PRESENT STATE OF THE CREMATION QUESTION.[117]
[117] For further details under this head, see 'La Crémation des
Morts,' par Dr. Pietra Santa.
It will perhaps prove interesting to consider the present position
of the question in some of the chief countries of the civilised
world.
Italy has been the pioneer of cremation, as far as arguments and
experiments go, although not the first to reduce it to everyday
practice. Here, many centuries ago, it was seen in all its olden
glory. Italy too was, I believe, the first to put a veto upon
the introduction of the diseased dead into the country without
previously reducing them to ashes, as in the case of a person who
died of yellow fever in America.[118]
[118] Dr. Borgiotti, quoted by Dr. Golfarelli.
The project of cremation was laid before the International Medical
Congress of Florence in 1869 by Professors Coletti and Castiglioni,
and was favourably received by the whole assembly. The same opinion
was arrived at by those who took part in the Congress of Rome in
1871. The Royal Institute of Lombardy (Science and Letters), in
order to encourage the study of the question, offered the 1877
quinquennial Secco-Comneno prize for an essay upon the subject
which would best meet objections and which would best illustrate
from actual experiments upon the lower animals that the method was
convenient, speedy, economical, and decent. In a second manifesto
laid before the two Houses of Parliament, the Institute reiterated
its conviction that the adoption of incineration would prove a new
era in the march of civilisation, and expressed hopes that Italy
would lead the van in the great movement. The elevated position held
by these early advocates of the system gave a huge impetus to the
movement.
Very important papers have been laid not only before the Royal
Institute of Lombardy, but also before the Academy of Padua, and the
Society (Medico-physique) of Florence. In order to popularise the
practice of cremation, conferences have also been held at Florence,
Milan, Naples, Genoa, and Venice. The columns of the public press
have also been taken due advantage of, and many interesting articles
have appeared upon the matter. Later on, Professor Maggiorani made
a representation in favour of the scheme to the Senate. The Chamber
of Deputies was also appealed to to sanction the practice, and
Drs. Bono and Amati convoked a congress at the central city of
Milan in April 1874, when upwards of 500 people interested in the
matter met, and listened to discourses upon the subject spoken or
communicated to them by Drs. Polli, Pini, Coletti, Musati, Amati,
Tarchini-Bonfanti, Sacchi, and Du Jardin. The conclusion unanimously
arrived at was to appeal to the Italian Parliament to insert in
the new sanitary code an article permitting cremation under the
supervision of the syndics of the commune. During the sitting
Professor Sacchi observed that if the Italians resorted to cremation
they would only be following the customs of their forefathers, as
might be observed on all sides of them--a remark which has proved
true to the very letter, for at the present moment, near the Campo
Santo at Bologna, an exhibition has been opened where may be seen
not only very elegant vases containing ashes, and dug up in that
cemetery, but also skeletons from the same place.[119] In no part
of Italy perhaps can the relative worth of cremation and burial be
better seen than in Bologna. Both practices were contemporaneous
there about 700 B.C.
[119] 'Echo,' Sept. 23, 1874.
The works written in Italy upon cremation are of considerable
importance. In 1857 Professor Coletti contributed a paper to the
Academy of Science and Letters of Padua,[120] in which he strongly
recommended cremation. This was followed by an article in 1866 by
Dr. V. Giro, also approving the practice.[121] In 1867, and again in
1870, Dr. Du Jardin called attention to the many advantages offered
by cremation,[122] which first communication was followed by a
paper by Dr. P. Castiglioni, similarly advising its adoption.[123]
Dr. Golfarelli, previously alluded to, also read a paper before
the conference held at Florence in 1871, of course all in its
favour.[124]
[120] 'Sulla Cremazione dei Cadaveri.'
[121] 'Sulla Incinerazione dei Cadaveri.'
[122] 'Sulla Cremazione dei Cadaveri.'
[123] _Ibid._
[124] _Ibid._
Dr. Polli, whose labours on this subject are so well known,
published in 1872 a very interesting memoir upon cremation.[125] Dr.
G. Pini gave to the world his sentiments in its favour in 1871,[126]
and again in 1873,[127] explaining the various and most likely
methods of procedure. An historical review of the subject was also
issued from the pen of Dr. F. Valerani in 1872.[128] Dr. G. B. Ayr
eloquently advocated the burning of the dead in 1872-3,[129] and
again in the latter year the system was upheld by Dr. Fornari.[130]
[125] 'Sulla Incinerazione dei Cadaveri.'
[126] 'La Cremazione dei Cadaveri.'
[127] _Ibid._
[128] 'Sulla Incinerazione dei Cadaveri.'
[129] 'La Cremazione e l'Igiene.'
[130] 'Humatio vel Crematio.'
In 1873 Dr. C. Musatti published a very interesting historical
dissertation upon the subject,[131] and gave his opinion that at the
beginning of the process means might easily be taken to ascertain
whether the subject was in a trance. In 1873 Dr. F. Anelli published
an article[132] in which he dealt with some objections urged by
Dr. Rota, in 1872,[133] against the burning of the body, stating
it as his own opinion that whilst burial recalled the middle ages
and even the times of barbarism, cremation represented progress and
civilisation. Much the same view was taken by Dr. O. Giacchi in a
memoir read in Florence in 1873.[134] Dr. L. Brunetti also explained
the methods of incineration in a brochure published in 1873,[135]
and in the same year Professor Amati published a letter,[136] in
which amongst other things the economy of cremation was argued.
Several articles followed from the pens of Drs. Peyrani and Foldi.
The most complete work, however, issued from the Italian press was
that of Dr. F. dell' Aqua, published in 1874.[137] A very valuable
historical report of the question has also been recently issued by
M. Biondelli.[138]
[131] 'Intorno alla Cremazione dei Cadaveri.'
[132] 'La Cremazione dei Cadaveri.'
[133] 'L'Incinerazione dei Cadaveri è ammissibile?'
[134] 'La Cremazione dei Cadaveri.'
[135] _Ibid._
[136] 'Sulla Cremazione dei Cadaveri.'
[137] 'La Cremazione dei Cadaveri.'
[138] 'La Cremazione dei Cadaveri umani.'
The above represent for the most part the chief writers upon the
subject of cremation in Italy. And, as will be noticed, all, with
one notable exception, were learned professors and doctors. The
only productions inimical to the scheme were the dissertation of
Dr. Rota, which was sentimental to a degree,[139] the brochure of
Professor F. Zinno, which might come under the same category,[140]
and some utterances upon the subject from clerical points of
view.[141] The muses were also invoked on both sides, and poems upon
the subject have been published by Dr. A. Moretti and Professor
Polizzi.[142]
[139] 'L'Incinerazione dei Cadaveri è ammissibile?'
[140] 'Inumazione, Imbalzamazione e Cremazione dei Cadaveri.'
[141] In the 'Osservatore Cattolico.'
[142] In the 'Annali di Chimica,' &c.
In Switzerland cremation has found an admirable and indefatigable
champion in Dr. Wegman-Ercolani, whose articles and works[143]
upon the subject have excited the greatest attention. Owing to
his exertions two associations have been founded, at Aran and at
Zurich, and others are in process of organisation, for the purpose
of instilling into the minds of the public the superior advantages
which this method of disposal of the dead offers over the ordinary
mode of burial. A public meeting held at Zurich in 1874 was attended
by 2,000 persons, and a speech was made then by Dr. Ercolani, in
the course of which the sentimental objections raised by Professors
Blermer and Clœtia were energetically combated. On the same occasion
Dr. Goll also defended incineration as a sanitary scheme. The
Rev. Pastor Long followed, with some interesting remarks upon
the religious side of the question, one of them akin to the now
celebrated saying of his Grace the Bishop of Manchester, to the
effect that with the Creator resurrection was as easy from the ashes
as from the dust of a skeleton.[144] Mr. Long declared the urn to be
a symbol far more poetical than the tomb or the mausoleum.
[143] In the 'Gazette d'Andelfingen.' See also 'Leichenverbrennung
als rationellste Bestattungsart.'
[144] The same remark was made by Napoleon at St. Helena, when
expressing his wish that his body might be burnt.
Professor Weith, who made a journey to Italy to consult with the
professors there as to the practicability of several methods of
burning, also pronounced in favour of cremation. Professor Kinkel
gave in a public adhesion to the system, and remarked that to him
burial in the earth seemed a flagrant violation of the idea of
eternal repose. He would rather destroy the body at once than bury
it in cemeteries, and, after a lapse of time, dig up the skeleton
and submit it to the flames. The meetings in Zurich have been
carefully watched by the neighbouring nations and warmly approved
of, particularly at Milan.[145] Cremation will soon be duly
established in Switzerland.
[145] Le 'Pungolo' de Milan.
The question of cremation has been considerably agitated in France.
A memoir written by Legrand d'Aussy,[146] in the year V. of
the Republic, put very succinctly the necessity of substituting
cremation for inhumation, and the project was shortly after laid
before the Tribune, Article 5 of which manifesto left it optional
for each family to choose between the two modes of sepulture.[147]
[146] 'Sépultures Nationales.'
[147] It is worthy of notice, that upwards of thirty years ago
Honoré de Balzac, in his novel _Madame Jules_, represents the
husband of the dead lady as applying to the Minister of the Interior
for leave to burn her body, and upon obtaining it, he put the ashes
in an urn, and placed the latter in his cabinet. He was evidently in
favour of the scheme, and chose to record his approval of it in this
way.
The Institute of France later on offered a prize of 1,500 francs
for a report upon the scientific side of the question, and of forty
dissertations sent in, the only fear expressed was concerning
the possibly excessive price of the fuel necessary to a complete
combustion.
Dr. Caffe, to whom I am indebted for several interesting
communications, published in 1856, and again in 1867, _résumés_
upon the whole subject which are eminently worthy of conservation.
He leans to the idea of the formation of _columbaria_, similar to
the sepulchral chambers of the Romans, and in his letter to me
he says, 'that the presence of ancestral urns is calculated to
restrain many a one who is tempted to tread the path of crime and
ruin.' M. Bonneau,[148] Drs. Lapeyrère,[149] Dechambre,[150] and
Latour,[151] have also inserted several valuable articles in their
various journals. Dr. Latour emphatically remarks also that if the
human race had for the last 3,000 years practised, for instance,
embalming, there would not have been to-day a portion of the earth's
surface which was not occupied by a mummy. Dr. Lapeyrère upholds
cremation, citing as a chief reason the dangers which may result to
public health when there are many thousands of dead soldiers.
[148] 'La Presse.'
[149] 'France Médicale.'
[150] 'Gazette Hebdomadaire.'
[151] 'L'Union Médicale.'
Inspector Laveran having called the attention of the Council
of Public Health to the necessity of resorting to cremation,
Intendant-General Robert proceeded to ask the advice of the Medical
Chief of the Army Staff, but I understand that the result arrived
at was of a very undecided character. The Medical Chief of the army
also called together the two Councils of Public Health of Paris and
Versailles, in order to take proper steps under the circumstances
which immediately followed the late investment of Paris. Baron
Larrey issued a report upon the general subject, and laid down
the conditions upon which a cemetery should be chosen under such
pressing circumstances. He recommended interment in deep pits, and
the use of quick-lime, as being a slow kind of cremation and as not
offensive to religious and other feelings.
The most recent document is the report presented to the Municipal
Council of Paris in 1874 by M. Herold respecting the establishment
of a new cemetery at Méry-sur-Oise. Many interesting passages
are to be found in it, advocating the _permissive_ practice. The
chief French dissertations upon the question of cremation are,
however, those of Dr. De Pietra Santa, who published them at first
in 'l'Union Médicale.' They were afterwards published with some
additions in 1873.[152] This last work,[153] which embraces all that
previously appeared from his pen, must be regarded as a complete
manual of the subject, and I am indebted to its pages for much of
the information given in this chapter. He has carefully traced the
modern history of cremation, and has accorded to Sir Henry Thompson
great meed of praise. He deplores, however, the paucity of sympathy
which the subject has met with in France. The scruples of some, the
open objections of others, and the listlessness of all, have been
only too apparent. The learned doctor may, however, rest assured
that when calmer times fall upon France, his work will be studied
with the care to which it is entitled, and the commission which
he seeks will be appointed to consider the question. In less quiet
times the question as to the site of a new cemetery would have been
linked with a query as to the best kind of cinerator. France will
not forget Dr. Santa, and a place will be reserved for him in the
roll of her benefactors. At the present moment the Prefect of the
Seine has addressed a circular to all the cremation societies in
Europe, asking for information respecting burning of the dead, with
an offer to exchange publications issued upon the subject.
[152] 'La Crémation des Morts en Italie.'
[153] 'La Crémation des Morts en France et à l'étranger.'
In Belgium no practical results have as yet been arrived at; still
cremation is affirmatively upheld by very many persons. In a small
country like this, where the cemeteries alone occupy over 18,000
acres, the useless waste of land alone would in due time insure the
adoption of burning.
The home-produced literature of cremation in Belgium is small in
extent, but reprints of Italian and other authors are common. The
admirable work of Dr. Polli, for instance, was translated and
published in 1873.[154] Another translation appeared in the 'Presse
Médicale Belge' during the same year. The 'Gazette de Bruxelles' of
March 1873 also contained articles upon the subject.[155] During the
year 1874, a _séance_ was held at Brussels through the exertions of
M. Adolphe Prins, an _avocat_ of that city, and the manner in which
the subject was received by the artistic and literary _élite_ augurs
well for the future of cremation in that country.[156]
[154] By Dr. Janssens in the 'Journal de la Société Royale des
Sciences Médicales et Naturelles de Bruxelles,' 1873.
[155] 'Brûlez les corps et ne les ensevelissez pas.'
[156] 'L'Indépendance Belge,' avril 1874.
The exhibition of Professor Brunetti's examples of cremation at
the International Exposition of Vienna gave perhaps the first
strong impulse to a study of this subject in Austria, and the
unsatisfactory state of the cemeteries in Vienna has convinced a
great number of the desirability of resorting to cremation. In
February 1874 the Municipal Council of Vienna unanimously passed
a proposition to the effect that the superior administration be
asked to provide for the immediate carrying out of the system
of cremation, now that the question of a new cemetery had been
mooted. One of the council, M. Geissler, was mainly instrumental in
bringing forward the motion. At the same time the Imperial Academy
of Medicine are making an appeal to the professors of hygiene and
chemistry in the Empire for a complete report upon the subject. The
cremation committee is formed of five persons, Drs. Hoser, Gauster,
Novak, Haschek, and Steniger.[157]
[157] 'Brûlons nos morts,' 1874.
The municipality of Vienna--the annual mortality of which place is
about 20,000--acting upon the advice given by the Board of Health
in that city, has now decided that cremation shall be carried out
by those who prefer it, upon the plan inaugurated at Leipzig. The
cemeteries of Vienna are not only well filled with dead, but they
are unpleasantly near to the city. A plot of ground has therefore
lately been acquired by the municipality, about five miles from
the centre of the city. This new cemetery was opened in November
1874, and on the same day the five Catholic churchyards were closed
against all further interments. With the poor, however, the removal
of the body from the mortuary chamber to the mortuary building of
the district, and then next morning to a distant cemetery, is a
serious matter.
Nothing can apparently look more charming than a cemetery sparsely
dotted with monuments, as, for instance, the Necropolis at Woking,
seen from the railway station; but they speedily, far too speedily,
fill. The cost of conveying bodies to these distant cemeteries must
also be taken into account. In Vienna, where the city burial-grounds
are 'more than full,' the question of conveyance to the new cemetery
has provoked a great deal of angry discussion, and has been the
means of bringing into notice several schemes for the transportation
of the bodies to the site of burial. Mr. von Felbinger, engineer,
and Mr. Hubetz, architect, there, have submitted a scheme of
pneumatic burial to the municipal council. They propose to erect
in the city a central temple, from which a subterranean passage
would lead to the cemetery. A line of rails would be laid down in
this passage, and an iron car with its freight of coffins would be
propelled through it by means of a blast of compressed air. The
tubular passage would be five feet in diameter, and by the aid of a
150 H.P. engine they would undertake to convey the car some 15,000
feet in ten minutes. The funeral ceremony would be performed at the
central chapel, and it would be optional with the mourners as to
witnessing the actual interment at the cemetery terminus. The temple
would be built with three distinct compartments, so to speak; one
for the accommodation of the Roman Catholics, one for Protestants,
and one for the use of the Jews.
The question of burning the dead has therefore come to the front,
and a society called the 'Urne' has been constituted to realise the
idea. Several meetings have been held, the persons present giving
their most cordial support to the movement. Hitherto little or no
opposition has been met with from clerical parties.[158] It has
been stated, moreover, that a donation of 30,000 florins has been
presented to the society by a wealthy lady, in order to help on the
practice.
[158] 'Times,' May 1874.
Cremation has met with the greatest enthusiasm in various parts of
Germany, as might have been expected from so practical a people. The
authorities in the town of Dresden, in Saxony, offered to make it
conditionally legal, provided that its advantages were thoroughly
made manifest by the promoters, which must have been duly done
inasmuch as the _Presse_ of Dresden informs the world that the first
corpse was reduced to ashes in the Whitsuntide of 1874.[159] When
the ashes were withdrawn, the funeral ceremony was celebrated in the
usual manner. Several other cremations have also taken place there.
[159] On the fourth day of Pentecost.
The best German apparatus for cremation is that constructed by
Professor Reclam and Mr. Friedrich Siemens, C.E., and was first
tested upon the lower animals on June 2, 1874, in the presence of
Drs. Fleck, Küchenmeister, Roth, and other medical celebrities.[160]
Mr. Steinmann, of Dresden, also made some improvement upon the
Siemens apparatus as at first produced.
[160] 'Cologne Gazette,' June 11, 1874.
In Berlin an apparatus is also in course of construction, and a
pamphlet has lately been issued by the Association for Burning the
Dead there, which is intended to combat any prejudices that may
exist against the adoption of the practice. At a recent meeting
of the council representing the Jewish congregations of Berlin, a
motion was brought forward and adopted by a large majority, to take
immediate steps for the introduction of cremation in one of the
Jewish cemeteries.[161] The wholesome practice is also being warmly
taken up in other large towns.
[161] 'Jewish Chronicle,' April 10, 1874.
The chief works upon the subject which have been hitherto published
in Germany have been those of Drs. Trusen,[162] Küchenmeister,[163]
and Reclam.[164] The last work is a very complete defence of the
system. Mr. Steinmann has also published a work upon the best kind
of furnace.[165]
[162] 'Die Leichenverbrennung,' 1855, and 'Denkschrift von
Leichenverbrennung,' 1860.
[163] 'Ueber Leichenverbrennung,' 1874.
[164] 'De la Crémation des Cadavres,' 1874.
[165] 'Sur le Procédé régénérateur et la manière de le pratiquer.'
In America the same active propaganda is going on in favour of
incineration of the dead, and the New York Incremation Society
have applied to the Legislature of that State for an act of
incorporation. Amongst the promoters are to be numbered some of
the most distinguished men in America. The Society accepts the
obligation of burning the bodies of its members, unless objections
are raised by the relatives of the deceased. A German Society
has also been formed in New York. Both Societies have progressed
considerably in point of numbers, and the system of reduction to
be chosen has even been decided upon. The chief work on the subject
hitherto published in America is that of Professor Frazer,[166] and
must have considerably enlightened the nation as to the true merits
of cremation. It is not very long since a Persian gentleman in an
Eastern State, who wished to burn the remains of his dead wife, was
personally assaulted by an ignorant mob and compelled to resort to
ordinary burial.[167] But several cases of cremation of human bodies
have been performed in America.[168]
[166] In the 'Penn Monthly,' June 1874, and since reprinted
separately.
[167] 'Chicago Daily Inter-Ocean,' March 1874.
[168] Henry Laurens, first President of the American Congress, and
later on, George Opdyks.
In England several attempts have been made from time to time to
popularise the idea of burning the dead. Perhaps the earliest
literary production in its favour was that of Sir Thomas
Browne.[169] Amongst later productions is one by Dr. J. Jamieson,
written entirely from an historical point of view.[170] Another
work was issued in 1857 by a 'Member of the Royal College of
Surgeons,'[171] and papers have also occasionally been written in
various periodicals. Several articles favourably treating it from
the religious side of the question have also appeared.
[169] 'Hydriotaphy, or Urn Burial,' 1658, and other editions.
[170] 'Origin of Cremation.' Proceedings of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, vol. viii.
[171] 'Burning the Dead, or Urn Sepulture,' by Mr. Chas. Cobbe.
A few copies are still obtainable from Knowles, Celbridge Place,
Bayswater, London.
The benefits of cremation have been persistently brought before
the authorities of London, and by none more energetically than Dr.
Lord,[172] but as a matter of course nothing could be done, as a
suitable means of cineration was not at hand.
[172] Medical Officer of Health for Hampstead. Reports for the years
1857-1858, 1864, 1867, 1873, and 1874.
The only practical work which has ever appeared in England is that
of Sir Henry Thompson,[173] the first part of which appeared in the
'Contemporary Review' of January 1874, and the second part in the
March number. It treats of the question entirely from the practical
side, and it will be impossible to understand the full merits of
cremation without perusing it. Its appearance has marked a new era
in the history of the question, and the whole of the foreign press
are unanimous in its praise. Indeed nearly every European nation
has now translated it for itself. It has awakened in our land an
interest which cannot possibly subside, and its arguments have found
a willing confirmation in the minds of thousands of all classes.
There can be no doubt also that the kind of apparatus chosen by Sir
Henry Thompson, after several crucial tests, will prove the most
suitable one which can be devised.[174]
[173] 'Cremation.' H. S. King & Co., London. 2nd ed. 1_s._
[174] Since the publication of Sir Henry Thompson's work, and the
reports of the active propaganda which is being carried on abroad,
a great number of articles, favourable or well inclined to the
practice, have appeared in the public press: for instance, in
the 'Daily News,' 'Telegraph,' 'Standard,' 'Morning Advertiser,'
'Globe,' 'Saturday Review,' 'Court Journal,' and numerous
illustrated and other papers. The 'British Medical Journal,'
'Lancet,' 'Medical Press and Circular,' 'Medical Record,' 'Sanitary
Record,' 'Students' Journal and Hospital Gazette,' &c., have also
borne witness to its value as a sanitary measure. Both Church and
Nonconformist journals have moreover written in its favour, and
several able articles have appeared in the periodicals, for example,
in the 'Dublin University Magazine' and 'Westminster Review.'
Most valuable assistance, demanding special notice, has also been
rendered to cremation by that highly scientific periodical, 'Iron.'
The process has also been made the subject of discussion in various
debating societies, and in May 1874 the Cambridge University Union
adopted a motion by 101 votes to 42 in favour of introducing it into
England.
The Cremation Society of London, which is intended as a parent
society with which others in any part of the land can be affiliated,
was founded on January 13, 1874, by some of our most representative
men, and shortly after a declaration[175] was issued to the public
which had the effect of proving to the founders of the Society
how very prevalent and how widely spread was the antipathy to the
present mode of burial. The aim of the Society is to promote the
substitution of cremation for burial, by diffusing information on
the subject, by co-operating with foreign Societies, and by raising
funds to obtain an apparatus of the most approved kind, together
with a suitable site, so that, for those who desire the performance
of cremation after death, ample means should be available for the
purpose. The letters of adhesion to the scheme which have been
already received have come from every class of society, from Peers
to the humblest commoners.
[175] 'We disapprove the present custom of burying the dead, and
desire to substitute some mode which shall rapidly resolve the body
into its component elements by a process which cannot offend the
living, and shall render the remains absolutely innocuous. Until
some better method is devised, we desire to adopt that usually known
as Cremation.'
The conditions of membership are:--
I.--Adhesion by signature to the above declaration.
II.--The payment of an annual subscription of one guinea, or a
single payment of ten guineas.
In order to carry out the above objects it has been resolved to
raise funds for the purpose of carrying into operation the practice
of cremation through the agency of cemetery companies, parochial and
municipal authorities, or other public bodies.
Chief in its favour, in point of numbers, after the general public,
come physicians and surgeons, and after these ministers of religion
of all shades, Fellows of Colleges, officers of the Army and Navy,
&c., in about equal degree. The number of ladies who have joined
the movement is considerable, and some of them have proved the most
active members. The Preliminary Council of the Society includes
names of the highest standing in the country in Science, Literature,
and Art, and the list is continually being extended. There is every
prospect now of being able to accomplish the object sought by the
promoters. Some preliminary negotiations were entered into with a
large cemetery company, but came to no practical result, the board
of management 'not being able to lift their eyes to the dignity of
the subject.' Steps are being taken at the present moment to enlist
more contributing members in the Society, and to enable it, with
augmented funds, to purchase a site for itself whereon to erect a
suitable apparatus. Several donations, one of considerable amount
from a well known philanthropic lady, have been received by the
treasurer.