THE LECTURE ON BELGIUM.
"All hands, attend lecture on board ship, ahoy!" shouted the boatswain
of the Josephine, as the signal to this effect appeared on the Young
America.
Ordinarily this call was not an agreeable one; for the students had
voted that it was "dull music" to listen to a stupid lecture on
geography and history; but in the present instance it was not so. The
information communicated in regard to England and Scotland was so
familiar to them that it was robbed of its interest; but the
school-books contained only very meagre allusions to Holland and
Belgium. Many of them had read Mr. Motley's eloquent descriptions of the
bravery and devotion to principle of the Dutch people in their civil
wars and in their terrible conflict with the Spaniards, and they were
desirous of knowing more about the country and its inhabitants.
Holland is in itself an exceedingly interesting country. The students
had seen something of its dikes and ditches, and were anxious to see
more. The region seemed to be very much like a ship; for it was
necessary to keep the water out as much as possible, and to pump out
that which leaked in or rained in. The boys were to go on shore, and
they desired to understand something of the history of the country, in
order to appreciate the various objects which commemorated mighty events
in the past. The citadel of Antwerp was in sight at a bend up the river,
and they were curious to know its antecedents.
On both vessels the libraries had been ransacked for information by the
more enthusiastic of the pupils, and many interesting facts had been
gleaned from the volumes; but those who knew the most about the country
were the most anxious to know more. With only a few exceptions,
therefore, the "call to lecture," on the present occasion, was a welcome
one. The boats were lowered, and all hands in the Josephine, including
the professors, went on board of the ship, leaving the vessel in charge
of the adult forward officers.
Mr. Mapps had already made his preparations in the steerage, and on the
foremast hung a large Dutch map of the Netherlands. The students filed
in and took their seats. The professor looked unusually pleasant and
enthusiastic, probably because he felt that his wares were in demand.
"Young gentlemen, before you is the map of the Netherlands," he began.
"For our present purpose, the term must include both Holland and
Belgium; for until 1830 the two were one country, the latter having had,
for no long period, a separate political existence till that time.
"The Dutch name of the country is _Nederlanden_; the French name,
_Pays-Bas_; both of which have the same meaning--'low countries.' By
this time you have realized the literal significance of the term; for
nearly all the region consists of an immense low plain, intersected by
rivers or arms of the sea. A reference to the physical geography of
Europe shows you that the great northern plain, containing nine times
the area of France, or about one half the area of Europe, extends from
the Ural Mountains to the German Ocean.
"Doubtless the whole region now included in the Netherlands was once a
mere swamp, a wild and useless morass, unfit for the habitation of man.
Three great rivers, you perceive on the map, have their course, in whole
or in part, through Holland and Belgium--the Rhine, the Maas, or Meuse,
and the Scheldt.
"By a reference to your navigation charts, young gentlemen, you will
often find banks and bars thrown up at the mouths of rivers. At the
mouth of the Scheldt, several miles from the shore, there are Thornton's
Ridge, The Rabs, Schouwen Bank, Steen Banks, and others of similar
formation. At the mouth of the Mississippi, in our own country, you are
aware that large vessels find great difficulty in getting over the bar.
If we take a tumbler full of Mississippi water, after heavy rains in the
north-west, and let it stand a few moments, a thick sediment settles at
the bottom. This sediment forms the bar at the mouth of the river. The
sand and mud are carried down by the current, and when the water has a
chance to rest, it deposits its burden upon the bottom."
"But why in that particular place?" asked an interested student.
"Because the current of the river comes to a halt where it meets the
inflowing tide of the gulf, or when it has spent its force. These bars
are sometimes formed by currents resulting from the combined action of
the sea and the flow of the river, or by winds. A heavy gale has been
known to change the aspect of a coast, to shut up a harbor, or to open
one where there had before been no inlet. Cape Cod presents some
remarkable instances of these physical revolutions.
"The great rivers of the Netherlands, in like manner, have brought down
their sands and mud, and deposited them on what now forms the shore of
the country. The forces of the ocean, against which the Dutchman of
to-day has to contend for the preservation of his life and property,
assisted in making this country a habitable region. Certain westerly and
south-westerly winds drive the waters of the Atlantic into the German
Ocean. The coast of the country, you see by the map, is exposed to the
longest sweep of the wind from the north-west, and the most violent
tempests to which Holland is exposed come from that direction. Now, what
is the effect of these storms?"
"They pile up the sand-bars," replied Captain Kendall.
"Precisely so; the dunes and ridges of sand which border the country
from the straits of Dover to the Texel are caused by these violent winds
from the north-west. The effect of this piling up of the sands was
eventually to limit, in a measure, the boundary of the sea. The dunes
and ridges formed the foundation for the dikes which the industrious and
persevering Dutchman has erected upon them, and by which he has made
his country. For the want of time, I shall defer the physical features
of Holland, and a more particular description of its dikes and ditches,
to a future occasion. In what country are we now?"
"In Belgium, sir," replied McLeish, who always answered when he could,
though in general knowledge he was far behind his American classmates.
"What is the French name?"
"_La Belgique._"
"The German?"
"_Belgien._"
"What is the French adjective?"
"_Belge._"
"There is a liberal newspaper published at Brussels, the capital of
Belgium, which is often quoted as political authority in the United
States, called the _Independance Belge_. What does the term mean?"
"'The Belgian Independent,' or 'The Independent Belgian,'" laughed
Pelham.
"But the first word is a noun."
"'The Belgian Freeman,' or something of that sort."
"Doubtless it will bear that rendering, though it means literally
'Belgian Independence.' Belgium is bounded on the north, and partly on
the east, by Holland; mostly on the east by the Rhenish provinces of
Prussia, forming a part of Germany; on the south-west by France; and on
the north-west by the German Ocean. It has an area of eleven thousand
three hundred and thirteen miles; that is, it is about the size of
Maryland, or of Massachusetts and Connecticut united.
"Its population in 1863 was about five millions, equal to the aggregate
of New York and Massachusetts. In New England, in 1860, there were fifty
persons to the square mile; in Massachusetts, which is the most densely
peopled of the United States, one hundred and seventy; but Belgium has
four hundred and forty souls to the square mile, and is the most
thickly-settled country in the world.
"Belgium contains nine provinces, the largest of which, in area, is
Luxembourg, though it is one of the smallest in population. The largest
in population is East Flanders."
"Flanders!" exclaimed Terrill; "I was hoping you would say something
about Flanders, for I had an idea it was Belgium."
"It is a part of it. Flanders has belonged to France, Spain, Austria,
and Holland, at times; but it was divided into two provinces by the King
of Holland, and became a part of the United Kingdom of Belgium when it
was established in 1830. It figures largely in history, and 'our army in
Flanders' is a proverb.
"The soil of Belgium is generally sandy and poor; but, by skill and
industry, the people obtain large crops from it. In a country so densely
peopled there could not be many large farms, and the majority of the
farmers cultivate what would not be more than a garden in America; but
the system of agriculture is not surpassed by that of any country in the
world. Flax-raising is the principal occupation of the farmers; but
grasses and roots receive particular attention. Horses, cattle, and
sheep are raised in great numbers.
"The manufactures of Belgium are very celebrated. The laces of Brussels
and Mechlin (Malines) have the highest reputation. Linen goods, carpets,
woollens, cottons, hosiery, are largely produced. The foreign and
domestic commerce of Belgium, largely carried on through the port of
Antwerp, is extensive.
"Belgium is a flat country, as we have said. There are no mountains,
though in the provinces of Liege and Brabant the American traveller will
find a variety of scenery similar to that in the eastern part of
Massachusetts and Connecticut. This portion of Belgium is a beautiful
garden.
"The government, according to the charter of 1831, is a constitutional,
representative, and hereditary monarchy; that is, it has a constitution,
a parliament, and the oldest son of the king is his successor. The
king's person is declared to be sacred, and his ministers, instead of
himself, are held responsible for the government acts. The legislative
branch consists of a senate and a chamber of representatives; but the
king must sign their acts before they can become laws.
"The members of both houses of the legislature are chosen by the people,
and are called deputies. Only citizens who pay a certain amount of
direct taxes can vote. The deputies who live out of the town in which
the session is held are paid sixty-two dollars a month. They are elected
for four years, half every two years. The political privileges of the
people are only less than those of our own country.
"The present king is Leopold I.[A] He is seventy-four years old, and for
the last fifty years has been a man of mark in Europe. He was for some
time in the service of the Emperor of Russia, and went to England with
the allied sovereigns, in 1814, where he became acquainted with, and
afterwards married, the Princess Charlotte, daughter of George IV.; but
she died within two years. In 1830 Leopold was elected King of Greece;
but he finally refused the crown, because the conditions he made were
not complied with. In 1831 he was elected King of the Belgians, and was
crowned the same year. The next year he married Louise, the daughter of
Louis Philippe, King of France. Leopold, Duke of Brabant, will succeed
him. He has several other sons and daughters, among them Marie
Charlotte, wife of Maximilian, Archduke of Austria, who has been elected
Emperor of Mexico. Leopold is one of the richest men in Europe.
[Footnote A: Leopold I. died Dec. 10, 1865, and was succeeded by his
son, Leopold II.]
"Nearly all the people of Belgium are Roman Catholics, there being but
about thirteen thousand Protestants and two thousand Jews; but the
largest religious liberty is allowed to all sects. A portion of the
salary of ministers of all denominations is paid from the national
treasury. While the Catholics receive seven hundred thousand dollars
from the state, the Protestants obtain eleven thousand, and the Jews two
thousand dollars. The salary paid by the state to the archbishop is four
thousand two hundred dollars, and to a bishop about three thousand.
"The history of Flanders is substantially the early history of Belgium.
Many changes were made in the territorial limit of the country from time
to time, in the hands of its different owners. The first mention of
this country in history is in the time of Julius Caesar, who conquered
the Low Countries, and the Romans held them till the year 400, when they
were joined to the empire of the Franks. They formed part of the vast
realm of Charlemagne.
"After the Romans had abandoned the territory, several independent
nobles established themselves in the southern part of the Netherlands.
Among them were the Counts of Flanders, who became very powerful and
influential men. They are to be regarded as the founders of the Flemish
provinces. Having no male heirs, their possessions went to the house of
Burgundy. Philip, Duke of Burgundy, married Margaret, Countess of
Flanders, and, upon the death of her father, she brought to him the
country of Flanders and other valuable possessions.
"During the succeeding hundred years, Namur, Brabant, Limbourg,
Hainault, Holland, Zealand, Friesland, and Luxembourg, all of which now
belong to Holland and Belgium, were added to the territories of the
Dukes of Burgundy. At this period appears the powerful but rash and
cruel Charles the Bold. His life was spent in open or secret strife with
Louis XI., king of France, whose suzerain, or nominal vassal, he was.
The king was instrumental in stirring up rebellion in several cities of
the Low Countries, which the duke put down with his accustomed severity.
"Charles, in revenge, having leagued with some discontented French
princes, Louis secretly fomented an insurrection in Liege. When the blow
was first struck, the crafty king was paying a visit to his cousin of
Burgundy, as he called the duke, who, on hearing the news, retained his
sovereign as a prisoner, threatening to kill him for his perfidy. The
cunning prince tried to pacify his enraged host. He was but partially
successful, and could only obtain his liberty by submitting to the most
humiliating terms. The duke compelled his royal guest to march in person
with him to the revolted city, and assist his vassal in putting down the
rebellion he had himself instigated.
"Charles the Bold was slain in battle, and his death ending his line of
dukes, Louis seized upon several of the provinces. Mary, the daughter of
Charles, was married to the Archduke of Austria, who claimed the
Burgundian provinces in right of his wife. He obtained possession,
however, of only Franche-comte and the Low Countries. The conflicting
claims for these territories kept Austria and France at war for a long
time.
"The Archduke Maximilian, who married Mary of Burgundy, became Emperor
of Germany on the death of his father. He had two children by her,
Philip and Margaret, the former of whom married Joanna, daughter of
Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. They were the parents of Charles V.,
Emperor of Germany and King of all Spain. During this period the Low
Countries were governed by Maximilian, Philip, and Charles, deriving
their right from Charles the Bold.
"Charles V. was succeeded as King of Spain by Philip II., his son, who
also inherited the Flemish provinces. Mr. Motley's incomparable History
of the Rise of the Dutch Republic, commences at this point, with the
abdication of Charles V., and the accession of Philip II. I hope all who
have not read this work will do so, as many of you can, here in the
midst of the scenes described in its glowing pages.
"Philip was a bigot and a tyrant, and his despotism, which included the
establishment of the Inquisition, drove the people to madness, and
provoked them to rebellion. During the reign of Charles V. the
Reformation had made considerable progress in Germany, and its
principles were firmly planted in the Low Countries. Philip imposed upon
himself the duty of rooting out the obnoxious doctrines, and of
restoring the supremacy of the Catholic church.
"After his accession to the Netherlands, the king remained four years in
the country, and then departed for Spain, from which he did not again
return. He made his sister regent, and she was to be assisted by
Granvelle, Bishop of Arras. William, Prince of Orange, and the Counts
Egmont and Horn, were associated with the bishop as councillors, but
they had no real power or influence.
"The despotic conduct of Granvelle, and the attempt on his part to
introduce the Inquisition, by order of his royal master, excited the
most desperate opposition. The people organized under the lead of the
Prince of Orange, and Egmont and Horn, and an insurrection broke out in
Flanders, in 1566. These Protestant rebels have been styled iconoclasts,
or image-breakers, for they broke into the churches, overturned the
images, defaced the valuable paintings, and otherwise injured the church
property.
"The famous Cathedral of Notre Dame, which you can see from the deck of
the ship, was ravaged by the mob. The statues of Christ, the Virgin, and
the Saints were hurled from their pedestals; the rich paintings, the
choicest works of Flemish art, were cut to pieces; the organs were torn
down, the altars overturned, and the gold and silver vessels used in the
mass were carried off. For three days these tumultuous proceedings
continued, and were suppressed only when the fury of the mob had ceased,
by the Knights of the Golden Fleece, of which the Prince of Orange was a
member. The career of this remarkable man is closely identified with the
history of the Netherlands during this period. He was opposed to the
violence of the mob, not only from prudential motives, but because his
own religious views were not yet in sympathy with the Protestant
reformers, though he afterwards fully embraced their doctrines.
"The patriots of the Low Countries were, in the beginning of these
troubles, both Catholic and Protestant; but the sacrilegious conduct of
the mob detached the former from the cause, and as the Catholics were
more numerous in the southern than in the northern provinces, they
finally turned the scale in favor of Philip II. in their own section,
while the people of Holland established their independence.
"Philip then sent the savage and relentless Duke of Alva to suppress the
new religion in the Netherlands. Egmont and Horn were beheaded at
Brussels, and the Prince of Orange retired into Germany, appealing to
the Protestant princes for assistance. With an army he had raised in
Germany, and with money obtained there and of Queen Elizabeth of
England, he marched into the Netherlands, and called his people to arms.
A long and terrible war ensued, in which the Dutch suffered up to the
limit of human endurance, and displayed a heroism which is without
parallel in the history of the nations.
"The Prince of Orange was created Stadtholder; almost unlimited powers
were conferred upon him, and for years he struggled against the most
stupendous obstacles. The Dutch, being a maritime people, established a
navy, which inflicted many heavy blows upon the Spanish power. The
severity of Alva so goaded the Netherlanders that the whole country was
in arms against him. He failed to reduce them to subjection, and was
recalled. His next two eminent successors died of fever, and the Duke of
Parma was then sent as regent of Philip. In 1579 the northern provinces
declared their independence, and established the Dutch Republic, or the
Seven United Provinces, of which the Prince of Orange was stadtholder.
"Philip was so incensed at the success of the Prince of Orange that he
offered a large reward to any one who would take his life, and a
fanatical Burgundian shot him at Delft, in 1584. With this event Mr.
Motley closes his History of the Rise of the Dutch Republic.
"Belgium adhered to Spain, or, rather, the Duke of Parma succeeded in
reducing it to subjection after the murder of the stadtholder. In 1598
Philip gave the Flemish provinces to his daughter Isabella. But on her
death without children, the country again reverted to Spain. After more
than a century of strife, including the Thirty Years' War, the repeated
quarrels between England and Spain, and France and Spain, and the War of
the Spanish Succession, during which period the Low Countries were
often the battle-ground, Belgium passed into the hands of the Austrians.
"In settling up the disastrous strife of the century, the treaty-making
powers had given several of the Belgian fortresses to Holland, in order
to check the ambition of France, and the Dutch closed the Scheldt. After
an interval of peace under Maria Theresa of Austria, her son, Joseph
II., attempted to break through portions of the treaties, and obliged
the troops of Holland to evacuate his territory, but he could not open
the river. He was rash in his proceedings, and a rebellion was organized
against him.
"About this time commenced the French Revolution, whose influence
extended to the Low Countries, and in 1789 the Austrian garrison at
Brussels was forced to surrender. But the people were not united, and
their dissensions enabled the Austrians to regain their power. The
French Directory sent an army to assist the Belgians, the Austrians were
driven from the country, and Belgium was incorporated with France.
"Napoleon, while he controlled the destinies of France, devoted much
attention to the Flemish provinces, and especially to the city of
Antwerp. When you go on shore you will see immense docks and
fortifications built by him. He intended to make it a great naval
station, and it would have been of vast importance to him in carrying
out his plans for the invasion of England. The works on the opposite
side of the river, called 'Tete de Flandre,' were the beginning of an
immense military town. During this period England was almost continually
at war with France, and several expeditions were sent against Holland
and Belgium.
"When Napoleon abdicated, the Flemish Provinces were restored to
Austria; but when the allies who had overthrown Napoleon finally
disposed of their conquests, Holland and Belgium were united, and given
to the Stadtholder, who had adhered to the allies. He was styled William
I., King of the Netherlands.
"The two sections could not agree; the Dutch regarded Belgium as a
conquered province, and were not at all conciliatory in their treatment
of the new acquisition. The Belgians were essentially French in their
habits, and disliked the Dutch. In 1830 they revolted against their
masters, the insurrection extended to the principal cities, and the king
called upon the great powers who had given him the country. A congress
assembled in London at his request, which, however, decreed the
independence of Belgium.
"The people first elected a son of Louis Philippe king; but he declined,
and Leopold was then chosen. King William, of Holland, protested, and in
spite of the treaty, held the city of Antwerp. A French army was sent to
the assistance of Leopold; Antwerp capitulated, but it was not till 1839
that Holland made a treaty with Belgium, acknowledging her independence.
Leopold strengthened his position by marrying a daughter of the King of
France; and his son and heir, the Duke of Brabant, was married to Marie,
Archduchess of Austria.
"In 1848, when Louis Philippe was overthrown in France, some disturbance
occurred, and Leopold offered to abdicate; but his proposition was not
accepted, and he wisely and skilfully led his government through all the
troubles of that excitable period. He is a wise and prudent statesman,
and as such has had a great deal of influence in Europe.
"Now, young gentlemen, I trust you will not be satisfied with this
meagre sketch of the interesting country we are now visiting, but will
read up the subject so that you will understand it better."
Mr. Mapps left his position, and the studies of the morning were
commenced. After dinner the usual shore liberty was given, the
allowances paid in French francs, a supply of which had been procured in
London, and the students were landed. Instead of going on shore
immediately, Dr. Winstock and Paul paid a visit to the Victoria and
Albert.
At the gangway they found the steward of the ship, who volunteered to
conduct them through the vessel. There was nothing strikingly peculiar
in the exterior of the yacht, except that she had large, square windows,
composed of a single pane of glass, in her upper saloons and cabins; but
the steward informed the visitors that these were replaced in heavy
weather by wooden shutters, having only the small, round ports in them.
Between the paddle-boxes was a large open space, covered over by the
hurricane deck. On each side, abaft the wheels, was a small apartment,
or pavilion, with large glass windows, elegantly cushioned and
furnished, where the royal passengers could sit in rough weather, and
look out upon the sea. On the hurricane deck was a spacious
dining-saloon.
From the open space between the wheels, the steward conducted Dr.
Winstock and Paul to a passage-way, at the after end of which was a
saloon called the breakfast-room. Its length corresponded with the width
of the vessel, and one side was round, being formed at the stern of the
vessel, in which were several of the large square windows, so that the
apartment was very light and pleasant.
On each side of the passage-way were several apartments, arranged in
suits. Returning to the open space amidships, the party entered the
forward room on the starboard side.
"This is the room of the first lady in waiting," said the steward, as
they went in.
"I should say the first lady in waiting was well accommodated," said
Paul, laughing, as he glanced at the spacious apartment.
"But she may be a countess," replied the steward, leading the way to the
next room. "This is the queen's bed-chamber."
There was a large bed in this room, which looked just like anybody's
bed; but it was by no means so elegant as the young republican had
anticipated. The apartment was rich and costly in its furnishings, but
there was none of the magnificence which one would have expected to find
in the room of a queen.
"This is the dressing-room of Prince Albert," added the steward,
entering the next room. "Her majesty allows no one to occupy it since
the death of his highness."
Beyond this, on the same side, were shown several rooms appropriated to
the use of the princesses. They corresponded in style with those of the
queen; but in nothing connected with the yacht was there any gaudy
display. The party went to the opposite side, and were shown several
rooms like those they had just seen, which were occupied by the princes.
The forward room on the port side was the drawing-room. It was larger
than any other except the breakfast-room, but did not appear to be
extravagantly furnished; everything seemed to be provided for comfort
rather than show.
The conductor then led them forward, where, on each side of a passage,
were four rooms, each provided with a handsome, narrow bedstead, which
the steward said were for the use of the lords and ladies in waiting.
Forward of these, in the bow of the vessel, was the kitchen, a
three-cornered room like that on the Young America, with a large galley
or cooking-range in the middle.
Below the royal apartments, in the after part of the ship, were the
cabins for the servants. As the steward led his guests towards the
gangway, Dr. Winstock took out his purse.
"Never mind that just now," interposed their conductor, "especially as
there is the captain."
Paul wondered if the doctor intended to insult a person of so much
consequence as the steward of the queen's yacht must be, by offering him
money. He glanced at the captain, who was a fine-looking man, in naval
uniform, as the steward led the way to the accommodation steps. The
doctor slyly slipped a couple of English shillings into the man's hand,
and they went down into their boat.
"What did you give him, sir?" asked Paul.
"Two shillings."
"Well, it seems to me the steward of any American passenger steamer
would be angry if you gave him two shillings for his services."
"If I had not met these men before, I should not have dared to do it;
but it is expected," replied the doctor.
The boat pulled up to the Quai Vandyck, and Paul for the first time put
his foot upon the continent of Europe.