[1] Their legends are connected with the sea, the name Meroveus
signifying "sea-born."
[2] The chronicler Fredegarius and the author of the _Liber historiae
Francorum_ make Sunno and Marcomeres his predecessors, but in reality
they were chiefs of other Frankish tribes. The author of the _Liber_
also claims that Chlodio was the son of Pharamund, but this personage
is quite legendary. In the _Chronicon_ of Fredegarius it is already
affirmed that the Franks are descended from the Trojans.
FRANZ, ROBERT (1815-1892), German composer, was born at Halle on the
28th of June 1815. One of the most gifted of German song writers, he
suffered in early life, as many musicians have suffered, from the
hostility of his parents to a musical career. He was twenty years old
when, his father's animosity conquered, he was allowed to live in Dessau
to study organ-playing under Schneider. The two years of dry study under
that famous teacher were advantageous chiefly in making him uncommonly
intimate with the works of Bach and Handel, his knowledge of which he
showed in his editions of the _Matthaeus Passion_, _Magnificat_, ten
cantatas, and of the _Messiah_ and _L'Allegro_, though some of these
editions have long been a subject of controversy among musicians. In
1843 he published his first book of songs, which ultimately was followed
by some fifty more books, containing in all about 250 songs. At Halle,
Franz filled various public offices, including those of organist to the
city, conductor of the Sing-akademie and of the Symphony concerts, and
he was also a royal music-director and master of the music at the
university. The first book of songs was warmly praised by Schumann and
Liszt, the latter of whom wrote a lengthy review of it in Schumann's
paper, _Die neue Zeitschrift_, which later was published separately.
Deafness had begun to make itself apparent as early as 1841, and Franz
suffered also from a nervous disorder, which in 1868 compelled him to
resign his offices. His future was then provided for by Liszt, Dr
Joachim, Frau Magnus and others, who gave him the receipts of a concert
tour, amounting to some 100,000 marks. Franz died on the 24th of October
1892. On his seventieth birthday he published his first and only
pianoforte piece. It is easy to find here and there among his songs gems
that are hardly less brilliant than the best of Schumann's. Certainly no
musician was ever more thoughtful and more painstaking. In addition to
songs he wrote a setting for double choir of the 117th Psalm, and a
four-part Kyrie; he also edited Astorga's _Stabat Mater_ and Durante's
_Magnificat_.
FRANZEN, FRANS MIKAEL (1772-1847), Swedish poet, was born at Uleaborg in
Finland on the 9th of February 1772. At thirteen he entered the
university of Abo, where he attended the lectures of H. G. Porthan
(1739-1804), a pioneer in the study of Finnish history and legend. He
graduated in 1789, and became "_eloquentiae docens_" in 1792. Three
years later he started on a tour through Denmark, Germany, France and
England, returning in 1796 to accept the office of university librarian
at Abo. In 1801 he became professor of history and ethics, and in 1808
was elected a member of the Swedish Academy. On the cession of Finland
to Russia, Franzen removed to Sweden, where he was successively
appointed parish priest of Kumla in the diocese of Strengnaes (1810),
minister of the Clara Church in Stockholm (1824) and bishop of Hernoesand
(1831). He died at Saebra parsonage on the 14th of August 1847. From the
autumn of 1793, when his _Till en ung Flicka_ and _Menniskans anlete_
were inserted by Kellgren in the _Stockholmspost_, Franzen grew in
popular favour by means of many minor poems of singular simplicity and
truth, as _Till Selma_, _Den gamle knekten_, _Riddar St Goeran_, _De Sma
blommorna_, _Modren vid vaggan_, _Nyarsmorgonen_ and _Stjernhimmelen_.
His songs _Goda gosse glaset toem_, _Soerj ej den gryende dagen foerut_,
_Champagnevinet_ and _Bevaeringssang_ were widely sung, and in 1797 he
won the prize of the Swedish Academy by his _Sang oefver grefve Filip
Creutz_. Henceforth his muse, touched with the academic spirit, grew
more reflective and didactic. His longer works, as _Emili eller en afton
i Lappland_, and the epics _Svante Sture eller moetet vid Alvastra_,
_Kolumbus eller Amerikas upptaeckt_ and _Gustaf Adolf i Tyskland_ (the
last two incomplete), though rich in beauties of detail, are far
inferior to his shorter pieces.
The poetical works of Franzen are collected under the title
_Skaldestycken_ (7 vols., 1824-1861); new ed., _Samlade dikter_, with
a biography by A. A. Grafstroem (1867-1869); also a selection (_Valda
dikter_) in 2 vols. (1871). His prose writings, _Om svenska
drottningar_ (Abo, 1798; Oerebro, 1823), _Skrifter i obunden stil_,
vol. i. (1835), _Predikningar_ (5 vols., 1841-1845) and
_Minnesteckningar_, prepared for the Academy (3 vols., 1848-1860), are
marked by faithful portraiture and purity of style. See B. E.
Malmstroem, in the _Handlingar_ of the Swedish Academy (1852, new
series 1887), vol. ii.; S. A. Hollander, _Minne af F. M. Franzen_
(Oerebro, 1868); F. Cygnaeus, _Teckningar ur F. M. Franzens lefnad_
(Helsingfors, 1872); and Gustaf Ljunggren, _Svenska vitterhetens
haefder efter Gustaf III.'s doed_, vol. ii. (1876).
FRANZENSBAD, or KAISER-FRANZENSBAD, a town and watering-place of
Bohemia, Austria, 152 m. W.N.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 2330. It
is situated at an altitude of about 1500 ft. between the spurs of the
Fichtelgebirge, the Boehmerwald and the Erzgebirge, and lies 4 m. N.W. of
Eger. It possesses a large kursaal, several bathing establishments, a
hospital for poor patients and several parks. There are altogether 12
mineral springs with saline, alkaline and ferruginous waters, of which
the oldest and most important is the Franzensquelle. One of the springs
gives off carbonic acid gas and another contains a considerable
proportion of lithia salts. The waters, which have an average
temperature between 50.2 deg. F. and 54.5 deg. F., are used both internally and
externally, and are efficacious in cases of anaemia, nervous disorders,
sexual diseases, specially for women, and heart diseases. Franzensbad is
frequently resorted to as an after-cure by patients from Carlsbad and
Marienbad. Another important part of the cure is the so-called _moor_ or
mud-baths, prepared from the peat of the Franzensbad marsh, which is
very rich in mineral substances, like sulphates of iron, of soda and of
potash, organic acids, salt, &c.
The first information about the springs dates from the 16th century, and
an analysis of the waters was made in 1565. They were first used for
bathing purposes in 1707. But the foundation of Franzensbad as a
watering-place really dates from 1793, when Dr Adler built here the
first _Kurhaus_, and the place received its name after the emperor
Francis I.
See Dr Loimann, _Franzensbad_ (3rd ed., Vienna, 1900).
FRANZ JOSEF LAND, an arctic archipelago lying E. of Spitsbergen and N.
of Novaya Zemlya, extending northward from about 80 deg. to 82 deg. N., and
between 42 deg. and 64 deg. E. It is described as a lofty glacier-covered land,
reaching an extreme elevation of about 2400 ft. The glaciers front, with
a perpendicular ice-wall, a shore of debris on which a few low plants
are found to grow--poppies, mosses and the like. The islands are
volcanic, the main geological formation being Tertiary or Jurassic
basalt, which occasionally protrudes through the ice-cap in high
isolated blocks near the shore. A connecting island-chain between Franz
Josef Land and Spitzbergen is probable. The bear and fox are the only
land mammals; insects are rare; but the avifauna is of interest, and the
Jackson expedition distinguished several new species.
August Petermann expressed the opinion that Baffin may have sighted the
west of Franz Josef Land in 1614, but the first actual discovery is due
to Julius Payer, a lieutenant in the Austrian army, who was associated
with Weyprecht in the second polar expedition fitted out by Count
Wilczek on the ship "Tegetthof" in 1872. On the 13th of August 1873, the
"Tegetthof" being then beset, high land was seen to the north-west.
Later in the season Payer led expeditions to Hochstetter and Wilczek
islands, and after a second winter in the ice-bound ship, a difficult
journey was made northward through Austria Sound, which was reported to
separate two large masses of land, Wilczek Land on the east from Zichy
Land on the west, to Cape Fligely, in 82 deg. 5' N., where Rawlinson Sound
branched away to the north-east. Cape Fligely was the highest latitude
attained by Payer, and remained the highest attained in the Old World
till 1895. Payer reported that from Cape Fligely land (Rudolf Land)
stretched north-east to a cape (Cape Sherard Osborn), and mountain
ranges were visible to the north, indicating lands beyond the 83rd
parallel, to which the names King Oscar Land and Petermann Land were
given. In 1879 De Bruyne sighted high land in the Franz Josef Land
region, but otherwise it remained untouched until Leigh Smith, in the
yacht "Eira," explored the whole southern coast from 42 deg. to 54 deg. E. in
1881 and 1882, discovering many islands and sounds, and ascertaining
that the coast of Alexandra Land, in the extreme west, trended to
north-west and north.
After Leigh Smith came another pause, and no further mention is made of
Franz Josef Land till 1894. In that year Mr Alfred Harmsworth
(afterwards Lord Northcliffe) fitted out an expedition in the ship
"Windward" under the leadership of Mr F. G. Jackson, with the object of
establishing a permanent base from which systematic exploration should
be carried on for successive years and, if practicable, a journey should
be made to the Pole. Mr Jackson and his party landed at "Elmwood" (which
was named from Lord Northcliffe's seat in the Isle of Thanet), near Cape
Flora, at the western extremity of Northbrook Island, on the 7th of
September. After a preliminary reconnaissance to the north, which
afterwards turned out to be vitally important, the summer of 1895 was
spent in exploring the coast to the north-west by a boating expedition.
This expedition visited many of the points seen by Leigh Smith, and
discovered land, which it has been suggested may be the Gillies Land
reported by the Dutch captain Gillies in 1707. In 1896 the
Jackson-Harmsworth expedition worked northwards through an archipelago
for about 70 m. and reached Cape Richthofen, a promontory 700 ft. high,
whence an expanse of open water was seen to the northward, which
received the name of Queen Victoria Sea. To the west, on the opposite
side of a wide opening which was called the British Channel, appeared
glacier-covered land, and an island lay to the northward. The island was
probably the King Oscar Land of Payer. To north and north-east was the
land which had been visited in the reconnaissance of the previous year,
but beyond it a water-sky appeared in the supposed position of
Petermann Land. Thus Zichy Land itself was resolved into a group of
islands, and the outlying land sighted by Payer was found to be islands
also. Meanwhile Nansen, on his southward journey, had approached Franz
Josef Land from the north-east, finding only sea at the north end of
Wilczek Land, and seeing nothing of Payer's Rawlinson Sound, or of the
north end of Austria Sound. Nansen wintered near Cape Norway, only a few
miles from the spot reached by Jackson in 1895. He had finally proved
that a deep oceanic basin lies to the north. On the 17th of June 1896
the dramatic meeting of Jackson and Nansen took place, and in the same
year the "Windward" revisited "Elmwood" and brought Nansen home, the
work of the Jackson-Harmsworth expedition being continued for another
year. As the non-existence of land to the north had been proved, the
attempt to penetrate northwards was abandoned, and the last season was
devoted to a survey and scientific examination of the archipelago,
especially to the west; this was carried out by Messrs Jackson,
Armitage, R. Koettlitz, H. Fisher and W. S. Bruce.
Further light was thrown on the relations of Franz Josef Land and
Spitsbergen during 1897 by the discoveries of Captain Robertson of
Dundee, and Wyche's Land was circumnavigated by Mr Arnold Pike and Sir
Savile Crossley. The latter voyage was repeated in the following year by
a German expedition under Dr Th. Lerner and Captain Ruediger. In August
1898 an expedition under Mr Walter Wellman, an American, landed at Cape
Tegetthof. Beginning a northward journey with sledges at the end of the
winter, Wellman met with an accident which compelled him to return, but
not before some exploration had been accomplished, and the eastern
extension of the archipelago fairly well defined. In June 1899 H.R.H.
the duke of Abruzzi started from Christiania in his yacht, the "Stella
Polare," to make the first attempt to force a ship into the newly
discovered ocean north of Franz Josef Land. The "Stella Polare"
succeeded in making her way through the British Channel to Crown Prince
Rudolf Land, and wintered in Teplitz Bay, in 81 deg. 33' N. lat. The ship
was nearly wrecked in the autumn, and the party had to spend most of the
winter on shore, the duke of Abruzzi suffering severely from frost-bite.
In March 1900 a sledge party of thirteen, under Captain Cagni, started
northwards. They found no trace of Petermann Land, but with great
difficulty crossed the ice to 86 deg. 33' N. lat., 20 m. beyond Nansen's
farthest, and 240 m. from the Pole. The party, with the exception of
three, returned to the ship after an absence of 104 days, and the
"Stella Polare" returned to Tromsoe in September 1900. In 1901-1902 the
Baldwin-Ziegler expedition also attempted a northward journey from Franz
Josef Land.
See _Geographical Journal_, vol. xi., February 1898; F. G. Jackson, _A
Thousand Days in the Arctic_ (1899).
FRANZOS, KARL EMIL (1848-1904), German novelist, was born of Jewish
parentage on the 25th of October 1848 in Russian Podolia, and spent his
early years at Czortkow in Galicia. His father, a district physician,
died early, and the boy, after attending the gymnasium of Czernowitz,
was obliged to teach in order to support himself and prepare for
academic study. He studied law at the universities of Vienna and Graz,
but after passing the examination for employment in the state judicial
service abandoned this career and, becoming a journalist, travelled
extensively in south-east Europe, and visited Asia Minor and Egypt. In
1877 he returned to Vienna, where from 1884 to 1886 he edited the _Neue
illustrierte Zeitung_. In 1887 he removed to Berlin and founded the
fortnightly review _Deutsche Dichtung_. Franzos died on the 28th of
January 1904. His earliest collections of stories and sketches, _Aus
Halb-Asien_, _Land und Leute des oestlichen Europas_ (1876) and _Die
Juden von Barnow_ (1877) depict graphically the life and manners of the
races of south-eastern Europe. Among other of his works may be mentioned
the short stories, _Junge Liebe_ (1878), _Stille Geschichten_ (1880),
and the novels _Moschko von Parma_ (1880), _Ein Kampf ums Recht_ (1882),
_Der Praesident_ (1884), _Judith Trachtenberg_ (1890), _Der
Wahrheitsucher_ (1894).
FRASCATI, a town and episcopal see of Italy, in the province of Rome, 15
m. S.E. of Rome by rail, and also reached by electric tramway via
Grottaferrata. Pop. (1901) 8453. The town is situated 1056 ft. above the
sea-level, on the N. slopes of the outer crater ring of the Alban Hills,
and commands a very fine view of the Campagna of Rome. The cathedral
contains a memorial tablet to Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, whose
body for some while rested here; his brother, Henry, Cardinal York,
owned a villa at Frascati. The villas of the Roman nobility, with their
beautiful gardens and fountains, are the chief attraction of Frascati.
The earliest in date is the Villa Falconieri, planned by Cardinal
Ruffini before 1550; the most important of the rest are the Villa
Torlonia (formerly Conti), Lancelotti (formerly Piccolomini), Ruffinella
(now belonging to Prince Lancellotti), Aldobrandini, Borghese and
Mondragone (now a Jesuit school). The surrounding country, covered with
remains of ancient villas, is fertile and noted for its wine. Frascati
seems to have arisen on the site of a very large ancient villa, which,
under Domitian at any rate, belonged to the imperial house about the 9th
century in which period we find in the _Liber Pontificalis_ the names of
four churches _in Frascata_. The medieval stronghold of the counts of
Tusculum (q.v.), which occupied the site of the ancient city, was
dismantled by the Romans in 1191, and the inhabitants put to the sword
or mutilated. Many of the fugitives naturally took refuge in Frascati.
The see of Tusculum had, however, always had its cathedral church in
Frascati. For the greater part of the middle ages Frascati belonged to
the papacy.
See G. Tomassetti, _La Via Latina nel medio evo_ (Rome, 1886), 170
seq.; T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, iv. (London,
1907). (T. As.)
FRASER, ALEXANDER CAMPBELL (1819- ), Scottish philosopher, was born at
Ardchattan, Argyllshire, on the 3rd of September 1819. He was educated
at Glasgow and Edinburgh, where, from 1846 to 1856, he was professor of
Logic at New College. He edited the _North British Review_ from 1850 to
1857, and in 1856, having previously been a Free Church minister, he
succeeded Sir William Hamilton as professor of Logic and Metaphysics at
Edinburgh University. In 1859 he became dean of the faculty of arts. He
devoted himself to the study of English philosophers, especially
Berkeley, and published a _Collected Edition of the Works of Bishop
Berkeley with Annotations, &c._ (1871; enlarged 1901), a _Biography of
Berkeley_ (1881), an _Annotated Edition of Locke's Essay_ (1894), the
_Philosophy of Theism_ (1896) and the _Biography of Thomas Reid_ (1898).
He contributed the article on John Locke to the _Encyclopaedia
Britannica_. In 1904 he published an autobiography entitled _Biographia
philosophica_, in which he sketched the progress of his intellectual
development. From this work and from his Gifford lectures we learn
objectively what had previously been inferred from his critical works.
After a childhood spent in an austerity which stigmatized as unholy even
the novels of Sir Walter Scott, he began his college career at the age
of fourteen at a time when Christopher North and Dr Ritchie were
lecturing on Moral Philosophy and Logic. His first philosophical advance
was stimulated by Thomas Brown's _Cause and Effect_, which introduced
him to the problems which were to occupy his thought. From this point he
fell into the scepticism of Hume. In 1836 Sir William Hamilton was
appointed to the chair of Logic and Metaphysics, and Fraser became his
pupil. He himself says, "I owe more to Hamilton than to any other
influence." It was about this time also that he began his study of
Berkeley and Coleridge, and deserted his early phenomenalism for the
conception of a spiritual will as the universal cause. In the
_Biographia_ this "Theistic faith" appears in its full development (see
the concluding chapter), and is especially important as perhaps the
nearest approach to Kantian ethics made by original English philosophy.
Apart from the philosophical interest of the Biographia, the work
contains valuable pictures of the Land of Lorne and Argyllshire society
in the early 19th century, of university life in Glasgow and Edinburgh,
and a history of the _North British Review_.
FRASER, JAMES (1818-1885), English bishop, was born at Prestbury, in
Gloucestershire, on the 18th of August 1818, and was educated at
Bridgnorth, Shrewsbury, and Lincoln College, Oxford. In 1839 he was
Ireland scholar, and took a first class. In 1840 he gained an Oriel
fellowship, and was for some time tutor of the college, but did not take
orders until 1846. He was successively vicar of Cholderton, in
Wiltshire, and rector of Ufton Nervet, in Berkshire; but his subsequent
importance was largely due to W. K. Hamilton, bishop of Salisbury, who
recommended him as an assistant commissioner of education. His report on
the educational condition of thirteen poor-law unions, made in May 1859,
was described by Thomas Hughes as "a superb, almost a unique piece of
work." In 1865 he was commissioned to report on the state of education
in the United States and Canada, and his able performance of this task
brought him an offer of the bishopric of Calcutta, which he declined,
but in January 1870 he accepted the see of Manchester. The task before
him was an arduous one, for although his predecessor, James Prince Lee,
had consecrated no fewer than 130 churches, the enormous population was
still greatly in advance of the ecclesiastical machinery. Fraser worked
with the utmost energy, and did even more for the church by the
liberality and geniality which earned him the title of "the bishop of
all denominations." He was prominent in secular as well as religious
works, interesting himself in every movement that promoted health,
morality, or education; and especially serviceable as the friendly,
unofficious counsellor of all classes. His theology was that of a
liberal high-churchman, and his sympathies were broad. In convocation he
seconded a motion for the disuse of the Athanasian Creed, and in the
House of Lords he voted for the abolition of university tests. He died
suddenly on the 22nd of October 1885.
A biography by Thomas Hughes was published in 1887, and an account of
his Lancashire life by J. W. Diggle (1889), who also edited 2 vols. of
_University and Parochial Sermons_ (1887).
FRASER, JAMES BAILLIE (1783-1856), Scottish traveller and author, was
born at Reelick in the county of Inverness on the 11th of June 1783. He
was the eldest of the four sons of Edward Satchell Fraser of Reelick,
all of whom found their way to the East, and gave proof of their
ability. In early life he went to the West Indies and thence to India.
In 1815 he made a tour of exploration in the Himalayas, accompanied by
his brother William (d. 1835). When Reza Kuli Mirza and Nejeff Kuli
Mirza, the exiled Persian princes, visited England, he was appointed to
look after them during their stay, and on their return he accompanied
them as far as Constantinople. He was afterwards sent to Persia on a
diplomatic mission by Lord Glenelg, and effected a most remarkable
journey on horseback through Asia Minor to Teheran. His health, however,
was impaired by the exposure. In 1823 he married a daughter of Alexander
Fraser Tytler, Lord Woodhouselee, a sister of the historian Patrick
Fraser Tytler. He died at Reelick in January 1856. Fraser is said to
have displayed great skill in water-colours, and several of his drawings
have been engraved; and the astronomical observations which he took
during some of his journeys did considerable service to the cartography
of Asia. The works by which he attained his literary reputation were
accounts of his travels and fictitious tales illustrative of Eastern
life. In both he employed a vigorous and impassioned style, which was on
the whole wonderfully effective in spite of minor faults in taste and
flaws in structure.
Fraser's earliest writings are: _Journal of a Tour through Part of the
Himala Mountains and to the Sources of the Jumna and the Ganges_
(1820); _A Narrative of a Journey into Khorasan in the Years 1821 and
1822, including some Account of the Countries to the North-East of
Persia_ (1825); and _Travels and Adventures in the Persian Provinces
on the Southern Banks of the Caspian Sea_ (1826). His romances include
_The Kuzzilbash, a Tale of Khorasan_ (1828), and its sequel, _The
Persian Adventurer_ (1830); _Allee Neemroo_ (1842); and _The Dark
Falcon_ (1844). He also wrote _An Historical and Descriptive Account
of Persia_ (1834); _A Winter's Journey (Tatar) from Constantinople to
Teheran_ (1838); _Travels in Koordistan, Mesopotamia, &c._ (1840);
_Mesopotamia and Assyria_ (1842); and _Military Memoirs of Col. James
Skinner_ (1851).
FRASER, SIR WILLIAM AUGUSTUS, Bart. (1826-1898), English politician,
author and collector, was born on the 10th of February 1826, the son of
Sir James John Fraser, 3rd baronet, a colonel of the 7th Hussars, who
had served on Wellington's staff at Waterloo. He was educated at Eton
and at Christ Church, Oxford, entered the 1st Life Guards in 1847, but
retired with a captain's rank in 1852. He then set about entering
parliament, and the ups and downs of his political career were rather
remarkable. He was returned for Barnstaple in 1852, but the election was
declared void on account of bribery, and the constituency was
disfranchised for two years. At the election of 1857 Sir William, who
had meantime been defeated at Harwich, was again returned at Barnstaple.
He was, however, defeated in 1859, but was elected in 1863 at Ludlow.
This seat he held for only two years, when he was again defeated and did
not re-enter parliament until 1874, when be was returned for
Kidderminster, a constituency he represented for six years, when he
retired. He was a familiar figure at the Carlton Club, always ready with
a copious collection of anecdotes of Wellington, Disraeli and Napoleon
III. He died on the 17th of August 1898. He was an assiduous collector
of relics; and his library was sold for some L20,000. His own books
comprise _Words on Wellington_ (1889), _Disraeli and his Day_ (1891),
_Hic et Ubique_ (1893), _Napoleon III._ (1896) and the _Waterloo Ball_
(1897).
FRASER, the chief river of British Columbia, Canada, rising in two
branches among the Rocky Mountains near 52 deg. 45' N., 118 deg. 30' W. Length
740 m. It first flows N.W. for about 160 m., then rounds the head of the
Cariboo Mountains, and flows directly S. for over 400 m. to Hope, where
it again turns abruptly and flows W. for 80 m., falling into the Gulf of
Georgia at New Westminster. After the junction of the two forks near its
northern extremity, the first important tributary on its southern course
is the Stuart, draining Lakes Stuart, Fraser and Francois. One hundred
miles lower down the Quesnel, draining a large lake of the same name,
flows in from the east at a town also so named. Farther on the Fraser
receives from the west the Chilcotin, and at Lytton, about 180 m. from
the sea, the Thompson, its largest tributary, flows in from the east,
draining a series of mountain lakes, and receiving at Kamloops the North
Thompson, which flows through deep and impassable canyons. Below Hope
the Lillooet flows in from the north. The Fraser is a typical mountain
stream, rapid and impetuous through all its length, and like most of its
tributaries is in many parts not navigable even by canoes. On its
southern course between Lytton and Yale, while bursting its way through
the Coast Range, it flows through majestic canyons, which, like those of
the Thompson, were the scene of many tragedies during the days of the
gold-rush to the Cariboo district. At Yale, about 80 m. from its mouth,
it becomes navigable, though its course is still very rapid. In the
Cariboo district, comprised within the great bend of the river, near
Tete Jaune Cache, are many valuable gold deposits. With its tributaries
the Fraser drains the whole province from 54 deg. to 49 deg. N., except the
extreme south-eastern corner, which is within the basin of the Columbia
and its tributary the Kootenay.
FRASERBURGH, a police burgh and seaport, on the N. coast of
Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Pop. (1891), 7466; (1901), 9105. It is situated
471/4 m. by rail N. of Aberdeen, from which there is a branch line, of
which it is the terminus, of the Great North of Scotland railway. It
takes its name from Sir Alexander Fraser, the ancestor of Lord Saltoun,
whose seat, Philorth House, lies 2 m. to the south. Sir Alexander
obtained for it in 1613 a charter as a burgh of royalty, and also in
1592 a charter for the founding of a university. This latter project,
however, was not carried out, and all that remains of the building
intended for the college is a three-storeyed tower. The old castle of
the Frasers on Kinnaird Head now contains a lighthouse, and close by is
the Wine Tower, with a cave below. The town cross is a fine structure
standing upon a huge hexagon, surmounted by a stone pillar 12 ft. high,
ornamented by the royal and Fraser arms. The port is one of the leading
stations of the herring fishery in the north of Scotland and the head
of a fishery district. During the herring season (June to September)
the population is increased by upwards of 10,000 persons. The fleet
numbers more than 700 boats, and the annual value of the catch exceeds
L200,000. The harbour, originally constructed as a refuge for British
ships of war, is one of the best on the east coast, and has been
improved by the widening of the piers and the extension of the
breakwaters. It has an area of upwards of eight acres, is easy of
access, and affords anchorage for vessels of every size.
FRASERVILLE (formerly Riviere du Loup en Bas), a town and watering-place
in Temiscouata county, Quebec, Canada, 107 m. (by water) north-east of
Quebec, on the south shore of the St Lawrence river, and at the mouth of
the Riviere du Loup, at the junction of the Intercolonial and
Temiscouata railways. It contains a convent, boys' college, hospital,
several mills, and is a favourite summer resort on account of the
angling and shooting, and the magnificent scenery. Pop. (1901) 4569.
FRATER, FRATER HOUSE or FRATERY, a term in architecture for the hall
where the members of a monastery or friary met for meals or refreshment.
The word is by origin the same as "refectory." The older forms, such as
_freitur_, _fraytor_ and the like, show the word to be an adaptation of
the O. Fr. _fraitour_, a shortened form of _refraitour_, from the Med.
Lat. _rejectorium_. The word has been confused with _frater_, a brother
or friar, and hence sometimes confined in meaning to the dining-hall of
a friary, while "refectory" is used of a monastery.
FRATERNITIES, COLLEGE, a class of student societies peculiar to the
colleges and universities of the United States and Canada, with certain
common characteristics, and mostly named from two or three letters of
the Greek alphabet; hence they are frequently called "Greek Letter
Societies." They are organized on the lodge system, and each fraternity
comprises a number of affiliated lodges of which only one of any one
fraternity is connected with the same institution. The lodges, called
"chapters," in memory of the convocations of monks of medieval times,
are usually designated by Greek letters also. They are nominally secret,
with one exception (_Delta Upsilon_). Each chapter admits members from
the lowest or freshman class, and of course loses its members as the
students depart from college, consequently each chapter has in it at the
same time members of all the four college classes and frequently those
pursuing postgraduate studies. Where the attendance at a college is
large the material from which fraternity members may be drawn is
correspondingly abundant, and in some of the large colleges (e.g. at
Cornell University and the University of Michigan) there are chapters of
over twenty fraternities. All the fraternities aim to be select and to
pick their members from the mass of incoming students. Where, however,
the material to select from is not abundant and the rival fraternities
are numerous, care in selection is impossible, and the chapters at any
one college are apt to secure much the same general type of men. Many of
the fraternities have, however, on account of a persistent selection of
men of about the same tastes at different colleges, acquired a distinct
character and individuality; for instance, _Alpha Delta Phi_ is
literary.
The first of these fraternities was the _Phi Beta Kappa_, founded at the
College of William and Mary at Williamsburg, Virginia, in 1776. It was a
little social club of five students: John Heath, Richard Booker, Thomas
Smith, Armistead Smith and John Jones. Its badge was a square silver
medal displaying the Greek letters of its name and a few symbols. In
1779 it authorized Elisha Parmelee, one of its members, to establish
"meetings" or chapters at Yale and Harvard, these chapters being
authorized to establish subordinate branches in their respective states.
In 1781 the College of William and Mary was closed, its buildings being
occupied in turn by the British, French and American troops, and the
society ceased to exist. The two branches, however, were
established--that at Yale in 1780 and that at Harvard in 1781. Chapters
were established at Dartmouth in 1787, at Union in 1817, at Bowdoin in
1824 and at Brown in 1830. This society changed its character in 1826
and became non-secret and purely honorary in character, admitting to
membership a certain proportion of the scholars of highest standing in
each class (only in classical courses, usually and with few exceptions
only in graduating classes). More recent honorary societies of similar
character among schools of science and engineering are _Sigma Xi_ and
_Tau Beta Pi_.
In 1825, at Union College, _Kappa Alpha_ was organized, copying in style
of badge, membership restrictions and the like, its predecessor. In 1827
two other similar societies, _Sigma Phi_ and _Delta Phi_, were founded
at the same place. In 1831 _Sigma Phi_ placed a branch at Hamilton
College and in 1832 _Alpha Delta Phi_ originated there. In 1833 _Psi
Upsilon_, a fourth society, was organized at Union. In 1835 _Alpha Delta
Phi_ placed a chapter at Miami University, and in 1839 _Beta Theta Pi_
originated there, and so the system spread. These fraternities, it will
be observed, were all undergraduate societies among the male students.
In 1910 the total number of men's general fraternities was 32, with 1068
living chapters, and owning property worth many millions of dollars. In
1864 _Theta Xi_, the first professional fraternity restricting its
membership to students intending to engage in the same profession, was
organized. There were in 1910 about 50 of these organizations with some
400 chapters. In addition there are about 100 local societies or
chapters acting as independent units. Some of the older of these, such
as _Kappa Kappa Kappa_ at Dartmouth, _IKA_ at Trinity, _Phi Nu Theta_ at
Wesleyan and _Delta Psi_ at Vermont, are permanent in character, but the
majority of them are purely temporary, designed to maintain an
organization until the society becomes a chapter of one of the general
fraternities. In 1870 the first women's society or "sorority," the
_Kappa Alpha Theta_, was organized at De Pauw University. There were in
1910, 17 general sororities with some 300 active chapters.
It is no exaggeration to say that these apparently insignificant
organizations of irresponsible students have modified the college life
of America and have had a wide influence. Members join in the
impressionable years of their youth; they retain for their organizations
a peculiar loyalty and affection, and freely contribute with money and
influence to their advancement.
Almost universally the members of any particular chapter (or part of
them) live together in a lodge or chapter house. The men's fraternities
own hundreds of houses and rent as many more. The fraternities form a
little aristocracy within the college community. Sometimes the line of
separation is invisible, sometimes sharply marked. Sometimes this
condition militates against the college discipline and sometimes it
assists it. Conflicts not infrequently occur between the fraternity and
non-fraternity element in a college.
It can readily be understood how young men living together in the
intimate relationship of daily contact in the same house, having much
the same tastes, culture and aspirations would form among themselves
enduring friendships. In addition each fraternity has a reputation to
maintain, and this engenders an esprit du corps which at times places
loyalty to fraternity interests above loyalty to college interest or the
real advantage of the individual. At commencements and upon other
occasions the former members of the chapters return to their chapter
houses and help to foster the pride and loyalty of the undergraduates.
The chapter houses are commonly owned by corporations made up of the
alumni. This brings the undergraduates into contact with men of mature
age and often of national fame, who treat their membership as a serious
privilege.
The development of this collegiate aristocracy has led to jealousy and
bitter animosity among those not selected for membership. Some of the
states, notably South Carolina and Arkansas, have by legislation, either
abolished the fraternities at state-controlled institutions or seriously
limited the privileges of their members. The constitutionality of such
legislation has never been tested. Litigation has occasionally arisen
out of attempts on the part of college authorities to prohibit the
fraternities at their several institutions. This, it has been held, may
lawfully be done at a college maintained by private endowment but not at
an institution supported by public funds. In the latter case all
classes of the public are equally entitled to the same educational
privileges and members of the fraternities may not be discriminated
against.
The fraternities are admirably organized. The usual system comprises a
legislative body made up of delegates from the different chapters and an
executive or administrative body elected by the delegates. Few of the
fraternities have any judiciary. None is needed. The financial systems
are sound, and the conventions of delegates meet in various parts of the
United States, several hundred in number, spend thousands of dollars in
travel and entertainment, and attract much public attention. Most of the
fraternities have an inspection system by which chapters are
periodically visited and kept up to a certain level of excellence.
The leading fraternities publish journals usually from four to eight
times during the college year. The earliest of these was the _Beta Theta
Pi_, first issued in 1872. All publish catalogues of their members and
the most prosperous have issued histories. They also publish song books,
music and many ephemeral and local publications.
The alumni of the fraternities are organized into clubs or associations
having headquarters at centres of population. These organizations are
somewhat loose, but nevertheless are capable of much exertion and
influence should occasion arise.
The college fraternity system has no parallel among the students of
colleges outside of America. One of the curious things about it,
however, is that while it is practically uniform throughout the United
States, at the three prominent universities of Harvard, Yale and
Princeton it differs in many respects from its character elsewhere. At
Harvard, although there are chapters of a few of the fraternities, their
influence is insignificant, their place being taken by a group of local
societies, some of them class organizations. At Yale, the regular system
of fraternities obtains in the engineering or technical department (the
Sheffield Scientific School), but in the classical department the
fraternity chapters are called "junior" societies, because they limit
their membership to the three upper classes and allow the juniors each
year practically to control the chapter affairs. Certain senior
societies, of which the oldest is the Skull and Bones, which are
inter-fraternity societies admitting freely members of the fraternities,
are more prominent at Yale than the fraternities themselves. Princeton
has two (secret) literary and fraternal societies, the American Whig and
the Cliosophic, and various local social clubs, with no relationship to
organizations in other colleges and not having Greek letter names.
At a few universities (for instance, Michigan, Cornell and Virginia),
senior societies or other inter-fraternity societies exert great
influence and have modified the strength of the fraternity system.
Of late years, numerous societies bearing Greek names and imitating the
externals of the college fraternities have sprung up in the high schools
and academies of the country, but have excited the earnest and
apparently united opposition of the authorities of such schools.
See William Raimond Baird, _American College Fraternities_ (6th ed.,
New York, 1905); Albert C. Stevens, _Cyclopedia of Fraternities_
(Paterson, N. J., 1899); Henry D. Sheldon, _Student Life and Customs_
(New York, 1901); Homer L. Patterson, _Patterson's College and School
Directory_ (Chicago, 1904); H. K. Kellogg, _College Secret Societies_
(Chicago, 1874); Albert P. Jacobs, _Greek Letter Societies_ (Detroit,
1879). (W. R. B.*)
FRATICELLI (plural diminutive of Ital. _frate_, brother), the name given
during the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries to a number of religious groups
in Italy, differing widely from each other, but all derived more or less
directly from the Franciscan movement. Fra Salimbene says in his
_Chronicle_ (Parma ed., p. 108): "All who wished to found a new rule
borrowed something from the Franciscan order, the sandals or the habit."
As early as 1238 Gregory IX., in his bull _Quoniam abundavit iniquitas_,
condemned and denounced as forgers (_tanquam falsarios_) all who begged
or preached in a habit resembling that of the mendicant orders, and this
condemnation was repeated by him or his successors. The term Fraticelli
was used contemptuously to denote, not any particular sect, but the
members of orders formed on the fringe of the church. Thus Giovanni
Villani, speaking of the heretic Dolcino, says in his _Chronicle_ (bk.
viii. ch. 84): "He is not a brother of an ordered rule, but a
_fraticello_ without an order." Similarly, John XXII., in his bull
_Sancta Romana et Universalis Ecclesia_ (28th of December 1317),
condemns vaguely those "_profanae multitudinis viri_ commonly called
Fraticelli, or Brethren of the Poor Life, or Bizocchi, or Beguines, or
by all manner of other names."
Some historians, in their zeal for rigid classification, have regarded
the Fraticelli as a distinct sect, and have attempted to discover its
dogmas and its founder. Some of the contemporaries of these religious
groups fell into the same error, and in this way the vague term
Fraticelli has sometimes been applied to the disciples of Armanno
Pongilupo of Ferrara (d. 1269), who was undoubtedly a Cathar, and to the
followers of Gerard Segarelli and Dolcino, who were always known among
themselves as Apostolic Brethren (Apostolici). Furthermore, it seems
absurd to classify both the Dolcinists and the Spiritual Franciscans as
Fraticelli, since, as has been pointed out by Ehrle (_Arch. f. Lit. u.
Kirchengesch. des Mittelalters_, ii. 107, &c.), Angelo of Clarino, in
his _De septem tribulationibus_, written to the glory of the Spirituals,
does not scruple to stigmatize the Dolcinists as "disciples of the
devil." It is equally absurd to include in the same category the
ignorant Bizocchi and Segarellists and such learned disciples of Michael
of Cesena and Louis of Bavaria as William of Occam and Bonagratia of
Bergamo, who have often been placed under this comprehensive rubric.
The name Fraticelli may more justly be applied to the most exalted
fraction of Franciscanism. In 1322 some prisoners declared to the
inquisitor Bernard Gui at Toulouse that the Franciscan order was divided
into three sections--the Conventuals, who were allowed to retain their
real and personal property; the Spirituals or Beguines, who were at that
time the objects of persecution; and the Fraticelli of Sicily, whose
leader was Henry of Ceva (see Gui's _Practica Inquisitionis_, v.). It is
this fraction of the order which John XXII. condemned in his bull
_Gloriosam Ecclesiam_ (23rd of January 1318), but without calling them
Fraticelli. Henry of Ceva had taken refuge in Sicily at the time of Pope
Boniface VIII.'s persecution of the Spirituals, and thanks to the good
offices of Frederick of Sicily, a little colony of Franciscans who
rejected all property had soon established itself in the island. Under
Pope Clement V., and more especially under Pope John XXII., fresh
Spirituals joined them; and this group of exalted and isolated ascetics
soon began to regard itself as the sole legitimate order of the
Minorites and then as the sole Catholic Church. After being
excommunicated as "schismatics and rebels, founders of a superstitious
sect, and propagators of false and pestiferous doctrines," they
proceeded to elect a general (for Michael of Cesena had disavowed them)
and then a pope called Celestine (L. Wadding, _Annales_, at date 1313).
The rebels continued to carry on an active propaganda. In Tuscany
particularly the Inquisition made persistent efforts to suppress them;
Florence afflicted them with severe laws, but failed to rouse the
populace against them. The papacy dreaded their social even more than
their dogmatic influence. At first in Sicily and afterwards throughout
Italy the Ghibellines gave them a warm welcome; the rigorists and the
malcontents who had either left the church or were on the point of
leaving it, were attracted by these communities of needy rebels; and the
tribune Rienzi was at one time disposed to join them. To overcome these
ascetics it was necessary to have recourse to other ascetics, and from
the outset the reformed Franciscans, or Franciscans of the Strict
Observance, under the direction of their first leaders, Paoluccio da
Trinci (d. 1390), Giovanni Stronconi (d. 1405), and St Bernardine of
Siena, had been at great pains to restore the Fraticelli to orthodoxy.
These early efforts, however, had little success. Alarmed by the number
of the sectaries and the extent of their influence, Pope Martin V., who
had encouraged the Observants, and particularly Bernardine of Siena,
fulminated two bulls (1418 and 1421) against the heretics, and entrusted
different legates with the task of hunting them down. These measures
failing, he decided, in 1426, to appoint two Observants as inquisitors
without territorial limitation to make a special crusade against the
heresy of the Fraticelli. These two inquisitors, who pursued their
duties under three popes (Martin V., Eugenius IV. and Nicholas V.) were
Giovanni da Capistrano and Giacomo della Marca. The latter's valuable
_Dialogus contra Fraticellos_ (Baluze and Mansi, _Miscellanea_, iv.
595-610) gives an account of the doctrines of these heretics and of the
activity of the two inquisitors, and shows that the Fraticelli not only
constituted a distinct church but a distinct society. They had a pope
called Rinaldo, who was elected in 1429 and was succeeded by a brother
named Gabriel. This supreme head of their church they styled "bishop of
Philadelphia," Philadelphia being the mystic name of their community;
under him were bishops, e.g. the bishops of Florence, Venice, &c.; and,
furthermore, a member of the community named Guglielmo Majoretto bore
the title of "Emperor of the Christians." This organization, at least in
so far as concerns the heretical church, had already been observed among
the Fraticelli in Sicily, and in 1423 the general council of Siena
affirmed with horror that at Peniscola there was an heretical pope
surrounded with a college of cardinals who made no attempt at
concealment. From 1426 to 1449 the Fraticelli were unremittingly
pursued, imprisoned and burned. The sect gradually died out after losing
the protection of the common people, whose sympathy was now transferred
to the austere Observants and their miracle-worker Capistrano. From 1466
to 1471 there were sporadic burnings of Fraticelli, and in 1471 Tommaso
di Scarlino was sent to Piombino and the littoral of Tuscany to track
out some Fraticelli who had been discovered in those parts. After that
date the name disappears from history.
See F. Ehrle, "Die Spiritualen, ihr Verhaeltnis zum Franziskanerorden
und zu den Fraticellen" and "Zur Vorgeschichte des Concils von
Vienne," in _Archiv fuer Literatur- und Kirchengeschichte des
Mittelalters_, vols. i., ii., iii.; Wetzer and Welte,
_Kirchenlexikon_, s.v. "Fraticellen"; H. C. Lea, _History of the
Inquisition of the Middle Ages_, iii. 129-180 (London, 1888).
(P. A.)
FRAUD (Lat. _fraus_, deceit), in its widest sense, a term which has
never been exhaustively defined by an English court of law, and for
legal purposes probably cannot usefully be defined. But as denoting a
cause of action for which damages can be recovered in civil proceedings
it now has a clear and settled meaning. In actions in which damages are
claimed for fraud, the difficulties and obscurities which commonly arise
are due rather to the complexity of modern commerce and the ingenuity of
modern swindlers than to any uncertainty or technicality in the modern
law. To succeed in such an action, the person aggrieved must first prove
a representation of fact, made either by words, by writing or by
conduct, which is in fact untrue. Mere concealment is not actionable
unless it amounts not only to _suppressio veri_, but to _suggestio
falsi_. An expression of opinion or of intention is not enough, unless
it can be shown that the opinion was not really held, or that the
intention was not really entertained, in which case it must be borne in
mind, to use the phrase of Lord Bowen, that the state of a man's mind is
as much a matter of fact as the state of his digestion. Next, it must be
proved that the representation was made without any honest belief in its
truth, that is, either with actual knowledge of its falsity or with a
reckless disregard whether it is true or false. It was finally
established, after much controversy, in the case of _Derry_ v. _Peek_ in
1889, that a merely negligent misstatement is not actionable. Further,
the person aggrieved must prove that the offender made the
representation with the intention that he should act on it, though not
necessarily directly to him, and that he did in fact act in reliance on
it. Lastly, the complainant must prove that, as the direct consequence,
he has suffered actual damage capable of pecuniary measurement.
As soon as the case of _Derry_ v. _Peek_ had established, as the general
rule of law, that a merely negligent misstatement is not actionable, a
statutory exception was made to the rule in the case of directors and
promoters of companies who publish prospectuses and similar documents.
By the Directors' Liability Act 1890, such persons are liable for damage
caused by untrue statements in such documents, unless they can prove
that they had reasonable grounds for believing the statements to be
true. It is also to be observed that, though damages cannot be recovered
in an action for a misrepresentation made with an honest belief in its
truth, still any person induced to enter into a contract by a
misrepresentation, whether fraudulent or innocent, is entitled to avoid
the contract and to obtain a declaration that it is not binding upon
him. This is in accordance with the rule of equity, which since the
Judicature Act prevails in all the courts. Whether the representation is
fraudulent or innocent, the contract is not void, but voidable. The
party misled must exercise his option to avoid the contract without
delay, and before it has become impossible to restore the other party to
the position in which he stood before the contract was made. If he is
too late, he can only rely on his claim for damages, and in order to
assert this claim it is necessary to prove that the misrepresentation
was fraudulent. Fraud, in its wider sense of dishonest dealing, though
not a distinct cause of action, is often material as preventing the
acquisition of a right, for which good faith is a necessary condition.
Also a combination or conspiracy by two or more persons to defraud gives
rise to liabilities not very clearly or completely defined.
FRAUENBURG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the Frische
Haff, at the mouth of the Bande, 41 m. S.W. from Koenigsberg on the
railway to Elbing. Pop. 2500. The cathedral (founded 1329), with six
towers, stands on a commanding eminence adjoining the town and
surrounded by castellated walls and bastions. This is known as
Dom-Frauenburg, and is the seat of the Roman Catholic bishop of
Ermeland. Within the cathedral is a monument to the astronomer
Copernicus bearing the inscription _Astronomo celeberrimo, cujus nomen
et gloria utrumque implevit orbem_. There is a small port with
inconsiderable trade. Frauenburg was founded in 1287 and received the
rights of a town in 1310.
FRAUENFELD, the capital of the Swiss canton of Thurgau, 27 m. by rail
N.E. of Zuerich or 141/2 m. W. of Romanshorn. It is built on the Murg
stream a little above its junction with the Thur. It is a prosperous
commercial town, being situated at the meeting point of several routes,
while it possesses several industrial establishments, chiefly concerned
with different branches of the iron trade. In 1900 its population
(including the neighbouring villages) was 7761, mainly German-speaking,
while there were 5563 Protestants to 2188 Romanists. Frauenfeld is the
artillery depot for North-East Switzerland. The upper town is the older
part, and centres round the castle, of which the tower dates from the
10th century, though the rest is of a later period. Both stood on land
belonging to the abbot of Reichenau, who, with the count of Kyburg,
founded the town, which is first mentioned in 1255. The abbot retained
all manorial rights till 1803, while the political powers of the
Kyburgers (who were the "protectors" of Reichenau) passed to the
Habsburgs in 1273, and were seized by the Swiss in 1460 with the rest of
the Thurgau. In 1712 the town succeeded Baden in Aargau as the
meeting-place of the Federal Diet, and continued to be the capital of
the Confederation till its transformation in 1798. In 1799 it was
successively occupied by the Austrians and the French. The old Capuchin
convent (1591-1848) is now occupied as a vicarage by the Romanist
priest. (W. A. B. C.)
FRAUENLOB, the name by which HEINRICH VON MEISSEN, a German poet of the
13th century, is generally known. He seems to have acquired the
sobriquet because in a famous _Liederstreit_ with his rival Regenbogen
he defended the use of the word _Frau_ (i.e. _frouwe_, = lady) instead
of _Weib_ (_wip_ = woman). Frauenlob was born about 1250 of a humble
burgher family. His youth was spent in straitened circumstances, but he
gradually acquired a reputation as a singer at the various courts of the
German princes. In 1278 we find him with Rudolph I. in the Marchfeld, in
1286 he was at Prague at the knighting of Wenceslaus (Wenzel) II., and
in 1311 he was present at a knightly festival celebrated by Waldemar of
Brandenburg before Rostock. After this he settled in Mainz, and there
according to the popular account, founded the first school of
Meistersingers (q.v.). He died in 1318, and was buried in the cloisters
of the cathedral at Mainz. His grave is still marked by a copy made in
1783 of the original tombstone of 1318; and in 1842 a monument by
Schwanthaler was erected in the cloisters. Frauenlob's poems make a
great display of learning; he delights in far-fetched metaphors, and his
versification abounds in tricks of form and rhyme.
Frauenlob's poetry was edited by L. Ettmueller in 1843; a selection
will be found in K. Bartsch, _Deutsche Liederdichter des 12. bis 14.
Jahrhunderts_ (3rd ed., 1893). An English translation of Frauenlob's
_Cantica canticorum_, by A. E. Kroeger, with notes, appeared in 1877
at St Louis, U.S.A. See A. Boerkel, _Frauenlob_ (2nd ed., 1881).
FRAUNCE, ABRAHAM (c. 1558-1633), English poet, a native of Shropshire,
was born between 1558 and 1560. His name was registered as a pupil of
Shrewsbury School in January 1571/2, and he joined St John's College,
Cambridge, in 1576, becoming a fellow in 1580/81. His Latin comedy of
_Victoria_, dedicated to Sidney, was probably written at Cambridge,
where he remained until he had taken his M.A. degree in 1583. He was
called to the bar at Gray's Inn in 1588, and then apparently practised
as a barrister in the court of the Welsh marches. After the death of his
patron Sir Philip Sidney, Fraunce was protected by Sidney's sister Mary,
countess of Pembroke. His last work was published in 1592, and we have
no further knowledge of him until 1633, when he is said to have written
an _Epithalamium_ in honour of the marriage of Lady Magdalen Egerton,
7th daughter of the earl of Bridgwater, whose service he may possibly
have entered.
His works are: _The Lamentations of Amintas for the death of Phyllis_
(1587), a version in English hexameters of his friend's, Thomas
Watson's, Latin _Amyntas; The Lawiers Logike, exemplifying the praecepts
of Logike by the practise of the common Lawe_ (1588); _Arcadian
Rhetorike_ (1588); _Abrahami Fransi Insignium, Armorum ... explicatio_
(1588); _The Countess of Pembroke's Yvychurch_ (1591/2), containing a
translation of Tasso's _Aminta_, a reprint of his earlier version of
Watson, "The Lamentation of Corydon for the love of Alexis" (Virgil,
eclogue ii.), a short translation from Heliodorus, and, in the third
part (1592) "Aminta's Dale," a collection of "conceited" tales supposed
to be related by the nymphs of Ivychurch; _The Countess of Pembroke's
Emanuell_ (1591); _The Third Part of the Countess of Pembroke's
Ivychurch, entituled Aminta's Dale_ (1592). His _Arcadian Rhetorike_
owes much to earlier critical treatises, but has a special interest from
its references to Spenser, and Fraunce quotes from the _Faerie Queene_ a
year before the publication of the first books. In "Colin Clout's come
home again," Spenser speaks of Fraunce as Corydon, on account of his
translations of Virgil's second eclogue. His poems are written in
classical metres, and he was regarded by his contemporaries as the best
exponent of Gabriel Harvey's theory. Even Thomas Nashe had a good word
for "sweete Master France."
_The Countess of Pembroke's Emanuell_, hexameters on the nativity and
passion of Christ, with versions of some psalms, were reprinted by Dr
A. B. Grosart in the third volume of his _Miscellanies of the Fuller
Worthies Library_ (1872). Joseph Hunter in his _Chorus Vatum_ stated
that five of Fraunce's songs were included in Sidney's _Astrophel and
Stella_, but it is probable that these should be attributed not to
Fraunce, but to Thomas Campion. See a life prefixed to the
transcription of a MS. Latin comedy by Fraunce, _Victoria_, by
Professor G. C. Moore Smith, published in Bang's _Materialien zur
Kunde des alteren englischen Dramas_, vol. xiv., 1906.
FRAUNHOFER, JOSEPH VON (1787-1826), German optician and physicist, was
born at Straubing in Bavaria on the 6th of March 1787, the son of a
glazier who died in 1798. He was apprenticed in 1799 to Weichselberger,
a glass-polisher and looking-glass maker. On the 21st of July 1801 he
nearly lost his life by the fall of the house in which he lodged, and
the elector of Bavaria, Maximilian Joseph, who was present at his
extrication from the ruins, gave him 18 ducats. With a portion of this
sum he obtained release from the last six months of his apprenticeship,
and with the rest he purchased a glass-polishing machine. He now
employed himself in making optical glasses, and in engraving on metal,
devoting his spare time to the perusal of works on mathematics and
optics. In 1806 he obtained the place of optician in the mathematical
institute which in 1804 had been founded at Munich by Joseph von
Utzschneider, G. Reichenbach and J. Liebherr; and in 1807 arrangements
were made by Utzschneider for his instruction by Pierre Louis Guinand,
a skilled optician, in the fabrication of flint and crown glass, in
which he soon became an adept (see R. Wolf, _Gesch. der Wissensch. in
Deutschl._ bd. xvi. p. 586). With Reichenbach and Utzschneider,
Fraunhofer established in 1809 an optical institute at Benedictbeuern,
near Munich, of which he in 1818 became sole manager. The institute was
in 1819 removed to Munich, and on Fraunhofer's death came under the
direction of G. Merz.
Amongst the earliest mechanical contrivances of Fraunhofer was a machine
for polishing mathematically uniform spherical surfaces. He was the
inventor of the stage-micrometer, and of a form of heliometer; and in
1816 he succeeded in constructing for the microscope achromatic glasses
of long focus, consisting of a single lens, the constituent glasses of
which were in juxtaposition, but not cemented together. The great
reflecting telescope at Dorpat was manufactured by him, and so great was
the skill he attained in the making of lenses for achromatic telescopes
that, in a letter to Sir David Brewster, he expressed his willingness to
furnish an achromatic glass of 18 in. diameter. Fraunhofer is especially
known for the researches, published in the _Denkschriften der Muenchener
Akademie_ for 1814-1815, by which he laid the foundation of solar and
stellar chemistry. The dark lines of the spectrum of sunlight, earliest
noted by Dr W. H. Wollaston (_Phil. Trans._, 1802, p. 378), were
independently discovered, and, by means of the telescope of a
theodolite, between which and a distant slit admitting the light a prism
was interposed, were for the first time carefully observed by
Fraunhofer, and have on that account been designated "Fraunhofer's
lines." He constructed a map of as many as 576 of these lines, the
principal of which he denoted by the letters of the alphabet from A to
G; and by ascertaining their refractive indices he determined that their
relative positions are constant, whether in spectra produced by the
direct rays of the sun, or by the reflected light of the moon and
planets. The spectra of the stars he obtained by using, outside the
object-glass of his telescope, a large prism, through which the light
passed to be brought to a focus in front of the eye-piece. He showed
that in the spectra of the fixed stars many of the dark lines were
different from those of the solar spectrum, whilst other well-known
solar lines were wanting; and he concluded that it was not by any action
of the terrestrial atmosphere upon the light passing through it that the
lines were produced. He further expressed the belief that the dark lines
D of the solar spectrum coincide with the bright lines of the sodium
flame. He was also the inventor of the diffraction grating.
In 1823 he was appointed conservator of the physical cabinet at Munich,
and in the following year he received from the king of Bavaria the civil
order of merit. He died at Munich on the 7th of June 1826, and was
buried near Reichenbach, whose decease had taken place eight years
previously. On his tomb is the inscription "Approximavit sidera."
See J. von Utzschneider, _Kurzer Umriss der Lebensgeschichte des Herrn
Dr J. von Fraunhofer_ (Munich, 1826); and G. Merz, _Das Leben und
Wirken Fraunhofers_ (Landshut, 1865).
FRAUSTADT (Polish, _Wszowa_), a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Posen, in a flat sandy country dotted with windmills, 50 m.
S.S.W. of Posen, on the railway Lissa-Sagan. Pop. (including a garrison)
7500. It has three Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches, a
classical school and a teachers' seminary; the manufactures include
woollen and cotton goods, hats, morocco leather and gloves, and there is
a considerable trade in corn, cattle and wool. Fraustadt was founded by
Silesians in 1348, and afterwards belonged to the principality of
Glogau. Near the town the Swedes under Charles XII. defeated the Saxons
on the 13th of February 1706.
FRAYSSINOUS, DENIS ANTOINE LUC, COMTE DE (1765-1841), French prelate and
statesman, distinguished as an orator and as a controversial writer, was
born of humble parentage at Curieres, in the department of Aveyron, on
the 9th of May 1765. He owes his reputation mainly to the lectures on
dogmatic theology, known as the "conferences" of Saint Sulpice,
delivered in the church of Saint Sulpice, Paris, from 1803 to 1809, to
which admiring crowds were attracted by his lucid exposition and by his
graceful oratory. The freedom of his language in 1809, when Napoleon had
arrested the pope and declared the annexation of Rome to France, led to
a prohibition of his lectures; and the dispersion of the congregation of
Saint Sulpice in 1811 was followed by his temporary retirement from the
capital. He returned with the Bourbons, and resumed his lectures in
1814; but the events of the Hundred Days again compelled him to withdraw
into private life, from which he did not emerge until February 1816. As
court preacher and almoner to Louis XVIII., he now entered upon the
period of his greatest public activity and influence. In connexion with
the controversy raised by the signing of the reactionary concordat of
1817, he published in 1818 a treatise entitled _Vrais Principes de
l'eglise Gallicane sur la puissance ecclesiastique_, which though
unfavourably criticized by Lamennais, was received with favour by the
civil and ecclesiastical authorities. The consecration of Frayssinous as
bishop of Hermopolis "in partibus," his election to the French Academy,
and his appointment to the grand-mastership of the university, followed
in rapid succession. In 1824, on the accession of Charles X., he became
minister of public instruction and of ecclesiastical affairs under the
administration of Villele; and about the same time he was created a peer
of France with the title of count. His term of office was chiefly marked
by the recall of the Jesuits. In 1825 he published his lectures under
the title _Defense du christianisme_. The work passed through 15
editions within 18 years, and was translated into several European
languages. In 1828 he, along with his colleagues in the Villele
ministry, was compelled to resign office, and the subsequent revolution
of July 1830 led to his retirement to Rome. Shortly afterwards he became
tutor to the duke of Bordeaux (Comte de Chambord) at Prague, where he
continued to live until 1838. He died at St Geniez on the 12th of
December 1841.
See Bertrand, _Bibl. Sulpicienne_ (t. ii. 135 sq.; iii. 253) for
bibliography, and G. A. Henrion (Paris, 2 vols., 1844) for biography.
FRECHETTE, LOUIS HONORE (1839-1908), French-Canadian poet, was born at
Levis, Quebec, on the 16th of November 1839, the son of a contractor. He
was educated in his native province, and called to the Canadian bar in
1864. He started the _Journal de Levis_, and his revolutionary doctrines
compelled him to leave Canada for the United States. After some years
spent in journalism at Chicago, he was in 1874 elected as the Liberal
candidate to represent Levis in the Canadian parliament. At the
elections of 1878 and 1882 he was defeated, and thereafter confined
himself to literature. He edited _La Patrie_ and other French papers in
the Dominion; and in 1889 was appointed clerk of the Quebec legislative
council. He was long a warm advocate of the political union of Canada
and the United States, but in later life became less ardent, and in 1897
accepted the honour of C.M.G. from Queen Victoria. He was president of
the Royal Society of Canada, and of the Canadian Society of Arts, and
received numerous honorary degrees. His works include: _Mes Loisirs_
(1863); _La Voix d'un exile_ (1867), a satire against the Canadian
government; _Pele-mele_ (1877); _Les Fleurs boreales_, and _Les Oiseaux
de neige_ (1880), crowned by the French academy; _La Legende d'un
peuple_ (1887); two historical dramas, _Papineau_ (1880) and _Felix
Poutre_ (1880); _La Noel au Canada_ (1900), and several prose works and
translations. An exponent of local French sentiment, he won the title of
the "Canadian Laureate." He died on the 1st of June 1908.
FREDEGOND (_Fredigundis_) (d. 597), Frankish queen. Originally a
serving-woman, she inspired the Frankish king, Chilperic I., with a
violent passion. At her instigation he repudiated his first wife
Audovera, and strangled his second, Galswintha, Queen Brunhilda's
sister. A few days after this murder Chilperic married Fredegond (567).
This woman exercised a most pernicious influence over him. She forced
him into war against Austrasia, in the course of which she procured the
assassination of the victorious king Sigebert (575); she carried on a
malignant struggle against Chilperic's sons by his first wife,
Theodebert, Merwich and Clovis, who all died tragic deaths; and she
persistently endeavoured to secure the throne for her own children. Her
first son Thierry, however, to whom Bishop Ragnemod of Paris stood
godfather, died soon after birth, and Fredegond tortured a number of
women whom she accused of having bewitched the child. Her second son
also died in infancy. Finally, she gave birth to a child who afterwards
became king as Clotaire II. Shortly after the birth of this third son,
Chilperic himself perished in mysterious circumstances (584). Fredegond
has been accused of complicity in his murder, but with little show of
probability, since in her husband she lost her principal supporter.
Henceforth Fredegond did all in her power to gain the kingdom for her
child. Taking refuge at the church of Notre Dame at Paris, she appealed
to King Guntram of Burgundy, who took Clotaire under his protection and
defended him against his other nephew, Childebert II., king of
Austrasia. From that time until her death Fredegond governed the western
kingdom. She endeavoured to prevent the alliance between King Guntram
and Childebert, which was cemented by the pact of Andelot; and made
several attempts to assassinate Childebert by sending against him hired
bravoes armed with poisoned _scramasaxes_ (heavy single-edged knives).
After the death of Childebert in 595 she resolved to augment the kingdom
of Neustria at the expense of Austrasia, and to this end seized some
cities near Paris and defeated Theudebert at the battle of Laffaux, near
Soissons. Her triumph, however, was short-lived, as she died quietly in
her bed in 597 soon after her victory.
See V. N. Augustin Thierry, _Recits des temps merovingiens_ (Brussels,
1840); Ulysse Chevalier, _Bio-bibliographie_ (2nd ed.), s.v.
"Fredegonde." (C. Pf.)
FREDERIC, HAROLD (1856-1898), Anglo-American novelist, was born on the
19th of August 1856 at Utica, N.Y., was educated there, and took to
journalism. He went to live in England as London correspondent of the
_New York Times_ in 1884, and was soon recognized for his ability both
as a writer and as a talker. He wrote several clever early stories, but
it was not till he published _Illumination_ (1896), followed by _Gloria
Mundi_ (1898), that his remarkable gifts as a novelist were fully
realized. He died in England on the 19th of October 1898.
FREDERICIA (FRIEDERICIA), a seaport of Denmark, near the S.E. corner of
Jutland, on the west shore of the Little Belt opposite the island of
Fuenen. Pop. (1901) 12,714. It has railway communication with both south
and north, and a steam ferry connects with Middelfart, a seaside resort
and railway station on Fuenen. There is a considerable shipping trade,
and the industries comprise the manufacture of tobacco, salt and
chicory, and of cotton goods and hats. A small fort was erected on the
site of Fredericia by Christian IV. of Denmark, and his successor,
Frederick III., determined about 1650 to make it a powerful fortress.
Free exercise of religion was offered to all who should settle in the
new town, which at first bore the name of Frederiksodde, and only
received its present designation in 1664. In 1657 it was taken by storm
by the Swedish general Wrangel, and in 1659, after the fortress had been
dismantled, it was occupied by Frederick William of Brandenburg. It was
not till 1709-1710 that the works were again put in a state of defence.
In 1848 no attempt was made by the Danes to oppose the Prussians, who
entered on the 2nd of May, and maintained their position against the
Danish gunboats. During the armistice of 1848-1849 the fortress was
strengthened, and soon afterwards it stood a siege of two months, which
was brought to a glorious close by a successful sortie on the 6th of
July 1849. In memory of the victory several monuments have been erected
in the town and its vicinity, of which the most noticeable are the
bronze statue of the Danish Land Soldier by Bissen (one of Thorvaldsen's
pupils), and the great barrow over 500 Danes in the cemetery of the Holy
Trinity Church, with a bas-relief by the same sculptor. On the outbreak
of the war of 1864, the fortress was again strengthened by new works and
an entrenched camp; but the Danes suddenly evacuated it on the 28th of
April after a siege of six weeks. The Austro-Prussian army partly
destroyed the fortifications, and kept possession of the town till the
conclusion of peace.
FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. _Friedrich_; Ital. _Federigo_; Fr. _Frederic_ and
_Federic_; M.H.G. _Friderich_; O.H.G. _Fridurih_, "king or lord of
peace," from O.H.G. _fridu_, A.S. _frith_, "peace," and _rih_ "rich," "a
ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY), a Christian name borne by
many European sovereigns and princes, the more important of whom are
given below in the following order:--(1) Roman emperors and German
kings; (2) other kings in the alphabetical order of their states; (3)
other reigning princes in the same order.
FREDERICK I. (c. 1123-1190), Roman emperor, surnamed "Barbarossa" by the
Italians, was the son of Frederick II. of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia,
and Judith, daughter of Henry IX. the Black, duke of Bavaria. The
precise date and place of his birth, together with details of his early
life, are wanting; but in 1143 he assisted his maternal uncle, Count
Welf VI., in his attempts to conquer Bavaria, and by his conduct in
several local feuds earned the reputation of a brave and skilful
warrior. When his father died in 1147 Frederick became duke of Swabia,
and immediately afterwards accompanied his uncle, the German king Conrad
III., on his disastrous crusade, during which he greatly distinguished
himself and won the complete confidence of the king. Abandoning the
cause of the Welfs, he fought for Conrad against them, and in 1152 the
dying king advised the princes to choose Frederick as his successor to
the exclusion of his own young son. Energetically pressing his
candidature, he was chosen German king at Frankfort on the 4th or 5th of
March 1152, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 9th of the same month,
owing his election partly to his personal qualities, and partly to the
fact that he united in himself the blood of the rival families of Welf
and Waiblingen.
The new king was anxious to restore the Empire to the position it had
occupied under Charlemagne and Otto the Great, and saw clearly that the
restoration of order in Germany was a necessary preliminary to the
enforcement of the imperial rights in Italy. Issuing a general order for
peace, he was prodigal in his concessions to the nobles. Count Welf was
made duke of Spoleto and margrave of Tuscany; Berthold VI., duke of
Zaehringen, was entrusted with extensive rights in Burgundy; and the
king's nephew, Frederick, received the duchy of Swabia. Abroad Frederick
decided a quarrel for the Danish throne in favour of Svend, or Peter as
he is sometimes called, who did homage for his kingdom, and negotiations
were begun with the East Roman emperor, Manuel Comnenus. It was probably
about this time that the king obtained a divorce from his wife Adela,
daughter of Dietpold, margrave of Vohburg and Cham, on the ground of
consanguinity, and made a vain effort to obtain a bride from the court
of Constantinople. On his accession Frederick had communicated the news
of his election to Pope Eugenius III., but neglected to ask for the
papal confirmation. In spite of this omission, however, and of some
trouble arising from a double election to the archbishopric of
Magdeburg, a treaty was concluded between king and pope at Constance in
March 1153, by which Frederick promised in return for his coronation to
make no peace with Roger I. king of Sicily, or with the rebellious
Romans, without the consent of Eugenius, and generally to help and
defend the papacy.
The journey to Italy made by the king in 1154 was the precursor of five
other expeditions which engaged his main energies for thirty years,
during which the subjugation of the peninsula was the central and
abiding aim of his policy. Meeting the new pope, Adrian IV., near Nepi,
Frederick at first refused to hold his stirrup; but after some
negotiations he consented and received the kiss of peace, which was
followed by his coronation as emperor at Rome on the 18th of June 1155.
As his slender forces were inadequate to encounter the fierce hostility
which he aroused, he left Italy in the autumn of 1155 to prepare for a
new and more formidable campaign. Disorder was again rampant in Germany,
especially in Bavaria, but general peace was restored by Frederick's
vigorous measures. Bavaria was transferred from Henry II. Jasomirgott,
margrave of Austria, to Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony; and the former
was pacified by the erection of his margraviate into a duchy, while
Frederick's step-brother Conrad was invested with the Palatinate of the
Rhine. On the 9th of June 1156 the king was married at Wuerzburg to
Beatrix, daughter and heiress of the dead count of Upper Burgundy,
Renaud III., when Upper Burgundy or Franche Comte, as it is sometimes
called, was added to his possessions. An expedition into Poland reduced
Duke Boleslaus IV. to an abject submission, after which Frederick
received the homage of the Burgundian nobles at a diet held at Besancon
in October 1157, which was marked by a quarrel between pope and emperor.
A Swedish archbishop, returning from Rome, had been seized by robbers,
and as Frederick had not punished the offenders Adrian sent two legates
to remonstrate. The papal letter when translated referred to the
imperial crown as a benefice conferred by the pope, and its reading
aroused great indignation. The emperor had to protect the legates from
the fury of the nobles; and afterwards issued a manifesto to his
subjects declaring that he held the Empire from God alone, to which
Adrian replied that he had used the ambiguous word _beneficia_ as
meaning benefits, and not in its feudal sense.
In June 1158 Frederick set out upon his second Italian expedition, which
was signalized by the establishment of imperial officers called
_podestas_ in the cities of northern Italy, the revolt and capture of
Milan, and the beginning of the long struggle with pope Alexander III.,
who excommunicated the emperor on the 2nd of March 1160. During this
visit Frederick summoned the doctors of Bologna to the diet held near
Roncaglia in November 1158, and as a result of their inquiries into the
rights belonging to the kingdom of Italy he obtained a large amount of
wealth. Returning to Germany towards the close of 1162, Frederick
prevented a conflict between Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, and a
number of neighbouring princes, and severely punished the citizens of
Mainz for their rebellion against Archbishop Arnold. A further visit to
Italy in 1163 saw his plans for the conquest of Sicily checked by the
formation of a powerful league against him, brought together mainly by
the exactions of the _podestas_ and the enforcement of the rights
declared by the doctors of Bologna. Frederick had supported an anti-pope
Victor IV. against Alexander, and on Victor's death in 1163 a new
anti-pope called Paschal III. was chosen to succeed him. Having tried in
vain to secure the general recognition of Victor and Paschal in Europe,
the emperor held a diet at Wuerzburg in May 1165; and by taking an oath,
followed by many of the clergy and nobles, to remain true to Paschal and
his successors, brought about a schism in the German church. A temporary
alliance with Henry II., king of England, the magnificent celebration of
the canonization of Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle, and the restoration
of peace in the Rhineland, occupied Frederick's attention until October
1166, when he made his fourth journey to Italy. Having captured Ancona,
he marched to Rome, stormed the Leonine city, and procured the
enthronement of Paschal, and the coronation of his wife Beatrix; but his
victorious career was stopped by the sudden outbreak of a pestilence
which destroyed the German army and drove the emperor as a fugitive to
Germany, where he remained for the ensuing six years. Henry the Lion was
again saved from a threatening combination; conflicting claims to
various bishoprics were decided; and the imperial authority was asserted
over Bohemia, Poland and Hungary. Friendly relations were entered into
with the emperor Manuel, and attempts made to come to a better
understanding with Henry II., king of England, and Louis VII., king of
France.
In 1174, when Frederick made his fifth expedition to Italy, the Lombard
league had been formed, and the fortress of Alessandria raised to check
his progress. The campaign was a complete failure. The refusal of Henry
the Lion to bring help into Italy was followed by the defeat of the
emperor at Legnano on the 29th of May 1176, when he was wounded and
believed to be dead. Reaching Pavia, he began negotiations for peace
with Alexander, which ripened into the treaty of Venice in August 1177,
and at the same time a truce with the Lombard league was arranged for
six years. Frederick, loosed from the papal ban, recognized Alexander as
the rightful pope, and in July 1177 knelt before him and kissed his
feet. The possession of the vast estates left by Matilda, marchioness
of Tuscany, and claimed by both pope and emperor, was to be decided by
arbitration, and in October 1178 the emperor was again in Germany.
Various small feuds were suppressed; Henry the Lion was deprived of his
duchy, which was dismembered, and sent into exile; a treaty was made
with the Lombard league at Constance in June 1183; and most important of
all, Frederick's son Henry was betrothed in 1184 to Constance, daughter
of Roger I., king of Sicily, and aunt and heiress of the reigning king,
William II. This betrothal, which threatened to unite Sicily with the
Empire, made it difficult for Frederick, when during his last Italian
expedition in 1184 he met Pope Lucius III. at Verona, to establish
friendly relations with the papacy. Further causes of trouble arose,
moreover, and when the potentates separated the question of Matilda's
estates was undecided; and Lucius had refused to crown Henry or to
recognize the German clergy who had been ordained during the schism.
Frederick then formed an alliance with Milan, where the citizens
witnessed a great festival on the 27th of January 1186. The emperor, who
had been crowned king of Burgundy, or Arles, at Arles on the 30th of
July 1178, had this ceremony repeated; while his son Henry was crowned
king of Italy and married to Constance, who was crowned queen of
Germany.
The quarrel with the papacy was continued with the new pope Urban III.,
and open warfare was begun. But Frederick was soon recalled to Germany
by the news of a revolt raised by Philip of Heinsberg, archbishop of
Cologne, in alliance with the pope. The German clergy remained loyal to
the emperor, and hostilities were checked by the death of Urban and the
election of a new pope as Gregory VIII., who adopted a more friendly
policy towards the emperor. In 1188 Philip submitted, and immediately
afterwards Frederick took the cross in order to stop the victorious
career of Saladin, who had just taken Jerusalem. After extensive
preparations he left Regensburg in May 1189 at the head of a splendid
army, and having overcome the hostility of the East Roman emperor Isaac
Angelus, marched into Asia Minor. On the 10th of June 1190 Frederick was
either bathing or crossing the river Calycadnus (Geuksu), near Seleucia
(Selefke) in Cilicia, when he was carried away by the stream and
drowned. The place of his burial is unknown, and the legend which says
he still sits in a cavern in the Kyffhaeuser mountain in Thuringia
waiting until the need of his country shall call him, is now thought to
refer, at least in its earlier form, to his grandson, the emperor
Frederick II. He left by his wife, Beatrix, five sons, of whom the
eldest afterwards became emperor as Henry VI.
Frederick's reign, on the whole, was a happy and prosperous time for
Germany. He encouraged the growth of towns, easily suppressed the few
risings against his authority, and took strong and successful measures
to establish order. Even after the severe reverses which he experienced
in Italy, his position in Germany was never seriously weakened; and in
1181, when, almost without striking a blow, he deprived Henry the Lion
of his duchy, he seemed stronger than ever. This power rested upon his
earnest and commanding personality, and also upon the support which he
received from the German church, the possession of a valuable private
domain, and the care with which he exacted feudal dues from his
dependents.
Frederick I. is said to have taken Charlemagne as his model; but the
contest in which he engaged was entirely different both in character and
results from that in which his great predecessor achieved such a
wonderful temporary success. Though Frederick failed to subdue the
republics, the failure can scarcely be said to reflect either on his
prudence as a statesman or his skill as a general, for his ascendancy
was finally overthrown rather by the ravages of pestilence than by the
might of human arms. In Germany his resolute will and sagacious
administration subdued or disarmed all discontent, and he not only
succeeded in welding the various rival interests into a unity of
devotion to himself against which papal intrigues were comparatively
powerless, but won for the empire a prestige such as it had not
possessed since the time of Otto the Great. The wide contrast between
his German and Italian rule is strikingly exemplified in the fact that,
while he endeavoured to overthrow the republics in Italy, he held in
check the power of the nobles in Germany, by conferring municipal
franchises and independent rights on the principal cities. Even in
Italy, though his general course of action was warped by wrong
prepossessions, he in many instances manifested exceptional practical
sagacity in dealing with immediate difficulties and emergencies.
Possessing frank and open manners, untiring and unresting energy, and a
prowess which found its native element in difficulty and danger, he
seemed the embodiment of the chivalrous and warlike spirit of his age,
and was the model of all the qualities which then won highest
admiration. Stern and ambitious he certainly was, but his aims can
scarcely be said to have exceeded his prerogatives as emperor; and
though he had sometimes recourse when in straits to expedients almost
diabolically ingenious in their cruelty, yet his general conduct was
marked by a clemency which in that age was exceptional. His quarrel with
the papacy was an inherited conflict, not reflecting at all on his
religious faith, but the inevitable consequence of inconsistent theories
of government, which had been created and could be dissipated only by a
long series of events. His interference in the quarrels of the republics
was not only quite justifiable from the relation in which he stood to
them, but seemed absolutely necessary. From the beginning, however, he
treated the Italians, as indeed was only natural, less as rebellious
subjects than as conquered aliens; and it must be admitted that in
regard to them the only effective portion of his procedure was, not his
energetic measures of repression nor his brilliant victories, but, after
the battle of Legnano, his quiet and cheerful acceptance of the
inevitable, and the consequent complete change in his policy, by which
if he did not obtain the great object of his ambition, he at least did
much to render innoxious for the Empire his previous mistakes.
In appearance Frederick was a man of well-proportioned, medium stature,
with flowing yellow hair and a reddish beard. He delighted in hunting
and the reading of history, was zealous in his attention to public
business, and his private life was unimpeachable. Carlyle's tribute to
him is interesting: "No king so furnished out with apparatus and arena,
with personal faculty to rule and scene to do it in, has appeared
elsewhere. A magnificent, magnanimous man; holding the reins of the
world, not quite in the imaginary sense; scourging anarchy down, and
urging noble effort up, really on a grand scale. A terror to evil-doers
and a praise to well-doers in this world, probably beyond what was ever
seen since."
The principal contemporary authority for the earlier part of the reign
of Frederick is the _Gesta Friderici imperatoris_, mainly the work of
Otto, bishop of Freising. This is continued from 1156 to 1160 by
Rahewin, a canon of Freising, and from 1160 to 1170 by an anonymous
author. The various annals and chronicles of the period, among which
may be mentioned the _Chronica regia Coloniensis_ and the _Annales
Magdeburgenses_, are also important. Other authorities for the
different periods in Frederick's reign are Tageno of Passau,
_Descriptio expeditionis asiaticae Friderici I._; Burchard, _Historia
Friderici imperatoris magni_; Godfrey of Viterbo, _Carmen de gestis
Friderici I._, which are all found in the _Monumenta Germaniae
historica. Scriptores_ (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892); Otto Morena of
Lodi, _Historia rerum Laudensium_, continued by his son, Acerbus, also
in the _Monumenta_; Ansbert, _Historia de expeditione Friderici,
1187-1196_, published in the _Fontes rerum Austriacarum. Scriptores_
(Vienna, 1855 fol.). Many valuable documents are found in the
_Monumenta Germaniae selecta_, Band iv., edited by M. Doeberl (Munich,
1889-1890).
The best modern authorities are J. Jastrow, _Deutsche Geschichte im
Zeitalter der Hohenstaufen_ (Berlin, 1893); W. von Giesebrecht,
_Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band iv. (Brunswick, 1877); H.
von Buenau, _Leben und Thaten Friedrichs I._ (Leipzig, 1872); H. Prutz,
_Kaiser Friedrich I._ (Dantzig, 1871-1874); C. Peters, _Die Wahl
Kaiser Friedrichs I._ in the _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_,
Band xx. (Goettingen, 1862-1886); W. Gundlach, _Barbarossalieder_
(Innsbruck, 1899). For a complete bibliography see Dahlmann-Waitz,
_Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte_ (Goettingen, 1894), and U.
Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources historiques du moyen age_, tome
iii. (Paris, 1904).
FREDERICK II. (1194-1250), Roman emperor, king of Sicily and Jerusalem,
was the son of the emperor Henry VI. and Constance, daughter of Roger
I., king of Sicily, and therefore grandson of the emperor Frederick I.
and a member of the Hohenstaufen family. Born at Jesi near Ancona on
the 26th of December 1194, he was baptized by the name of Frederick
Roger, chosen German king at Frankfort in 1196, and after his father's
death crowned king of Sicily at Palermo on the 17th of May 1198. His
mother, who assumed the government, died in November 1198, leaving Pope
Innocent III. as regent of Sicily and guardian of her son. The young
king passed his early years amid the terrible anarchy in his island
kingdom, which Innocent was powerless to check; but his education was
not neglected, and his character and habits were formed by contact with
men of varied nationalities and interests, while the darker traits of
his nature were developed in the atmosphere of lawlessness in which he
lived. In 1208 he was declared of age, and soon afterwards Innocent
arranged a marriage, which was celebrated the following year, between
him and Constance, daughter of Alphonso II. king of Aragon, and widow of
Emerich or Imre, king of Hungary.
The dissatisfaction felt in Germany with the emperor Otto IV. came to a
climax in September 1211, when a number of influential princes met at
Nuremberg, declared Otto deposed, and invited Frederick to come and
occupy the vacant throne. In spite of the reluctance of his wife, and
the opposition of the Sicilian nobles, he accepted the invitation; and
having recognized the papal supremacy over Sicily, and procured the
coronation of his son Henry as its king, reached Germany after an
adventurous journey in the autumn of 1212. This step was taken with the
approval of the pope, who was anxious to strike a blow at Otto IV.
Frederick was welcomed in Swabia, and the renown of the Hohenstaufen
name and a liberal distribution of promises made his progress easy.
Having arranged a treaty against Otto with Louis, son of Philip
Augustus, king of France, whom he met at Vaucouleurs, he was chosen
German king a second time at Frankfort on the 5th of December 1212, and
crowned four days later at Mainz. Anxious to retain the support of the
pope, Frederick promulgated a bull at Eger on the 12th of July 1213, by
which he renounced all lands claimed by the pope since the death of the
emperor Henry VI. in 1197, gave up the right of spoils and all
interference in episcopal elections, and acknowledged the right of
appeal to Rome. He again affirmed the papal supremacy over Sicily, and
promised to root out heresy in Germany. The victory of his French allies
at Bouvines on the 27th of July 1214 greatly strengthened his position,
and a large part of the Rhineland having fallen into his power, he was
crowned German king at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 25th of July 1215. His
cause continued to prosper, fresh supporters gathered round his
standard, and in May 1218 the death of Otto freed him from his rival and
left him undisputed ruler of Germany. A further attempt to allay the
pope's apprehension lest Sicily should be united with the Empire had
been made early in 1216, when Frederick, in a letter to Innocent,
promised after his own coronation as emperor to recognize his son Henry
as king of Sicily, and to place him under the suzerainty of Rome. Henry
nevertheless was brought to Germany and chosen German king at Frankfort
in April 1220, though Frederick assured the new pope, Honorius III.,
that this step had been taken without his consent. The truth, however,
seems to be that he had taken great trouble to secure this election, and
for the purpose had won the support of the spiritual princes by
extensive concessions. In August 1220 Frederick set out for Italy, and
was crowned emperor at Rome on the 22nd of November 1220; after which he
repeated the undertaking he had entered into at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1215
to go on crusade, and made lavish promises to the Church. The clergy
were freed from taxation and from lay jurisdiction, the ban of the
Empire was to follow the ban of the Church, and heretics were to be
severely punished.
Neglecting his promise to lead a crusade, Frederick was occupied until
1225 in restoring order in Sicily. The island was seething with
disorder, but by stern and sometimes cruel measures the emperor
suppressed the anarchy of the barons, curbed the power of the cities,
and subdued the rebellious Saracens, many of whom, transferred to the
mainland and settled at Nocera, afterwards rendered him valuable
military service. Meanwhile the crusade was postponed again and again;
until under a threat of excommunication, after the fall of Damietta in
1221, Frederick definitely undertook by a treaty made at San Germano in
1225 to set out in August 1227 or to submit to this penalty. His own
interests turned more strongly to the East, when on the 9th of November
1225, after having been a widower since 1222, he married Iolande
(Yolande or Isabella), daughter of John, count of Brienne, titular king
of Jerusalem. John appears to have expected that this alliance would
restore him to his kingdom, but his hopes were dashed to the ground when
Frederick himself assumed the title of king of Jerusalem. The emperor's
next step was an attempt to restore the imperial authority in northern
Italy, and for the purpose a diet was called at Cremona. But the cities,
watchful and suspicious, renewed the Lombard league and took up a
hostile attitude. Frederick's reply was to annul the treaty of Constance
and place the cities under the imperial ban; but he was forced by lack
of military strength to accept the mediation of Pope Honorius and the
maintenance of the _status quo_.
After these events, which occurred early in 1227, preparations for the
crusade were pressed on, and the emperor sailed from Brindisi on the 8th
of September. A pestilence, however, which attacked his forces compelled
him to land in Italy three days later, and on the 29th of the same month
he was excommunicated by the new pope, Gregory IX. The greater part of
the succeeding year was spent by pope and emperor in a violent quarrel.
Alarmed at the increase in his opponent's power, Gregory denounced him
in a public letter, to which Frederick replied in a clever document
addressed to the princes of Europe. The reading of this manifesto,
drawing attention to the absolute power claimed by the popes, was
received in Rome with such evidences of approval that Gregory was
compelled to fly to Viterbo. Having lost his wife Isabella on the 8th of
May 1228, Frederick again set sail for Palestine, where he met with
considerable success, the result of diplomatic rather than of military
skill. By a treaty made in February 1229 he secured possession of
Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth and the surrounding neighbourhood.
Entering Jerusalem, he crowned himself king of that city on the 18th of
March 1229. These successes had been won in spite of the hostility of
Gregory, which deprived Frederick of the assistance of many members of
the military orders and of the clergy of Palestine. But although the
emperor's possessions on the Italian mainland had been attacked in his
absence by the papal troops and their allies, Gregory's efforts had
failed to arouse serious opposition in Germany and Sicily; so that when
Frederick returned unexpectedly to Italy in June 1229 he had no
difficulty in driving back his enemies, and compelling the pope to sue
for peace. The result was the treaty of San Germano, arranged in July
1230, by which the emperor, loosed from the ban, promised to respect the
papal territory, and to allow freedom of election and other privileges
to the Sicilian clergy. Frederick was next engaged in completing the
pacification of Sicily. In 1231 a series of laws were published at Melfi
which destroyed the ascendancy of the feudal nobles. Royal officials
were appointed for administrative purposes, large estates were recovered
for the crown, and fortresses were destroyed, while the church was
placed under the royal jurisdiction and all gifts to it were prohibited.
At the same time certain privileges of self-government were granted to
the towns, representatives from which were summoned to sit in the diet.
In short, by means of a centralized system of government, the king
established an almost absolute monarchical power.
In Germany, on the other hand, an entirely different policy was pursued.
The concessions granted by Frederick in 1220, together with the
Privilege of Worms, dated the 1st of May 1231, made the German princes
virtually independent. All jurisdiction over their lands was vested in
them, no new mints or toll-centres were to be erected on their domains,
and the imperial authority was restricted to a small and dwindling area.
A fierce attack was also made on the rights of the cities. Compelled to
restore all their lands, their jurisdiction was bounded by their
city-walls; they were forbidden to receive the dependents of the
princes; all trade gilds were declared abolished; and all official
appointments made without the consent of the archbishop or bishop were
annulled. A further attack on the Lombard cities at the diet of Ravenna
in 1231 was answered by a renewal of their league, and was soon
connected with unrest in Germany. About 1231 a breach took place between
Frederick and his elder son Henry, who appears to have opposed the
Privilege of Worms and to have favoured the towns against the princes.
After refusing to travel to Italy, Henry changed his mind and submitted
to his father at Aquileia in 1232; and a temporary peace was made with
the Lombard cities in June 1233. But on his return to Germany Henry
again raised the standard of revolt, and made a league with the Lombards
in December 1234. Frederick, meanwhile, having helped Pope Gregory
against the rebellious Romans and having secured the friendship of
France and England, appeared in Germany early in 1235 and put down this
rising without difficulty. Henry was imprisoned, but his associates were
treated leniently. In August 1235 a splendid diet was held at Mainz,
during which the marriage of the emperor with Isabella (1214-1241),
daughter of John, king of England, was celebrated. A general peace
(_Landfrieden_), which became the basis of all such peaces in the
future, was sworn to; a new office, that of imperial justiciar, was
created, and a permanent judicial record was first instituted. Otto of
Brunswick, grandson of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, was made duke of
Brunswick-Lueneburg; and war was declared against the Lombards.
Frederick was now at the height of his power. His second son, Conrad,
was invested with the duchy of Swabia, and the claim of Wenceslaus, king
of Bohemia, to some lands which had belonged to the German king Philip
was bought off. The attitude of Frederick II. (the Quarrelsome), duke of
Austria, had been considered by the emperor so suspicious that during a
visit paid by Frederick to Italy a war against him was begun. Compelled
to return by the ill-fortune which attended this campaign, the emperor
took command of his troops, seized Austria, Styria and Carinthia, and
declared these territories to be immediately dependent on the Empire. In
January 1237 he secured the election of his son Conrad as German king at
Vienna; and in September went to Italy to prosecute the war which had
broken out with the Lombards in the preceding year. Pope Gregory
attempted to mediate, but the cities refused to accept the insulting
terms offered by Frederick. The emperor gained a great victory over
their forces at Cortenuova in November 1237; but though he met with some
further successes, his failure to take Brescia in October 1238, together
with the changed attitude of Gregory, turned the fortune of war. The
pope had become alarmed when the emperor brought about a marriage
between the heiress of Sardinia, Adelasia, and his natural son Enzio,
who afterwards assumed the title of king of Sardinia. But as his
warnings had been disregarded, he issued a document after the emperor's
retreat from Brescia, teeming with complaints against Frederick, and
followed it up by an open alliance with the Lombards, and by the
excommunication of the emperor on the 20th of March 1239. A violent war
of words ensued. Frederick, accused of heresy, blasphemy and other
crimes, called upon all kings and princes to unite against the pope, who
on his side made vigorous efforts to arouse opposition in Germany, where
his emissaries, a crowd of wandering friars, were actively preaching
rebellion. It was, however, impossible to find an anti-king. In Italy,
Spoleto and Ancona were declared part of the imperial dominions, and
Rome itself, faithful on this occasion to the pope, was threatened. A
number of ecclesiastics proceeding to a council called by Gregory were
captured by Enzio at the sea-fight of Meloria, and the emperor was about
to undertake the siege of Rome, when the pope died (August 1241).
Germany was at this time menaced by the Mongols; but Frederick contented
himself with issuing directions for a campaign against them, until in
1242 he was able to pay a short visit to Germany, where he gained some
support from the towns by grants of extensive privileges.
The successor of Gregory was Pope Celestine IX. But this pontiff died
soon after his election; and after a delay of eighteen months, during
which Frederick marched against Rome on two occasions and devastated the
lands of his opponents, one of his partisans, Sinibaldo Fiesco, was
chosen pope, and took the name of Innocent IV. Negotiations for peace
were begun, but the relations of the Lombard cities to the Empire could
not be adjusted, and when the emperor began again to ravage the papal
territories Innocent fled to Lyons. Hither he summoned a general
council, which met in June 1245; but although Frederick sent his
justiciar, Thaddeus of Suessa, to represent him, and expressed his
willingness to treat, sentence of excommunication and deposition was
pronounced against him. Once more an interchange of recriminations
began, charged with all the violent hyperbole characteristic of the
controversial style of the age. Accused of violating treaties, breaking
oaths, persecuting the church and abetting heresy, Frederick replied by
an open letter rebutting these charges, and in equally unmeasured terms
denounced the arrogance and want of faith of the clergy from the pope
downwards. The source of all the evil was, he declared, the excessive
wealth of the church, which, in retaliation for the sentence of
excommunication, he threatened to confiscate. In vain the mediation of
the saintly king of France, Louis IX., was invoked. Innocent surpassed
his predecessors in the ferocity and unscrupulousness of his attacks on
the emperor (see INNOCENT IV.). War soon became general in Germany and
Italy. Henry Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia, was chosen German king in
opposition to Frederick in May 1246, but neither he nor his successor,
William II., count of Holland, was successful in driving the
Hohenstaufen from Germany. In Italy, during the emperor's absence, his
cause had been upheld by Enzio and by the ferocious Eccelino da Romano.
In 1246 a formidable conspiracy of the discontented Apulian barons
against the emperor's power and life, fomented by papal emissaries, was
discovered and crushed with ruthless cruelty. The emperor's power seemed
more firmly established than ever, when suddenly the news reached him
that Parma, a stronghold of the imperial authority in the north, had
been surprised, while the garrison was off its guard, by the Guelphs. To
recover the city was a matter of prime importance, and in 1247 Frederick
concentrated his forces round it, building over against it a wooden town
which, in anticipation of the success that astrologers had predicted, he
named Vittoria. The siege, however, was protracted, and finally, in
February 1248, during the absence of the emperor on a hunting
expedition, was brought to an end by a sudden sortie of the men of
Parma, who stormed the imperial camp. The disaster was complete. The
emperor's forces were destroyed or scattered; the treasury, with the
imperial insignia, together with Frederick's harem and some of the most
trusted of his ministers, fell into the hands of the victors. Thaddeus
of Suessa was hacked to pieces by the mob; the imperial crown was placed
in mockery on the head of a hunch-backed beggar, who was carried back in
triumph into the city.
Frederick struggled hard to retrieve his fortunes, and for a while with
success. But his old confidence had left him; he had grown moody and
suspicious, and his temper gave a ready handle to his enemies. Pier
della Vigna, accused of treasonable designs, was disgraced; and the once
all-powerful favourite and minister, blinded now and in rags, was
dragged in the emperor's train, as a warning to traitors, till in
despair he dashed out his brains. Then, in May 1248, came the tidings of
Enzio's capture by the Bolognese, and of his hopeless imprisonment, the
captors refusing all offers of ransom. This disaster to his favourite
son broke the emperor's spirit. He retired to southern Italy, and after
a short illness died at Fiorentino on the 13th of December 1250, after
having been loosed from the ban by the archbishop of Palermo. He was
buried in the cathedral of that city, where his splendid tomb may still
be seen. By his will he appointed his son Conrad to succeed him in
Germany and Sicily, and Henry, his son by Isabella of England, to be
king of Jerusalem or Arles, neither of which kingdoms, however, he
obtained. Frederick left several illegitimate children: Enzio has
already been referred to; Frederick, who was made the imperial vicar in
Tuscany; and Manfred, his son by the beloved Bianca Lancia or Lanzia,
who was legitimatized just before his father's death, and was appointed
by his will prince of Tarento and regent of Sicily.
The character of Frederick is one of extraordinary interest and
versatility, and contemporary opinion is expressed in the words _stupor
mundi et immutator mirabilis_. Licentious and luxurious in his manners,
cultured and catholic in his tastes, he united in his person the most
diverse qualities. His Sicilian court was a centre of intellectual
activity. Michael Scott, the translator of some treatises of Aristotle
and of the commentaries of Averroes, Leonard of Pisa, who introduced
Arabic numerals and algebra to the West, and other scholars, Jewish and
Mahommedan as well as Christian, were welcome at his court. Frederick
himself had a knowledge of six languages, was acquainted with
mathematics, philosophy and natural history, and took an interest in
medicine and architecture. In 1224 he founded the university of Naples,
and he was a liberal patron of the medical school at Salerno. He formed
a menagerie of strange animals, and wrote a treatise on falconry (_De
arte venandi cum avibus_) which is remarkable for its accurate
observation of the habits of birds.[1] It was at his court, too,
that--as Dante points out--Italian poetry had its birth. Pier della
Vigna there wrote the first sonnet, and Italian lyrics by Frederick
himself are preserved to us. His wives were kept secluded in oriental
fashion; a harem was maintained at Lucera, and eunuchs were a prominent
feature of his household. His religious ideas have been the subject of
much controversy. The theory of M. Huillard-Breholles that he wished to
unite to the functions of emperor those of a spiritual pontiff, and
aspired to be the founder of a new religion, is insufficiently supported
by evidence to be credible. Although at times he persecuted heretics
with great cruelty, he tolerated Mahommedans and Jews, and both acts
appear rather to have been the outcome of political considerations than
of religious belief. His jests, which were used by his enemies as a
charge against him, seem to have originated in religious indifference,
or perhaps in a spirit of inquiry which anticipated the ideas of a later
age. Frederick's rule in Germany and Italy was a failure, but this fact
may be accounted for by the conditions of the time and the inevitable
conflict with the papacy. In Germany the enactments of 1220 and 1231
contributed to the disintegration of the Empire and the fall of the
Hohenstaufen, while conflicting interests made the government of Italy a
problem of exceptional difficulty. In Sicily Frederick was more
successful. He quelled disorder, and under his rule the island was
prosperous and contented. His ideas of government were those of an
absolute monarch, and he probably wished to surround himself with some
of the pomp which had encircled the older emperors of Rome. His chief
claim to fame, perhaps, is as a lawgiver. The code of laws which he gave
to Sicily in 1231 bears the impress of his personality, and has been
described as "the fullest and most adequate body of legislation
promulgated by any western ruler since Charlemagne." Without being a
great soldier, Frederick was not unskilful in warfare, but was better
acquainted with the arts of diplomacy. In person he is said to have been
"red, bald and short-sighted," but with good features and a pleasing
countenance. It was seriously believed in Germany for about a century
after his death that Frederick was still alive, and many impostors
attempted to personate him. A legend, afterwards transferred to
Frederick Barbarossa, told how he sat in a cavern in the Kyffhaeusser
before a stone table through which his beard had grown, waiting for the
time for him to awake and restore to the Empire the golden age of peace.
The contemporary documents relating to the reign of Frederick II. are
very numerous. Among the most important are: Richard of San Germano,
_Chronica regni Siciliae_; _Annales Placentini, Gibellini_; Albert of
Stade, _Annales_; Matthew Paris, _Historia major Angliae_; Burchard,
_Chronicon Urspergense_. All these are in the _Monumenta Germaniae
historica_. _Scriptores_ (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892). The _Rerum
Italicarum scriptores_, edited by L. A. Muratori (Milan, 1723-1751),
contains _Annales Mediolanenses_; Nicholas of Jamsilla, _Historia de
rebus gestis Friderici II._, and _Vita Gregorii IX. pontificis_. There
are also the _Epistolarum libri_ of Peter della Vigna, edited by J. R.
Iselin (Basel, 1740); and Salimbene of Parma's _Chronik_, published at
Parma (1857). Many of the documents concerning the history of the time
are found in the _Historia diplomatica Friderici II._, edited by M.
Huillard-Breholles (Paris, 1852-1861); _Acta imperii selecta.
Urkunden deutscher Koenige und Kaiser_, edited by J. F. Boehmer and J.
Ficker (Innsbruck, 1870); _Acta imperii inedita seculi XIII. Urkunden
und Briefe zur Geschichte des Kaiserreichs und des Koenigreichs
Sicilien_, edited by E. Winkelmann (Innsbruck, 1880); _Epistolae
saeculi XIII. selecta e regestis pontificum Romanorum_, edited by C.
Rodenberg, tome i. (Berlin, 1883); P. Pressutti, _Regesta Honorii
papae III_. (Rome, 1888); L. Auvray, _Les Registres de Gregoire IX_.
(Paris, 1890).
The best modern authorities are W. von Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der
deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band v. (Leipzig, 1888); J. Jastrow, _Deutsche
Geschichte im Zeitalter der Hohenstaufen_ (Berlin, 1893); F. W.
Schirrmacher, _Kaiser Friedrich der Zweite_ (Goettingen, 1859-1865);
"Beitraege zur Geschichte Kaiser Friedrichs II." in the _Forschungen
zur deutschen Geschichte_, Band xi. (Goettingen, 1862-1886), and _Die
letzten Hohenstaufen_ (Goettingen, 1871); E. Winkelmann, _Geschichte
Kaiser Friedrichs II und seiner Reiche_ (Berlin, 1865) and _Kaiser
Friedrich II._ (Leipzig, 1889); G. Blondel, _Etude sur la politique de
l'empereur Frederic II. en Allemagne_ (Paris, 1892); M. Halbe,
_Friedrich II. und der paepstliche Stuhl_ (Berlin, 1888); R. Roehricht,
_Die Kreuzfahrt des Kaisers Friedrich II._ (Berlin, 1874); C. Koehler,
_Das Verhaeltnis Kaiser Friedrichs II. zu den Paepsten seiner Zeit_
(Breslau, 1888); J. Feiten, _Papst Gregor IX_. (Freiburg, 1886); C.
Rodenberg, _Innocenz IV. und das Koenigreich Sicilien_ (Halle, 1892);
K. Lamprecht, _Deutsche Geschichte_, Band iii. (Berlin, 1891); M.
Huillard-Breholles, _Vie et correspondance de Pierre de la Vigne_
(Paris, 1865); A. del Vecchio, _La legislazione de Federico II_
(Turin, 1874); and K. Hampe, _Kaiser Friedrich II_. (Munich, 1899).
(A. W. H.*)