War's full fury struck in 1862. To understand the complicated movements
of many armies, bear in mind two points:
(1) Not one, but _two_, separate areas of military operations existed.
The Appalachian Mountains, extending in an almost unbroken line from
Pennsylvania to Alabama, prevented armies from moving freely from
eastern states (Virginia, the Carolinas, etc.) to western or
trans-Appalachian states (Tennessee, Kentucky, etc.), and _vice versa_.
As a result, different armies in the East (east of the mountains) and in
the West fought practically two almost independent wars. Only in 1864
were the campaigns of the two areas effectively coordinated.
(2) In the 1800's, in contrast to modern military tactics, an invading
army did not always move directly against an enemy force. Rather, its
primary target was usually an important city. Once the invading army was
in motion, the defending force then tried to place itself between the
invader and his target. This set the stage for battle. Five such
Confederate cities became principal Federal targets. In the East was
Richmond; in the West were New Orleans and Vicksburg, both strongholds
on the all-important Mississippi River, and Chattanooga and Atlanta,
vital railroad centers.
Bearing these two points in mind, let us turn to the Western campaigns
of 1862.
At the beginning of 1862 some 48,000 Confederate soldiers guarded a
600-mile line extending from the Appalachian Mountains westward to the
Mississippi River. Obviously the Southern defenses were thinly manned.
Early in February, Gen. Ulysses S. Grant left Cairo, Ill., with 15,000
men to attack the center of this line. His goal was to gain control of
two important rivers, the Tennessee and the Cumberland.
To protect these streams, the Confederates had constructed twin forts in
Tennessee just south of the Kentucky border. Fort Henry guarded the
Tennessee; Fort Donelson stood menacingly on the banks of the
Cumberland. On February 6 a Federal river fleet cooperating with Grant
battered Fort Henry into submission. Ten days later Grant had surrounded
Fort Donelson and its 12,000 defenders. Answering the Confederate
commander's request for surrender terms, Grant replied: "No terms but
unconditional surrender." Thereafter, U. S. Grant was "Unconditional
Surrender" Grant.
Grant's victories brought great rejoicing in the North. Some writers
consider the Henry-Donelson campaign as "the critical operation" of the
Civil War. Capture of these forts assured Union control of Kentucky and
Tennessee and opened Mississippi and Alabama to Federal invasion. The
loss of the forts was a severe blow to Southern morale. With these
successes the North had also demonstrated its ability and willingness to
fight.
Meanwhile, an important battle occurred farther to the west for control
of Arkansas and Missouri. On March 7-8, at Pea Ridge (or Elkhorn
Tavern), Ark., a Confederate army of 16,000 men attacked 12,000 Federals
under Gen. Samuel R. Curtis. Most of the Confederates lacked uniforms
and were armed with shotguns and squirrel rifles. This force also
included 3,500 Indians of the Creek, Choctaw, Cherokee, Chickasaw and
Seminole tribes. After two days of fighting, a Federal counterattack
broke the Confederate "army." With the defeat at Pea Ridge the
Confederates permanently lost Missouri and northern Arkansas.
[Illustration: Gunfire and fighting at Shiloh was so intense that
one area of the battlefield became known as the "Hornet's Nest."
This drawing depicts the stubborn resistance of two Federal
divisions in that area.]
By the end of March Grant's army was near the Mississippi border. Just
across the line Gens. Albert Sidney Johnston and Beauregard had
collected a force of 40,000 Confederates. Even though most of his troops
were ill-equipped, Johnston attacked Grant's encamped forces in an
effort to destroy the Federal invaders. The battle of Shiloh (April
6-7), one of the war's most costly engagements, followed.
The initial Confederate attack caught Grant by surprise, bent his line,
but never broke it. Several events then swung the battle to the North's
favor. Gen. Johnston bled to death from a leg wound. Exhaustion and
disorganization blunted the drive of the Southerners, and Federal
artillery posted in great strength near the Tennessee River proved an
effective barrier to the Confederate advance. Heavy Federal
reinforcements under Gen. Don C. Buell arrived during the night. The
next morning Grant counterattacked. The Confederates retreated
grudgingly to Corinth, thus ending the battle. Grant's hard-won victory
cost him 13,047 casualties. The Confederates lost 10,694 soldiers,
roughly one-fourth of Johnston's forces.
For the next four months the armies of Grant and Bragg (who eventually
succeeded to command) did not meet in battle. However, three significant
events took place elsewhere in the Western theater.
One was the Federal capture of the mouth of the Mississippi River. In
April a fleet under Flag Officer David G. Farragut blasted its way
upriver past Forts Jackson and St. Philip. By the end of May the
strategic river cities of New Orleans, Baton Rouge and Natchez were
under Federal control. Yet a river attack on Vicksburg failed.
The second event was one of the boldest raids in American history. In
April James J. Andrews, a Federal espionage agent, and twenty-one
Northern soldiers sneaked through Confederate territory to Big Shanty
Station, Ga., only thirty miles from Atlanta. There they stole the
engine "General" and two cars of a Western & Atlantic passenger train.
The Federals' plan was to race up the tracks to Chattanooga, removing
rails, burning bridges, and thus ruining this important line.
The coup might have succeeded but for the perseverance of a handful of
citizens and soldiers, who gave immediate pursuit on foot, by handcar,
and eventually on an engine ("The Texas") running in reverse. All of the
raiders were soon captured. Andrews and seven of his men were
subsequently hanged in Atlanta.
Southern raiders soon gained a measure of revenge. In July, 1862, Col.
John Hunt Morgan led his Confederate cavalrymen on a two-week slash
through Kentucky. Morgan won four small battles, captured 1,200
Federals, and returned safely to Tennessee with less than 100
casualties. In December Morgan again struck into Kentucky. This
"Christmas Raid" netted 1,900 prisoners and large quantities of horses
and military stores.
Shortly after Morgan's First Kentucky Raid, Gen. Bragg invaded the same
state. Bragg hoped to occupy the chief cities and, by "military
persuasion," to bring Kentucky into the Confederacy. Yet caution
eventually got the better of Bragg. He retreated, even after winning a
tactical victory over Gen. Don C. Buell at Perryville on October 8. This
invasion marked the end of Confederate efforts to wrest Kentucky from
the Union.
[Illustration: Braxton Bragg is one of the most controversial
generals of the Civil War. Although a devoted soldier and skillful
organizer, he lacked that necessary spark of leadership.]
[Illustration: William S. Rosecrans was a tireless, conscientious
officer whom the men affectionately called "Old Rosy."]
Bragg returned to Tennessee. Gen. William S. Rosecrans, who had gained
fame in two Mississippi campaigns, assumed command of the Federal army
opposing Bragg. Then in November Grant started southward from Tennessee
through Mississippi toward Vicksburg, the chief Confederate stronghold
on the "Father of Waters." Grant's strategy called for a two-pronged
attack: he and Gen. William T. Sherman would deliver simultaneous
assaults on Vicksburg from different directions. The plan was a costly
failure. Confederate cavalry under Gen. Earl Van Dorn destroyed Grant's
main supply base at Holly Springs. Grant was forced to fall back to
Memphis. Sherman's assaults on December 28-29 at Chickasaw Bayou were
repulsed with heavy losses. Grant then moved his entire army down the
Mississippi and prepared to take Vicksburg by attack or siege.
The final Western engagement of 1862 began on the last day of the year
near Murfreesboro, Tenn. For the better part of four days Bragg's
Confederate army waged a desperate fight along the banks of Stone's
River with Rosecrans's Federal forces. Tactically the battle was a draw.
Yet the Federals lost 31% in killed, wounded, and missing, while the
Confederates suffered 25% casualties.