority, and in
800 chose the Frankish king Charlemagne as their sovereign. He was
already ruling over the greater part of Western Europe, and was now
crowned as Emperor at Rome by the Pope. Though his empire fell to pieces
after his death, his dominions retained, and have since retained, their
Roman character.
Consideration of space forbids our tracing here the further continuance
of imperialism as a factor in European politics. Recent history and
present-day events indicate how rapidly we are approaching its final
development at the close of the times of the Gentiles. The coming
confederacy of European states will not result in the formation of a new
empire, but will be the revival of the Roman in an altered form.