What the nations of Europe did--or did not do--were matters of constant
and vital concern to both North and South during the Civil War.
President Davis and other Confederate officials hoped earnestly that
England, and possibly France as well, would recognize the independence
of the Southern nation and grant it much-needed aid. President Lincoln
and the Federal authorities were just as desirous that European powers
should not intervene in the American struggle. Thus, starting in 1861,
both sides began a determined tug-of-war to woo the statesmen of Europe
to their respective cause.
[Illustration: James Mason and John Slidell were both former U. S.
senators. Mason chewed tobacco arduously and could be crude in
manner.]
[Illustration: Slidell spoke French fluently and had married into
Louisiana Creole aristocracy.]
The first major international incident occurred in the autumn of 1861
and is known as the "Trent Affair". Two Confederate commissioners, James
M. Mason and John Slidell, were sent to plead the South's cause at
London and Paris, respectively. The agents were en route on the British
mail steamer, _Trent_, when, on November 8, a Federal warship, the _San
Jacinto_, stopped the British vessel on the high seas. Mason and Slidell
were removed from the _Trent_ and imprisoned at Fort Warren in Boston.
Northern officials were unprepared for the storm of indignation that
came from England. The _San Jacinto_, it was pointed out, had violated
English neutrality by intercepting the _Trent_. Equally outrageous to
the British was the fact that the _San Jacinto_ had fired two warning
shots across the _Trent's_ bow. This was equivalent to firing at the
British flag; as such, it constituted an act of war against England.
Fortunately for the North, Lincoln and his Secretary of State, William
H. Seward, were able to resolve the incident with a minimum of ill
feelings. Apologies were dispatched to London. Mason and Slidell were
released from prison and allowed to continue their overseas journey
without further Federal interference.
[Illustration: Only five feet, four inches tall, William H. Seward
nevertheless became the most powerful and respected member of
Lincoln's cabinet.]
In addition to Mason and Slidell, the Confederacy utilized a number of
foreign agents. Most of these commissioners pursued a policy of "King
Cotton diplomacy"--that is, promising England and France large
quantities of the popular staple in return for official recognition of,
and active aid to, the Southern Confederacy. When the demand for
American cotton dropped sharply in Europe, this approach failed.
Southern agents Henry Hotze, Edwin DeLeon, and James D. Bulloch then
tried new strategy. They wrote extensively about the close ties in
business and society between the English aristocracy and the great
Southern planters, a lower tariff on foreign-made goods if the
Confederacy triumphed in the war, and a more active European
participation in American commerce.
The nations in Europe had other reasons for wishing to assist the
Southern cause. The Federal blockade prevented English goods from
reaching eager Southern markets. Many persons abroad looked on the Civil
War as a struggle of the South for the right of self-determination. On
the other hand, the British middle and working classes detested slavery.
After Lincoln's Emancipation, most Europeans believed that the North was
waging a great struggle for freedom.
[Illustration: Judah P. Benjamin of Louisiana served successively as
Confederate Attorney General, Secretary of War, and Secretary of
State.]
Although the South tried desperately to gain much-needed European
support, it was largely unsuccessful. British and French shipbuilders
did sell several vessels to the Confederate government. Yet this aid
dropped to a thin trickle following Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation.
Spectacular Federal victories at Vicksburg and Gettysburg forever doomed
the South's hopes for foreign aid.
[Illustration: Charles Francis Adams was the son of the 6th
President of the U. S. In 1860 his affiliation with the Whig Party
prevented him from receiving a post in Lincoln's cabinet.]
The one man who unquestionably did most to keep Europe neutral during
the Civil War was the American minister to England, Charles Francis
Adams. He skillfully thwarted the efforts of Confederate emissaries,
expounded the North's cause with vigor and tact, and let it be known at
opportune times that assistance to the Confederacy could occasion war
with the United States. Adams fought a host of Southern agents around
the diplomatic tables of Europe. "When all the facts are considered,"
one author has stated, "it must be admitted that the character and
ability of Charles Francis Adams were as valuable as Union military
victories in contributing to ultimate success in the war."