I
THE VALUE OF BACK-YARD AND VACANT-LOT GARDENING
The National War Garden Commission has estimated that “the people of
this country in 1917 produced a crop valued at three hundred and fifty
million dollars in gardens cultivated in back yards, on vacant lots, and
on other land previously untilled.” This may seem a small amount when
compared with the value of the crops raised by the farmers and market
gardeners, but it is not to be despised, and it shows that something can
be done to increase the food supply by home gardening.
The raising of vegetables at home not only increases food production,
but also stimulates the consumption of vegetables, thus releasing
staples, such as wheat and meat, for the use of our soldiers and the
Allies. This result is attained partly because fresh vegetables are more
appetizing than shop-worn products and partly because of the attitude of
the raiser, who says, “We have the stuff and may as well eat it.”
The reduction in the cost of living is also a factor that must be
considered. When vegetables are bought their purchase price is quite a
considerable item in the household budget. Of course if labor is figured
in the cost of raising vegetables at home the financial returns are not
likely to be large unless you take into consideration the fact that the
necessity of paying dues for gymnasium, tennis, or golf is entirely
eliminated. Plenty of fresh air _and_ exercise can be obtained in
gardening.
Home gardening, too, should help the transportation problem to a certain
extent. Most of the vegetables consumed in the large cities are
transported a considerable distance, and if those people who eat these
much-traveled vegetables raise their own, the transportation system will
be relieved to that amount.
The raising and caring for plants is certain to broaden one’s interest.
Very few people who cultivate a vegetable-garden, or any other kind of
garden, for that matter, are likely to be satisfied until they know
something of the physiology of plants, how and why they grow, and the
principles underlying successful plant culture. The insects, both
beneficial and otherwise, that one becomes acquainted with in the garden
also add their quota of interest. The life histories of many of them are
strange and marvelous, and it is worth while, both from the point of
view of the welfare of the crops and from the educational standpoint, to
learn something of their habits.
But it is probably in the larger aspects of the situation that the
home-garden movement will ultimately be of greatest value to the nation.
America is not a gardening nation judged from European standards, but
this agitation for the production of food by every one who has, or can
obtain, a plot of ground is going to make us one. Those people who have
once cultivated the ground and raised plants will have had their
interest stimulated, and when the food shortage is over their activities
will find an outlet in the production of flowers, which cannot but
result in more beautiful cities and happier citizens.
A healthier population will result from the exercise in the open air and
we shall become a less nervous and restless people through our
association with the vital soil and living, growing plants.
II
HOW TO MAKE A START—COMMUNITY GARDENS
In casting about for ways and means of starting a food-garden, by all
means investigate the advisability of joining up with, or inaugurating,
a community garden. There are tremendous possibilities in connection
with co-operative efforts in developing vacant lots and making them
productive, not in the sense of the real-estate man, but as
food-producing plots, designed to reduce the cost of living, and,
incidentally, in many cases, to clean up and make presentable what was
formerly a neighborhood eyesore.
There are many advantages to be gained by a neighborhood group combining
together for gardening operations. Usually it is not difficult in most
cities to find large plots of vacant land with owners who are only too
glad to have them cultivated. By co-operative effort it is possible to
hire a team and plow and have such plots plowed at a trifling expense,
whereas by individual effort it is seldom possible to obtain sufficient
land to warrant the expense of hiring a team for plowing, even though
the plot were large enough for the team to turn around on. A community
garden organization can buy garden tools, such as wheelbarrows,
wheel-hoes, a sprayer, and other comparatively costly tools, which
greatly facilitate the work of caring for the plot, but which it would
be impossible or unwise for an individual to buy if he wished to come
anywhere near making a profit on his garden. Seeds and fertilizers can
be bought to much greater advantage, and more cheaply when obtained in
bulk, with the added advantage that of such seeds as tomato, egg-plant,
peppers and celery, one packet is usually enough for the whole
organization, whereas by individual effort it would be necessary for
each gardener to buy his own packet of seed, resulting in considerable
waste. Waste is not to be condoned at any time, especially now when
seeds of some vegetables are scarce.
I have in mind a community organization a description of which will
serve to illustrate what can be done by organized effort of this kind.
A piece of land about three acres in extent was available for
cultivation in this case. It was fairly good land, but had served to
some extent as a dumping-ground for cellar excavations, and had a
considerable amount of rubbish of one kind and another deposited upon
it. The principal of an adjacent school decided that this land ought not
to remain idle, so he obtained permission from the owner to use it, and
then, with some other energetic people of the community, got together
and started to do things. The ground was first plowed and harrowed free
of charge by the city park department and the largest of the stones
removed. It was then decided that the plot should be fenced, in order to
keep out cats, dogs, small boys, and other undesirables, and to insure
that those who raised the crops should receive the benefit. Material,
consisting of two-by-four-inch posts eight feet long, chicken netting
five feet wide, and a strand of barbed wire to go around the top, was
bought for this purpose at a cost of about $112. The fence was erected
by volunteers in their spare time, and six padlocked gates provided, to
which each plot-holder had a key. Water-pipe was laid all over the area
so that the crops could be cared for in time of drought. The expense
incurred for the purchase of pipe and installation, together with that
of seeds, fertilizers, and the larger garden implements, was borne by
the association. The area was divided into fifty plots each 100 × 23½
feet. Each plot-holder was asked to keep an account of his expenses, and
also of the yields obtained. The results are interesting. The average
cost of each plot, including expenses incurred for fencing, seeds,
fertilizer, etc., was a little over $11; the value of the crops obtained
was around $34; giving an average profit of between $22 and $23.
When one considers the smallness of these plots, it must be admitted
that the results were worth while, and the whole adventure is very
encouraging to those who contemplate a similar enterprise. Of course no
allowance was made for the cost of labor involved in preparing and
caring for these plots; but to offset this one should remember that the
soil was not especially good, the workers not experienced, and then one
must take into account the large initial expense of fencing the land,
buying tools, etc. This year the expenses will be considerably less and
the yields ought to be greatly increased because of the improvement of
the soil through the cultivation of the preceding year.
Other advantages of community gardens that may be mentioned are these:
there is not so much danger of a plot-holder becoming tired of gardening
and quitting before he has harvested his crop; community gardening
fosters a spirit of healthy competition, and each gardener tries to have
his plot looking a little neater, and to produce larger and better
crops, than his neighbor. Furthermore, in a body of men and women
associated in this way there is almost always some one who has had a
garden before and to whom the novices may turn for advice.
While community gardening is undoubtedly the most economical, and, in
many ways, the most pleasurable method for the home gardener to produce
his crops, one should not be deterred from the attempt to grow
vegetables merely because there is no opportunity to link up with an
organization. The man with a back yard can grow some vegetables,
provided that his soil is fairly good and his plot is open to the
sunshine. Even the apartment-dweller need not despair, because in most
cities it is possible to obtain the use of a plot of vacant ground,
through either the municipality or some organization formed for the
purpose of dealing with such situations.
III
TOOLS
It is unnecessary to spend much money on tools for use in a small
garden. The writer did very well in his home garden with nothing but an
ordinary round-pointed shovel for digging purposes, a rake to pulverize
the soil and make drills for seed-sowing, a scuffle-hoe for cultivating,
and a garden line made from two sticks and a piece of twine. Of course
there are many tools on the market that greatly facilitate cultivation
and make gardening work easier, but their purchase is inadvisable unless
the size of the garden and the permanency of its cultivation warrant it.
Nothing will be said as to the various types of horse-drawn or
motor-driven implements. This book is written for those who have to do
their gardening with hand tools or those who are limited to the hiring
of just what horse-drawn tools happen to be available.
For the preparation of the soil, probably the best implement is the
spading-fork. It is easier to work with than a spade and in most cases
is equally efficient. The spading-fork can be used for digging and, at a
pinch, can be made to serve the purpose of fining the surface soil for
seed-sowing. A spade is a handy tool to have, however, especially when
any work is to be done in the way of making beds or forming walks.
For seed-sowing the absolute essentials are very few. A yard-stick or
foot-rule for measuring the distance between the rows is useful. An even
better way of accomplishing this is to divide a hoe or rake handle,
whichever is used in seed-sowing, into feet and quarter-feet, preferably
cutting in the marks with a knife. If one is limited to buying just one
tool for making the drills the rake should be chosen, as it can also be
used for fining the soil and for cultivating between the rows. A garden
line can easily be improvised from two sticks, sharpened at one end, and
a suitable length of strong twine.
When the soil is fairly loose and easily worked, a scuffle-hoe is a very
satisfactory tool for cultivating the surface. On the other hand, if the
ground is hard and stony the ordinary draw-hoe should be chosen. A small
hand weeder, which can be obtained at a cost of from ten to fifty cents,
is very useful for loosening the surface of the ground close to the rows
of young seedlings. Look over the illustrations of these tools in a
seedsman’s catalogue and pick out the one most suited to your needs.
With a little ingenuity, tools suitable for stirring up the surface soil
can be fashioned at home from old hoop iron or stout wire fastened on
wooden handles. After a season’s work in the garden you will discover
just what you need in this line, and will probably be able to make a
tool that will give far greater satisfaction than anything you might
buy.
A garden hose of sufficient length so that water can be applied all over
the garden is an advantage, but not absolutely necessary. A good rubber
hose costs, nowadays, about ten dollars for a length of fifty feet, and
a few expenditures of this nature sadly eat into the profits of the
garden. As an accessory to the hose a sprinkler throwing a fine spray,
that can be left running for several hours, is very useful and
desirable, especially if there is no meter attached to your water
supply!
When combating insects and diseases in a small garden, a sprayer of the
atomizer type holding about a quart of insecticide and costing between
one and two dollars is very valuable. In a garden of considerable
extent, or in a community garden, insecticides and fungicides can be
economically and efficiently applied by means of a compressed-air
spray-pump holding three or four gallons and costing between six and
eight dollars. If a large potato-patch is cultivated, a
powder-distributing bellows, costing about one dollar, is useful for
distributing Paris green in powder form. A powder-distributer for use in
a small garden can be improvised by making a small cheese-cloth bag in
which the powder is placed and distributed by shaking the bag over the
plants.
Wheel-hoes varying in price from five to fifteen dollars—the price
depending on the size and number of attachments—are available for
expediting the work in large gardens. Some of these implements have
attachments so that they may be used for marking the rows, sowing seeds
in drills or hills, for raking, cultivating, and shallow plowing. These,
however, are for use on large areas by professional gardeners, or to
delight the connoisseur of tools.
To sum up—the tools that it is advisable for a beginner, with a garden
of moderate size, to buy are: a spading-fork, an iron rake, a six-inch
hoe (of either the scuffle or the ordinary variety), a one-quart
atomizer for applying spray fluids, and a watering-can. The cost of
these should not exceed three or four dollars.
Start out with a few essential tools and add others if you find that you
absolutely need them.
IV
THE SITE—THE SOIL AND ITS PREPARATION
Practically all of the vegetable crops require sunshine, and plenty of
it, in order to attain their full development. Therefore, in selecting
the location of your vegetable-garden (if it is possible to have any
choice) choose one open to sunshine and not hemmed in by tall buildings
which shut out the air. A location near big trees should be avoided, for
the trees not only shade the crops, but their wide-spreading roots also
rob the ground of food and moisture which the vegetables need. The ideal
location for a vegetable-garden is one open to the south and sheltered
from the north and west winds, but always with this provision—the soil
must be of a suitable nature.
This brings us to a consideration of one of the most important factors
in successful vegetable culture—that of the soil.
Soils vary a great deal in their physical characters and also in their
chemical composition.
Sandy soils quickly dry out and warm up in the spring, and in
consequence it is possible to prepare them for planting and produce
crops much earlier than is the case with heavier soils. For this reason
sandy soils are usually preferred by market gardeners, whose object is
to get their crops on the market as soon as possible. One great
objection to sandy soils is the rapidity with which they lose their
moisture by drainage and evaporation. They are frequently not naturally
fertile and it is necessary to apply large quantities of manure to make
them profitable. They are also subject to loss of fertility by leaching.
The way in which these disadvantages can be corrected will be told
later.
At the other end of the scale, almost exactly opposite in every
particular, are those soils in which clay predominates. Soils of this
type are cold, they dry out very slowly, and as a result it is late
before they can be fitted for planting. In dry seasons, because of their
water-holding capacity, they are greatly to be preferred, and plants
growing on them are less liable to suffer from drought. Clay soils,
because of their stickiness, are very difficult to work, and although
they may be well supplied with plant food, it is sometimes unavailable
because of the sticky, tenacious character of the clay which does not
provide a good medium in which the roots may ramify in search of food.
Peat soils and muck lands are made up largely of decayed organic matter.
They are usually deficient in minerals, but by correct management can be
made to produce good crops of certain kinds of vegetables. Enormous
quantities of celery and onions are successfully grown on muck soils.
The kind of soil most desired by the gardener is the happy medium that
is called loam. This consists of a mixture of clay and sand in nearly
equal proportions, combined with a considerable quantity of decayed
organic matter. Such soils are fertile, easy to work, retentive of
moisture, but sufficiently porous so that the moisture is not retained
in excess. Air can penetrate such soils, a prime necessity for healthy
root growth, and also necessary for the existence of bacteria which do
so much in making inert plant foods soluble and available for the use of
plants.
The extreme types of soil previously mentioned can be greatly improved
by judicious treatment. It will be remembered that one of the great
drawbacks to sandy soils was the readiness with which they lose their
moisture. The proper treatment for this type is to add organic matter.
This decays and forms humus, which binds the coarse particles together
to a certain extent and increases the absorbtive and retentive
properties of the soil. This organic matter is best applied in the form
of decayed, or partially decayed, barn-yard or stable manure. If manure
is not available a good substitute can be found in leaves. These may be
gathered in the fall and piled in a heap to decay. Very little
decomposition will take place during the winter months in the Northern
states, and for this reason leaves that have been piled in heaps for
twelve months or more are to be preferred. Decay may be hastened by
forking over the leaves two or three times during the summer. Although
decayed leaves are better than fresh ones for mixing in with the soil,
fresh leaves are better than none at all.
The owners of city gardens frequently neglect an opportunity of adding
humus to their soil when they allow the leaves of street trees to be
burned or carted away. The city street-cleaning department is usually
only too glad to be relieved of this duty.
When it is impossible to add humus to the soil through the medium of
organic manures, as is often the case in city back yards, recourse may
be had to one of the many brands of prepared humus obtainable from
seedsmen.
Liming is also considered to be good for sandy soils, as the lime
exercises a binding influence on the coarse particles. Of course when
clay is available it is good to add it, and mix thoroughly with the
sand, but it is seldom that clay is present in near enough proximity to
make this practice a paying proposition. Compacting sandy soils, by
means of a roller on large areas, or by means of the feet in the case of
small plots, is good horticultural practice.
Clay soils, like the preceding, are greatly improved by the addition of
organic matter. It should be applied in the fall, in the form of strawy
stable manure, and buried deeply. Leaves also are a valuable addition.
Liming is good, as this causes the flocculation of the clay particles
and renders the soil more open and permeable by air and water. The
addition of sand, sifted coal ashes, or wood ashes serves the same
purpose. Clay soils are benefited by being plowed or spaded in the fall
and left rough over the winter. This allows the frost to penetrate more
readily, resulting in the breaking up and disintegration of the clods.
Another advantage of fall plowing in the case of land of this type is
that by so doing it dries out more rapidly in the spring and it is
possible to get your crops planted earlier.
Muck and swamp soils are frequently waterlogged, and before they will
support a crop it is necessary to underdrain them; but as this is an
operation that is scarcely practicable for those for whom this book is
written, it will not be dealt with here. As there is always a lack of
basic salts in this type of soil, liming is practised, usually to good
advantage.
Those who contemplate taking over a piece of land for the purpose of
growing vegetables should, if the land has not previously produced a
crop, obtain the opinion of a competent gardener as to its possibilities
from a gardening standpoint. Such men are usually available in every
community, and as a rule are glad to help. If expert opinion is not
available, the novice can form an approximate idea of its value by
making careful observations in the following manner. Take notice of the
vegetation growing on the plot. If it is luxuriant and consists mostly
of grasses it will probably be all right for growing vegetables. Dig
holes here and there with a spade or trowel and examine the soil. If you
find, an inch or two below the surface, nothing but tin cans and broken
bottles it is not a safe gardening proposition. Neither should you go
ahead if you find only a thin layer of topsoil, two or three inches,
above the subsoil. It is usually easy to tell the difference between
what is known as topsoil and subsoil. The topsoil is darker in color,
due to the presence of humus, and of a finer texture. This topsoil
should be at least eight inches deep to get good results. Soils which
contain too many large stones should be avoided, also those which
consist of only a thin layer overlying a rock ledge.
Most vegetables succeed best in a soil that is slightly alkaline, and
land intended for garden use should be tested with litmus paper to
discover if acid is present in excess. Take a piece of blue litmus paper
and press it upon a handful of moist soil. If it turns red it indicates
the presence of acid and the advisability of liming. Lime is a valuable
element in the soil, as it assists in making plant foods soluble. It is
best applied in the fall, spreading it over the surface and digging or
plowing it in. It can also be applied in the spring, but in no case
should it be put on so that it comes in direct contact with manure. Lime
applied with manure causes ammonia to be liberated too rapidly in the
form of gas, which escapes into the air, and thus much of the fertility
of the manure is lost. When it is necessary to apply lime in the spring,
the manure should first be dug or plowed under, and the lime then spread
on the surface, and raked or harrowed in. Use about 20 pounds of
air-slaked lime or 30 to 40 pounds of ground limestone to 400 square
feet.
Thorough preparation of the soil is essential if best results are to be
obtained. This means that the soil must be broken up and pulverized as
deeply as possible. There are several reasons for this. Breaking up the
soil to a good depth increases the water-holding capacity of the soil—a
very important point because of the fact that plants have to take all of
the food substances that they obtain from the soil in solution. It
provides a greater bulk of soil in which the plant roots may ramify in
search of food. The less fertile the soil the greater is the necessity
for breaking it deeply to increase the area from which the roots may
draw nourishment. Deep tillage encourages the roots to penetrate
downward, and plants whose roots go down deeply in the soil are less
likely to suffer during dry spells.
It is well to remember, however, that although it is desirable to have
the soil broken up deeply it is not a good practice to bring too much of
the subsoil up to the surface in digging or plowing. In farming
operations a greater depth of soil is obtained by using what is known as
a subsoil plow. This implement frequently is used after the field has
been plowed in the usual way and penetrates below the topsoil and breaks
up the subsoil, but without disturbing their relative positions. In
gardens the same result is obtained by what is called bastard trenching,
of which more will be said later.
In preparing a piece of ground that has not previously been cultivated
the first thing to do is to remove all large stones and rubbish that may
be on the surface. If it is a large area, the work of breaking it will,
of course, be done with a plow. Supposing the land is covered with a
growth of sod, it is a good plan to go over it several times with a disk
harrow before plowing. This will cut up the sods, cause them to decay
more rapidly when they are turned under, and insure the soil being
pulverized throughout its whole depth. After plowing, harrowing is
necessary to break the lumps and to compact the soil somewhat. The
fining process can then be completed by hand, using a rake for the
purpose.
Small areas can be prepared for planting by digging with a spade or
spading-fork. A trench should first be dug a foot or eighteen inches
wide and a foot deep, provided that the topsoil extends that far. The
soil from this trench should be placed on one side so as to be available
for filling in the last trench when digging is finished. Having opened
the first trench, proceed with the digging, turning each spadeful of
soil bottom up in the trench. The soil can be turned over with greater
ease and more efficiently by always maintaining a trench when digging.
It is the only way by which sods, manure, and weeds may be properly
buried so that they may decay and form plant food.
Bastard trenching is carried out in the same way as digging except that
the trench is made at least two feet wide and the subsoil thus exposed
is broken up with a spading-fork before the topsoil from the next trench
is turned over upon it.
When digging, the soil should be broken up as finely as possible with
the spade or fork, so as to leave no lumps, and all large stones should
be thrown out.
Digging or plowing should never be attempted when the ground is frozen
or when it is so wet that the soil sticks to the tools used.
After the soil has been turned over and broken up the rake should come
into operation and the surface fined so as to fit it for seed-sowing.
V
FERTILIZERS
The most important elements that it is necessary to apply to the soil in
the form of fertilizer are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash.
_Nitrogen_ greatly stimulates the production of leaves, and an excess of
it applied to crops grown for their fruit or roots is undesirable. It is
contained in all the animal manures, associated with other fertilizing
elements, and in a practically pure state in nitrate of soda.
_Phosphorus_ is a valuable and necessary fertilizer which has a great
influence on the production of fruits and seeds. It is found in greater
or less quantities in animal manures, and in bone meal. Phosphatic rock
that has been treated with acid is another important source of
phosphorus.
_Potash._ The rôle of potash in the soil is similar to that of
phosphoric acid. It is considered to be a valuable fertilizer for all
crops that are grown for their roots. It occurs in animal manures and in
wood ashes. Muriate of potash and kainite contain potash in a more
concentrated form, but are difficult to obtain at present.
All of these three elements must be present in the soil for the
production of healthy crops.
It is generally conceded that the best all-round fertilizer for plants
is decayed _barn-yard_ or _stable manure_. It not only adds fertility to
the soil, but by its decay it helps to make the mineral particles
soluble and thus available as plant foods. As already indicated, it also
improves the physical condition of the soil, making sandy soils more
retentive of moisture, and rendering clay soils more porous. When
applied in the spring it should be decayed or partly decayed, as in this
condition it is immediately available for the use of the crop. If it is
put on the ground in the fall, fresh manure may be used and plowed
under. By the time that the planting season arrives it will be
sufficiently decayed. If there is no objection on the score of
appearances, stable manure, either fresh or decayed, may be applied in
the form of a thin mulch (a layer on the surface of the ground) at any
time when the plants are growing. The fertility is gradually washed down
into the soil by rain, and a loose covering of this kind is of
additional advantage in that it helps to prevent the loss of water from
the soil by evaporation. This mulch must _not_ be worked into the soil
so that it comes in contact with the plant roots, but should be left on
the surface until it is dug under the following fall or spring.
Discretion must be exercised in its use. Root crops, that are already
growing luxuriantly, such as beets or carrots, or crops that are grown
for their fruit, such as beans and tomatoes, would probably be harmed by
a surface dressing of this kind. Barn-yard manure is rich in nitrogen,
which is a great stimulant of leaf growth. If it is applied too freely
to the crops just mentioned it is likely to result in an excessive crop
of leaves at the expense of roots or fruit.
A dressing of stable manure two or three inches thick all over the plot
or at the rate of from three to five hundred pounds to a plot twenty by
twenty feet is about the right quantity to use when the ground is dug or
plowed.
_Sheep manure_ is perhaps the next in importance of the organic manures
and is more concentrated than barn-yard or stable manure. It can be
applied at the rate of forty pounds to four hundred square feet. It is
better to spread it over the surface immediately after the ground has
been broken up, and thoroughly mix it with the surface soil by means of
a rake or harrow.
_Hen manure_ is still more concentrated and should be used in the same
way, or as a top-dressing after the crops have started their growth.
Twenty pounds to four hundred square feet is a suitable amount to apply.
To facilitate its distribution it should be mixed with dry earth and
kept in a dry place for a few weeks before it is desired to apply it.
Of the so-called _chemical fertilizers_, those that are sold by seedsmen
as “complete” fertilizers are the best for the amateur to buy. These at
the present time are usually made up in the proportion of 5 per cent.
nitrogen, 8 per cent. phosphorus, and 1 per cent. potash. Use twelve
pounds to four hundred square feet.
All of the preceding are “complete” fertilizers containing nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potash in varying proportions. If they are used in
combination the quantities must be reduced.
_Bone meal_ is a fertilizer which contains phosphorus and nitrogen. In
some of its forms it is rather slow acting and sometimes does not become
fully available for the use of the crop until the year succeeding its
application. Use twelve pounds to four hundred square feet.
_Nitrate of soda_ is the quickest-acting fertilizer that we have and is
very valuable for stimulating the growth of plants early in the spring,
when the nitrogen content of the soil is usually low. It is especially
suitable for those crops that are grown for their leaves, such as
spinach, lettuce, and cabbage. Great care must be exercised in the use
of this fertilizer, as an overdose will injure or kill the plants. As it
is very soluble, it should not be applied until the plants are up and
ready to use it, otherwise much of it will be washed out of the soil and
wasted. It should be sprinkled on the surface of the soil, first
crushing the lumps, and then mixed in with a hoe or cultivator. An ounce
to each square yard, applied at intervals of about three weeks, until
the crops have a good start, is the right proportion to use. It is
impossible to lay too much emphasis on the necessity for care in the use
of this fertilizer. It must not be allowed to come in contact with the
leaves of the crop, or it will cause them to burn and turn brown.
Generally speaking, it is not a good fertilizer to use on root or fruit
crops, although it can be used to good advantage in helping young plants
of tomato, cucumber, muskmelon, etc., to get a start just after they
have been planted out. Its use later in the season is likely to result
in the production of leaves at the expense of fruit.
_Wood ashes_ contain potash and lime. This fertilizer is a valuable
dressing for heavy, clayey soils, as it improves their physical
condition. It is good for root crops, such as beets, carrots, radishes,
etc. Use twenty pounds to four hundred square feet.
It is best to apply all concentrated fertilizers as surface dressings,
and then harrow or rake them into the soil, rather than to plow or dig
them under.
If it so happens that the soil is not very fertile and there is only a
limited quantity of fertilizer available, it is a good plan, instead of
spreading it all over the plot, to apply it only in close proximity to
the hills or drills in which the plants are growing.
It is important to remember that the greatest good can only be obtained
from chemical fertilizers when the soil is plentifully supplied with
humus.
VI
THE KINDS OF VEGETABLES TO GROW
A number of factors have to be taken into consideration before deciding
just which kinds of vegetables to plant in your garden. Some of these
factors are: the nature of the soil, the size of the garden, the food
value of the crop and the ease with which it may be stored for winter
use.
Sometimes it is possible to adapt the soil to the crop, but usually it
is easier to adapt the crop to the soil. A rich loam will support
practically all of the vegetables and produce good crops. A thin, sandy
soil which has not been properly fertilized is only suitable for such
crops as bush beans, beets, Swiss chard, tomato, and New Zealand
spinach. Of course other crops can be grown on such a soil, but not very
satisfactorily. Potatoes like a sandy soil, but it must be well
fertilized.
Heavy clay soils will grow cabbage, kale, corn, parsley, parsnips (if
the soil is deep), peas and rhubarb.
If the soil is shallow it is not advisable to attempt any of the root
crops that make a long root. In this category belong the long beets,
parsnips, and salsify.
That person is unwise who attempts to grow potatoes, corn, and cabbage
in a very restricted area. These crops need plenty of room in which to
develop, and when one has only a city back yard, or a small plot, it is
better to concentrate on the smaller-growing vegetables. The best crops
to grow in the city back yard are bush beans, parsley, radish, beets,
Swiss chard, and tomato. Peas would probably succeed if it were not for
the sparrows which pick off the leaves as fast as they are produced.
One is strictly limited if the available ground is shaded. All the
vegetables need sun for the greater part of the day. Those kinds which
are grown for their leaves are more satisfactory in a shady garden, and
if the soil conditions are favorable the following may be tried: beet,
cabbage, lettuce, and Swiss chard. Even these need a few hours of
sunshine.
Those who are interested in dietetics may wish to choose their
vegetables on the basis of their food value. In terms of the calorie,
the unit of energy as applied to food, we find that 1 ounce of dried
beans (seeds) and 8 ounces of string-beans are required to produce a
hundred calories. Of green corn 3.2 ounces are needed; of potatoes, 5.3
ounces; of onions, 8 ounces; of beets, 9.6 ounces; of cabbage, 13.3
ounces; and at the bottom of the list comes celery, of which 23.7 ounces
are required to produce a hundred calories. It is misleading, however,
to take a list of vegetables with their caloric values and decide, that
because 6.4 ounces of peas contain one hundred calories, while it is
necessary to have 10.1 ounces of carrots to produce the same amount,
nothing but peas shall be grown in the garden. The proper basis on which
to make a decision along these lines is on the amount of calories that
can be obtained from each square yard of ground. A considerable area is
necessary for the production of a pound of peas, while a similar weight
of carrots could be produced in a much smaller space. Furthermore, it
must be remembered that the human system demands a certain amount of
bulky foods, and these are supplied by vegetables low in caloric values.
There are a number of crops that can easily be preserved or stored for
winter use, and this should be considered when deciding what kinds of
vegetables to grow. String-beans are easily preserved by pickling them
in brine, and there is no difficulty whatever in caring for the
dry-shell beans when they are not infested with weevils. All of the root
crops—carrots, beets, parsnips—can be easily stored in sand or soil in
the cellar, and potatoes are one of the easiest of crops to care for.
Onions can readily be carried over into the winter if a cool, airy room
is available. All of the crops just mentioned are fairly high in food
value.
VII
PLANNING THE GARDEN
A garden can be made without a plan, but it is usually a haphazard sort
of affair, and it frequently means that much more money is spent for
seeds than is necessary. Another frequent happening in a miss-or-hit
garden of this kind is a plethora of some kinds of vegetables and a
great scarcity of others.
It is difficult to give any definite information as to the quantities of
vegetables to grow, as yields vary so much, owing to the character of
the soil and climate, the variety of the vegetable, and the skill, or
lack of it, of the gardener. The preferences of the individual must also
be considered. The table in the Appendix giving the approximate amount
of vegetables that can be obtained from a hundred-foot row may be
helpful. It must be remembered, however, that these figures are only
approximate and that wide variations can be expected.
When planning your garden you must take into consideration the sunshine
it receives, and if part of it is shaded reserve that part for those
crops that will endure shade. If there is any variation in the nature of
the soil, whether in regard to its physical condition, fertility, or
wetness, you should place the crops accordingly.
As a general rule the rows should run north and south, as by this plan
each row receives its share of sunlight. If for any reason this is not
practicable, put the tall-growing crops at the north end of the plot, so
that they do not shade the smaller kinds. The perennial crops, like
asparagus and rhubarb, are best placed at one end or side of the plot so
that they are not in the way when digging or plowing is being done. It
makes a better-looking plot if those vegetables which are planted the
same distance apart are grouped together.
Plan to have the ground occupied for the whole season. Many vegetables
take a comparatively short time in which to mature, and these can be
removed when harvested and the ground occupied by another crop. Thus
peas can be followed by cauliflower or cabbage, early beets by beans,
lettuce by tomato, and so on. Find out the average number of
growing-days in your locality and consult the table in the Appendix
giving the number of days required to bring the various crops to
maturity.
When planning for succession vegetables, have some regard to crop
rotation. That is to say, if the ground in the early part of the season
has been occupied by a leaf crop, follow it by a fruit crop, or _vice
versa_. Early cabbage followed by beans may be cited as an example.
Similarly, root crops may be followed by leaf crops, as early carrots
and fall spinach.
Another important reason for crop rotation is that it lessens the danger
of loss from disease. Many of the fungous diseases of plants are carried
over from year to year in the soil. Some of them are able to live on
only one particular host plant, and if that crop is not grown in the
soil where the fungus is hibernating the disease ultimately dies out
through lack of food.
The first thing to do in planning a vegetable-garden is to measure the
plot and transfer its outlines to scale on paper. Then, bearing in mind
the considerations just outlined in this chapter, decide on the kinds of
vegetables you wish to grow. Now the real fun of planning begins! The
desires of the grower as to quantities and variety of vegetables must be
scaled down so as to fit the plot. Take a ruler and draw lines across
your plan to represent the rows of vegetables. The distance between the
rows may be drawn to scale to correspond with the actual distance
between the rows on the ground,[1] or you may merely note the
theoretical distance between the lines. Write the name of the vegetable
on each line, with that of the succession crop, if any. It is a good
idea to mount your plan on stiff cardboard when finished, and to allow a
space either at the side or on the back for making notes to be taken
during the growing-season. These notes may consist of reminders that
such and such a crop is not suited in its present location, the time
occupied from seed-sowing to maturity, the desirability or otherwise of
certain vegetables, etc.
-----
[1] See Appendix, Table III.
VIII
SEEDS, SEED-SOWING, AND TRANSPLANTING
Most seeds, with the exception of carrot, onion, parsnip, and parsley,
will grow fairly satisfactorily even if they are more than one year old,
so that left-overs from the preceding year may be planted with good
results. Before using these left-over seeds, however, it is wise to test
their germinating power before committing them to the garden. To plant
seeds which will not germinate is a waste of time and labor. Testing the
viability of seeds is a simple and easy matter and very advisable if
there is any doubt. Count out fifty or one hundred seeds of the kind
that you wish to test and plant them in sand or earth in a cigar-box or
something similar. Place them in a fairly warm room (temperature about
60° Fahr.) and keep the soil moist. In a week or two take note of the
number which have sprouted, and this will give you the percentage of
good seeds and some idea of the quantity you will have to plant in order
to get a good stand. For instance, if only 50 per cent. of the seeds
germinate it means that it will be necessary to plant double the usual
number to make sure of having a sufficient number of plants. Another and
less messy way of testing seeds is to place them on a plate between
blotters or cloth, which must be kept moist, covering them with another
plate to prevent too rapid evaporation of moisture. Although they
adequately furnish the desired information, neither of these methods of
testing seeds gives an absolutely accurate indication of what will take
place when they are planted in the garden. Seeds out of doors are
exposed to a number of hazards that are not present under indoor
conditions.
Before planting any seeds outdoors the soil must be in the proper
condition. It must not be so wet that it sticks to the tools used, the
surface must be finely pulverized with a rake, and all large stones
taken off.
There are three ways of planting seeds outdoors—in drills, in hills,
and broadcast. The _drills_ consist of shallow trenches from one-half
inch to two inches deep, in which the seeds are sown. The young plants
are later thinned out so that they stand an equal distance apart.
Seeds are said to be planted in _hills_ when they are sown in such a way
that the resultant plants are in groups of three or more standing the
same distance in the rows as the distance between the rows.
_Broadcast_ sowing is when the seeds are scattered over the surface of
the ground and covered by raking them in, or by sprinkling soil over
them.
A garden line should always be stretched across the plot as a guide when
making the drills. This insures straight rows, resulting in an enhanced
appearance of the garden and greater ease in subsequent cultivation. A
variety of tools can be used for making the drills or furrows. For those
seeds which require to be planted deeply,[2] a draw-hoe is a useful
tool, or, if this is not available, the corner of a rake will suffice.
The shallow drills can be made with a hoe or rake handle or with a
pointed stick.
The seeds should be planted immediately after the drill is made, before
the soil dries up. Consult the table in the Appendix showing the
quantity of seed required to plant a row one hundred feet long, and
refrain from planting too thickly. Being too liberal with seeds at
planting-time is not only wasteful, but also involves a great deal of
extra labor later on when the young seedlings have to be thinned in
order to give them room for proper development. Sow the seeds as evenly
as possible and cover by raking the soil over them. The soil over the
seeds must be firmed. In the case of the larger seeds, such as peas and
beans, this can be done by walking along the row. The earth over the
smaller seeds is best compacted by means of the back of a hoe or rake.
This firming process is carried out in order that the earth may come in
close contact with the seeds, so that they may absorb the moisture
contained in it; also to establish capillary action with the soil below,
resulting in moisture being drawn up to the surface.
There is a tendency among beginners to plant their seeds either on
raised ridges or, sometimes at the other extreme, in deep trenches. The
first method is liable to result in the plants suffering from drought,
and the latter in flooding, if it happens to be a wet season. There are
times when it is advisable to make use of these practices, as will be
described when the methods of cultivation are taken up in detail, but
speaking generally, level cultivation is best.
After the seeds are planted we are enabled to sit back and have a
breathing-spell until the young plants appear, when it is necessary to
proceed with thinning and cultivating as described in the following
chapter.
It is the common practice, in connection with some crops, not to plant
the seeds directly where they are to mature, but to sow them elsewhere
at first and to transplant the young plants to their permanent quarters
later.
In the Northern states the growing-season is not sufficiently long to
get best results from such tropical plants as tomato, egg-plant and
pepper if the seeds are sown outside. A longer growing-season is
afforded to these plants by raising them in a greenhouse or hotbed, and
transplanting them to the garden when the earth has warmed up and danger
of frost is over.
Cabbage is transplanted for the reason that if the seed was sown
directly in the field it would be necessary to plant much more seed than
was actually needed, and because the ground can be profitably occupied
with another crop while the young cabbage plants are reaching a sizable
condition. Early cabbage is also sown in a greenhouse or cold-frame in
order to hasten the time of maturity.
Although it is possible to raise these transplanted crops with no other
facilities than those provided by the ordinary dwelling-house, it is not
worth while when only a few plants are required. Young plants of tomato,
egg-plant, pepper, and cabbage can be obtained at such a trifling
expense from seedsmen who make a business of raising them that it does
not pay to bother with raising them yourself.
An eye should be given to weather conditions when transplanting. The
plants will feel the check less if a cloudy, humid day is chosen on
which to do the work. The soil should be moist, but not so wet as to be
sticky. The hole for the reception of the roots can conveniently be made
with a trowel. Make it large enough so that the roots may be spread out
and then press the earth gently but firmly around them. If the soil is
dry leave a shallow depression around the stem of each plant to
facilitate watering. Sufficient water should be applied to soak the
ground for a depth of six inches or more, and when it has drained away
from the surface, the depression may be filled with loose dry earth to
prevent the moisture escaping by evaporation.
If for any reason it is necessary to do the work of transplanting on a
dry, sunny day, the young plants should be shaded. This can be
accomplished by covering them with inverted flower-pots, or with
newspapers weighted at the corners with stones to keep them from blowing
away, or a shingle or thin piece of board may be stuck in the ground on
the sunny side so that its shadow falls on the plant.
In most cases, unless they are grown in earthen or paper pots, the root
system of the plants is injured in transplanting. In order to restore
the balance between root and shoot it is advisable, and customary, to
cut off part of the leaves. If the whole of the leaves are left on the
plant they wilt and sometimes die because the reduced number of roots is
unable to supply their demands for moisture.
-----
[2] See Appendix, Table III, for the depth to plant various seeds.
IX
HOEING AND THINNING
When the young plants appear above the ground it is time to commence
cultivating. This consists of breaking up and pulverizing the surface
crust. There are several reasons for doing this. It allows air to enter
the soil, which, it will be remembered, is a necessity for the roots of
plants and has an important bearing on the formation of plant food. It
keeps down the weeds, and, most important of all, it helps to conserve
the moisture in the soil.
All who have had anything to do with the cultivation of the soil will
have noticed that when its surface is stirred up after a rain it quickly
dries out. It will also have been noticed that, if any one has walked
over this soil just after it has been stirred up, the soil in the
footprints remains moist. Why is this? It is simply that capillary
action has been broken by the loosening of the surface, and the
soil-water rises to the loosened soil and no farther. On the other hand,
capillary action has been restored in those places where the soil has
been compacted by walking on it, and the surface here is moist because
moisture is continually being supplied from the store below. This
moisture just as continually evaporates during dry weather and is lost
as far as the plant roots are concerned.
Breaking up the surface soil provides a dust mulch or soil blanket which
shades the moist soil below from the sun’s rays, and in a large measure
prevents evaporation. Therefore, after every rain, just as soon as the
soil has dried out sufficiently so that it does not stick to the tool
used, the surface should be cultivated.
Various tools are used for this purpose. When working close to young
plants the small hand weeders are useful. Between the rows a hoe should
be used. These are of three types. The _scuffle-hoe_, which is pushed
through the soil just underneath the surface, the operator walking
backward. This is a handy tool for small gardens if the soil is not too
hard, and its use gives the advantage of it not being necessary to walk
on the loosened soil.
The ordinary _draw-hoe_ is used with a chopping motion and the operator
walks forward over the loosened soil. It is a good tool for getting rid
of weeds, and is better than the preceding for use in hard or stony
ground.
There are many forms of _wheel-hoes_ which enable the work of
cultivating to be done very expeditiously. They are pushed forward with
a jerky motion, one step at a time, pulling the implement toward you
before making the forward thrust, thus gaining momentum before the teeth
enter the ground. Do not attempt to push a wheel-hoe in the same way
that you would a perambulator—it’s too hard work.
To water or not to water is sometimes a debatable point in
vegetable-growing. There is this much to be said about the application
of water to the garden. If thorough cultivation has been properly
attended to there will be much less need of watering, and when it is
decided that watering is necessary, let it be thorough, so that the soil
is soaked to a depth of a foot or so. Then as soon as the soil has dried
out somewhat, stir up the surface so that the moisture is not lost by
evaporation. The best way to apply water is by means of a sprinkler,
throwing a fine spray, which can be left operating for two or three
hours. This insures a proper wetting of the soil without washing away
any of the loose soil on the surface. The next best thing is to use a
hose. The watering-pot is of little use except in a very small garden,
because one gets tired of toting water before the plants have been given
nearly enough.
In order to obtain good crops it is necessary to allow the plants
sufficient room to attain their full development. They must have space
in the earth for their roots to ramify in search of food, and room above
to spread their leaves to the air and sunshine. A number of seeds,
including beet, carrot, corn, lettuce, onion, parsnip, radish, spinach,
and Swiss chard, are sown in such a way (in order to insure a good
stand) that when they germinate the young plants stand too close
together. These have to be thinned out.[3] This operation should be
carried out as soon as the seedlings are large enough to handle. Choose
a cloudy day when the soil is fairly moist, and pull out the weak,
spindly plants, leaving the strong, healthy ones.
-----
[3] See Appendix, Table III, for distance these plants should stand
apart.
X
STAKING AND TYING
Some of our vegetable crops need supports of some kind to obtain best
results from them. Peas, and beans of some varieties, and tomatoes are
of this nature.
The dwarf peas, which need no supports, are the best for the small
garden, but if the taller kinds, which are more productive, are grown it
is necessary to supply them with something on which to climb. Twiggy
brush-wood is the best for the purpose, as the pea tendrils attach
themselves readily to this. The bases of the branches should be
sharpened with a knife and then stuck firmly into the ground on either
side of the row when the peas are a few inches high. Chicken netting
stretched along the row and supported on strong stakes is also suitable.
Pole beans climb by means of twining, and poles from six to eight feet
high and about two inches in diameter are usually supplied for them.
These poles are inserted in the ground by first making a hole with a
crowbar. Another method of supporting beans is by means of V-shaped
frames about six feet high and three feet wide at the bottom. They can
be made of light lumber, such as three by one or two by two inch rough
pine. These are spaced from eight to ten feet apart and connected by
thin strips of lumber along the top and along the bases. Strings are
fastened on one of the base strips, carried over the top and fastened to
the base strip on the other side. These strings should be from six to
nine inches apart. The beans are planted so that there is one bean-plant
to each string.
Tomatoes may be left to grow naturally, in which case they sprawl over
the ground and much fruit is spoiled by coming in contact with the
earth, or they may be staked. If grown to a single stem each plant will
need a stout stake to which it may be attached by tying with pieces of
cloth or tape about an inch wide. If twine were used it would probably
cut into and injure the soft stems. Another way of supporting tomatoes
is to allow all the shoots to grow at will, but to prevent them from
falling on the ground by placing around each plant three or four stakes
connected with barrel hoops or with twine.
XI
INSECT ENEMIES
To be successful in controlling insect pests, preventive or remedial
measures must be applied early. If spraying is deferred until insects
infest the plants in large numbers, great difficulty is experienced in
getting rid of them. It is emphatically much easier to kill a few
insects than a whole host. If they are once allowed to obtain the upper
hand, the crop will be so much injured that it frequently will not pay
to attempt to save it.
The important point that must be grasped in connection with the control
of insect pests is that they may, from the point of view of the
gardener, be divided into two groups—“biting” insects and “sucking”
insects.
The biting insects _eat_ the leaves, roots, or stems of the plants
attacked, and their presence is usually obvious even to a casual
observer.
The sucking insects obtain their food, not by eating the leaves, but by
inserting their “beaks” into the plant tissue and sucking its juices.
Since it is not feasible to poison the sap of plants to kill the
insects, the best method is to spray them with what are known as
“contact” insecticides. These must be applied in such a way that they
actually come in contact with the insects. Soap solutions, kerosene
emulsion, and nicotine are the principal contact sprays.
Sometimes, instead of using sprays it is more convenient to use dry
insecticides in the form of powder. This is particularly the case when a
spray-pump is unavailable or the water supply not close at hand.
No matter in what form these insecticides are applied, the operation
must be done thoroughly or little benefit will result. The contact
sprays should be applied with force in such a way that every insect is
covered. To apply the stomach poisons a fine, mist-like spray should be
used which will coat the leaves with a thin film of poison. If too much
is applied there is a tendency for the mixture to run into globules,
which concentrates the poison at the tip of the leaves. This may result
in injury to the plants and is not effective in coating the whole of the
leaves.
The feeding habits of some insects make it almost impossible to control
them by spraying; so traps, poison bait, hand picking, repellents, or
screening the plants to prevent access of insects are resorted to. These
measures are fully described in connection with the insects against
which they are used. Following are some of the more important insect
pests.
Beets.—_Flea-beetles_ (small, very active insects, as indicated by
their name), _blister-beetles_, and various caterpillars, which eat the
leaves, attack beets. Lead arsenate[4] should be applied as soon as the
injury is noticed.
-----
[4] Various spray formulas will be found at end of chapter.
Cabbage.—Probably the worst insect pest of this crop is the
_cabbage-worm_, a green caterpillar which hatches from eggs laid on the
leaves by the common white butterflies, which may be seen flitting about
the garden from early spring until fall. Spraying the plants with
arsenate of lead to which a “sticker” has been added to make it adhere
to the leaves is a standard remedy. Cabbage is also attacked by
flea-beetles and caterpillars of various kinds, which are controlled by
the same methods adopted for the cabbage-worm.
Cauliflower.—Same pests as cabbage.
Corn.—The _corn earworm_ is one of the worst of the pests attacking
corn. This is a caterpillar which at first feeds on the “silk” and later
penetrates the ear and eats the kernels. It is very difficult to control
this insect. Lead arsenate sprayed or dusted on the silk as soon as it
appears is a partial remedy.
Cucumber.—The _striped cucumber-beetle_ is about a fourth of an inch in
length, yellow in color, with three black stripes on the wing covers. It
eats the leaves of the young plants and if unchecked ruins the chances
of obtaining a crop. One of the best ways of dealing with this insect is
to prevent it from gaining access to the plants by the use of
cheese-cloth or wire mosquito-netting screens. These can be made by
tacking the material used over bottomless boxes, not so high as to shade
the plants, but of sufficient width and length to give them room to
grow. Another method is to place two or three short sticks in the center
of the hill and over these spread a “tent” of cheese-cloth, holding down
the edges with stones and earth. Tobacco dust sprinkled plentifully over
and around the plants acts as a repellent.
The _twelve-spotted cucumber-beetle_ may be controlled by the same
measures and by spraying with lead arsenate.
Egg-plant is subject to the same pests as the potato.
Kale and Kohlrabi are attacked by the same insects that attack cabbage.
Muskmelon is subject to the same insects as the cucumber.
Onion.—_Thrips_ is a tiny insect which infests onions, sucks the sap
from the leaves, and causes them to assume a silvery appearance. Most
vegetables are subject to its attack. It can be controlled by using a
contact spray, such as nicotine solution or kerosene emulsion.
Potato.—The most troublesome insect pest of the potato is the
well-known _Colorado potato-beetle_. This may be controlled by picking
the insects from the plant by hand, or by dusting the leaves with Paris
green which has been diluted by mixing it with fifty times its bulk of
air-slaked lime. Spraying the plants with lead arsenate is even more
effective.
The _flea-beetle_ eats small holes in the leaves, making them appear as
if they had been riddled with shot. The spray treatment adopted for the
_Colorado beetle_ will also take care of them.
_Blister-beetles_ are slender insects varied in color which attack
potatoes and many other vegetables. Lead arsenate is the best remedy.
Pumpkin is likely to be affected with the same pests as cucumber and
squash.
Squash.—This crop is subject to the same pests as cucumber. The
_squash-bug_, or _stink-bug_ (which also attacks cucumbers and melons),
is grayish-brown in color and about three-fourths of an inch long. It
exhales a very offensive odor which makes hand picking, one of the most
effective means of controlling it, an extremely unpleasant task. The
measures adopted against the _cucumber-beetles_ are also effective in
controlling this pest. Other remedies that may be tried are the
collection and destruction of the conspicuous eggs which are to be found
in masses on the under sides of the leaves, and trapping the adults by
placing shingles on the ground around the plants. The insects will
congregate under these and can then be destroyed by stepping on them.
Tomato.—The _tomato-worm_, the larva of a Sphinx-moth, sometimes
occasions much damage. Hand picking is a good remedy, or the plants may
be sprayed with lead arsenate. If the latter course is followed, care
must be taken to clean the tomatoes thoroughly before eating them. The
tomato is also subject to the same insect pests as the potato.
Watermelon is attacked by the same insects that infest cucumbers.
Practically all vegetable crops are subject to attack by the following
insects:
_Aphis_, or Plant Lice.—These occur in both small and large species in
a great variety of color. They injure the plants by sucking their
juices, and frequently cause the leaves to become curled and deformed.
Usually these insects are to be found on the soft growing tips of the
plants or on the under sides of the leaves. Prompt application of
remedial measures is necessary. The green-colored forms are usually the
easiest to kill, and a simple soap solution is generally effective. The
black _aphids_ are more tenacious of life, and a stronger insecticide
must be used, such as nicotine solution or kerosene emulsion.
Cutworms are the larvæ of several species of moths. They are especially
partial to beans, cabbage, corn, onions, and tomatoes. They are usually
dark-colored, greasy-looking caterpillars which spend most of their
time, when they are not eating, just underneath the surface of the
ground. They cut off the plants by eating through the stems. Several
different measures should be in operation at the same time to rid a
garden of _cutworms_. One of the most effective is the use of poisoned
bait, but this is not advisable when live stock have access to the
garden. The bait should be strewed liberally close to the plants.
Shingles or thin boards may be placed on the surface of the soil. The
_cutworms_ will congregate under these and can then be killed by any
means that suggests itself. Hunting for them at night, when they are
feeding, with a lantern or flashlight, is another method of reducing
their numbers.
Two very important soil pests are _white grubs_ and _wireworms_. They
attack potatoes and the roots of many garden crops. The former are
large, clumsy, white grubs, the larvæ of the June beetle. _Wireworms_
are long, slender, shining grubs, which may be of any color from light
yellow to dark brown. They are the larvæ of click-beetles. It is very
difficult to control these pests. Frequent, deep tilling of the soil is
probably the best remedy. If chickens are allowed access to the garden
plot when it is being plowed or spaded they will eat a great many of
them. _Wireworms_ may be trapped by attracting them to buried pieces of
carrot or potato. These traps must be examined every morning and the
insects congregated on them killed.
Following are the formulas for the various insecticides recommended.