WATER.
In cities and towns which have a common water-supply, the water
sometimes contains impurities dissolved from the pipes through which it
runs, or dirt and vegetable _débris_ stirred up from the bottom of the
sources of supply, or brought down into them by heavy storms or melting
snows.
Service-pipes are usually made of lead, and, after moderate use, become
coated on their internal surface with insoluble compounds (sulphate of
lead), which prevent contamination of the water by them. When the water
is not very hard, however, a slight amount of lead may be dissolved by
it. It is said that Cochituate water (Boston) always contains traces
of lead, but that no well-authenticated case of poisoning from this
source has ever been reported. Croton water (New York), which has
stood overnight in the pipes, is said to contain one tenth of a grain
of lead per gallon—sufficient to produce poisoning in some instances.
One case of this sort has been known. If drinking-water is drawn from
tanks, they should never be lined with lead, but should be made of
iron, or of wood lined with tinned and planished copper. (See “Plumbing
Regulations,” 44.)
Water passing through galvanized-iron pipes always contains zinc
salts—not, however, in injurious amount. Such pipes soon rust.
Dirt and other suspended matters should be removed by means of a
=filter=. A good household filter must be made of a material which
can not communicate any injurious or offensive quality to the water
that passes through it; it must remove all suspended particles, so as
to render the water bright and clear; it must be easy to clean, or so
arranged that the filtering material can be readily renewed. The action
of a filter is either mechanical or chemical; in the latter case, the
organic matters contained in the water are oxidized in the filter.
There are innumerable patent filters in the market, to be attached to
the faucet, but these can only act as strainers. There is no material
known which can be introduced into the small space of a tap-filter and
accomplish any real =purification= of the water which passes through
at the ordinary rate of flow. (Nichols.) The only points to be looked
to, therefore, in purchasing a tap-filter, are its efficiency as a
strainer, and the facility of cleansing or renewing the filtering
material. Where the pressure is not too great, a closely woven
cotton-flannel bag, fastened to the tap, makes as good a filter as
any. For large filters (in cisterns, etc.), those which contain animal
charcoal are the most efficient.
In places where the drinking-water is drawn from wells, it is sometimes
polluted by leakage from cesspools, privy-vaults, stables, and refuse
matters lying on the surface of the ground in their vicinity. It has
been demonstrated beyond a doubt that epidemics of typhoid fever have
often originated and spread in this way. Even when no specific disease
is caused, water polluted from such sources often causes diarrhœal
disorders and various forms of indigestion in those who drink it.
The determination of such pollution is a matter of great delicacy and
difficulty, and can only be trusted to an expert. Waters polluted by
organic matters often contain an excess of gaseous constituents, and
are clear, sparkling, and palatable, presenting to the uninstructed eye
no indication of impurity. There are certain tests, however, which can
be used by any person of intelligence, when, if positive results are
obtained, an expert should be called in to determine the source and
character of the contamination.
The pollution of water by decomposing animal matters is always to
be suspected, if there are evidences of the presence of chlorine
or nitrogen in the water, as these are invariable constituents of
animal excreta. These substances are found in combination—the former
in chloride of sodium, and the latter in the so-called nitrites and
nitrates.[2] Their presence is determined as follows:
[2] The albuminoid ammonia test is too technical for insertion here.
=Chlorine.=—_Tests_: Nitrate of silver (twenty-five cents a drachm),
twenty-four grains to one ounce of distilled water, and dilute nitric
acid (ten cents an ounce). Pour a few drops of each into the suspected
water. If chlorine is present, there will be a cloudy-white precipitate
of chloride of silver, which will gradually turn darker. One grain
of chlorine to a gallon of water gives a haze; four grains a marked
turbidity, and ten grains a considerable precipitate. In case chlorine
is found, and any particular source is suspected, a pailful of salt
(chloride of sodium) and water may be thrown into the place from which
the leakage is supposed to come, and the water again examined, after a
few hours, to see whether the amount of chlorine has increased.
=Nitrates.=—_Tests_: Pure sulphuric acid and a saturated solution of
sulphate of iron (copperas). Add an equal bulk of the acid to any
quantity of the water in a test-tube. The mixture will become very
hot. Wait until it is cool, and then pour in the iron solution gently,
so that it will float above the mixed acid and water. If nitrates are
present, there will be an olive-colored layer where the fluids meet.
=Nitrites.=—_Test-mixture_: Iodide of potassium (fifty cents per
ounce), one part; starch, twenty parts; water, five hundred parts.
Make the starch-solution first, and filter when cold; then add the
iodide of potash. Add to the suspected water this mixture, and then a
little dilute sulphuric acid. If nitrites are present, there will be an
immediate blue color.
=Organic Matters in general.=—_Test_: Eight grains of chemically pure
permanganate of potash in one ounce of distilled water. In half a pint
of the suspected water in a tumbler, put one drop of the solution. If
the red color disappears in one half hour, add more. For every drop
that loses color in the half-pint there will be found one and a half to
two grains of putrid organic matter in a gallon of the water. If the
action is rapid, the matter is probably animal; if slow, vegetable.
To =purify= such water, if it must be used, drop in the solution until
a slight red tinge remains. The organic matter is then all oxidized
and rendered harmless. It is better, however to boil such water before
using it for drinking.
_Precautions with regard to Drinking-Water._
Do not drink water that has been standing long in lead pipes, or lead
cisterns or tanks.
Filter it before drinking.
See that the current of ground-water in the well from which you get
your drinking-water is from the well toward any possible source of
contamination (privy-vault, cesspool, etc.), and not _vice versa_.
If the use of a suspected water is unavoidable, boil it first. It can
be rendered palatable by an infusion of tea or coffee.
APPENDIX A.
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE COMMON DISINFECTANTS, WITH A BRIEF
DESCRIPTION OF EACH, AND THE AVERAGE PRICE AT RETAIL.
=Carbolic Acid.=—A product of the distillation of coal-tar. When
pure and free from water, a transparent crystalline solid. Dissolves
in twenty parts of cold water. Coagulates albuminous matters. A
one-per-cent solution of it in water arrests putrefaction. For
disinfection use at least a one-per-cent solution. The chief
objection to its use is its odor. This may be modified to some extent
by mixing the pure acid with camphor, forming a liquid, which may
then be diluted. This acid is often used in combination with other
disinfectants. A preparation much used by the New York City Board
of Health for the disinfection of clothing contains eight ounces of
sulphate of zinc and three ounces of carbolic acid to three gallons of
water. Another for privies, water-closets, etc., is composed of ten
pounds of copperas, one pint of carbolic acid, and five gallons of
water. The strong acid injures iron pipe. Do not use in combination
with the permanganate of potash or the chloride of zinc. “=Dead Oil=”
(heavy oil of coal-tar) contains from 5 to 15 per cent of carbolic acid
mingled with impurities. It is used for the disinfection of drains,
streets, stables, etc. =Thymol= also occurs in coal-tar, but is usually
obtained from oil of thyme. Its action is similar to that of carbolic
acid. =Carbolic Powders= are made by mixing five parts of the pure
acid, or ten parts of the crude, with one hundred parts of sawdust,
clay, or lime. Squibb’s Carbolic Acid (No. 1), containing 77.90 per
cent of pure acid, costs $1 a pint; (No. 2), with 37.46 per cent of
pure acid, 75 cents a pint. Different samples examined (Waller),
containing from .20 to .78 per cent, cost from 50 cents to $1 a pint.
Crude acid, containing 50 per cent of acid, with many tarry impurities,
costs less than $1 a gallon. Thymol, $1 per ounce.
=Charcoal.=—Absorbs putrid gases. See =Lime=.
=Chloride of Lime.= See =Chlorine=.
=Chloride of Zinc.= See =Zinc=.
=Chlorine.=—A pale, yellowish-green gas, of a suffocating quality,
possessing great bleaching and disinfecting powers. When dry, it does
not bleach. When moist, it combines with the hydrogen of water or of
organic substances, and sets free the oxygen, which constitutes its
disinfecting power. It decomposes sulphureted hydrogen, ammonia, and
in general compounds arising from the putrid fermentation of organic
matter. It is obtained as follows: Pour one pound of sulphuric acid,
previously diluted with four times its volume of water, on three
pounds of chloride of lime. Mix in a large earthen dish to allow for
frothing up. Or mix two parts, by weight, of the black oxide (dioxide)
of manganese with three parts, by weight, of strong hydrochloric acid.
The gas is evolved very rapidly, so that it is difficult to make the
mixture complete before the fumes drive away the person manipulating
it. The colors of hangings, etc., are apt to be bleached out by it,
and metals are corroded. (See also =Sulphurous Acid=.) =Chloride of
Lime.=—Made by saturating slaked lime with chlorine-gas. It contains
on an average about 30 per cent of available chlorine, to be set free
by an acid. Very useful for disinfection of cellars, damp yards, and
areas. One half pound in a gallon of water may be used for washing
floors of sick-rooms, etc. Heat destroys its disinfecting properties.
=Chloride of Aluminum.=—Action similar to but weaker than the iron and
zinc salts, Sulphuric acid, black oxide of manganese, and hydrochloric
acid, each 5 cents an ounce. Chloride of lime, 15 cents a pound.
=Copperas.= (Green vitriol, sulphate of iron.)—Comes in pale-green
crystals. It is an efficient disinfectant for privies, water-closets,
stables, etc. Stains white goods. Acts by destroying sulphureted
hydrogen and ammonia. Also oxidizes organic compounds and coagulates
albuminous matters. A good mixture is four pounds of copperas and
three ounces of carbolic acid to a gallon of water. Ten cents a pound.
One hundred pounds for $3 or less.
=Corrosive Sublimate.= (Mercuric chloride.)—The most powerful
disinfectant known. Coagulates albuminous substances. A solution of
one part in 2,000 of water kills microscopic organisms. Two drachms of
this substance in a gallon of water (1 to 500) makes a solution sure
to destroy any disease-germ. It is a deadly poison, and can only be
purchased under legal restrictions. Fifteen cents an ounce.
=Dead Oil.= See =Carbolic Acid=.
=Green Vitriol.= See =Copperas=.
=Gypsum.= See =Lime=.
=Heat.=—Boiling is a good disinfectant. Boil for at least an hour. If
dry air is used, the temperature must be from 250° to 300° for five or
six hours. Cotton and silk will stand a temperature of 295° for three
hours without harm. Woolen suffers more.
=Iron, Sulphate of.= See =Copperas=.
=Lime.=—Twenty parts of quicklime, mixed with two parts of dry, fresh
charcoal, form the =calx-powder=, as sold in the shops. It is useful
to absorb putrid gases, when sprinkled in cellars, etc. =Sulphate of
lime=, or =gypsum= (plaster of Paris), mingled with coal-tar or impure
carbolic acid, is an effective deodorant for stables and manure-heaps.
It absorbs and retains ammonia, and therefore preserves to the manure
its most valuable constituent. =Chloride of lime.= See =Chlorine=.
Quicklime, 5 cents a pound. Gypsum, 10 cents a pound.
=Nitrate of Lead.=—Theoretically a good disinfectant, but practically
of little use. Five cents an ounce.
=Nitrous Acid.=—Evolved in the form of brownish-red fumes, when nitric
acid is poured on copper turnings. Very dangerous to inhale, and little
used as a disinfectant.
=Ozone.=—Is a form of oxygen, supposed to be three volumes condensed
into two. Is a powerful oxidizer. Corrodes cork, paper, and other
organic substances. Oxidizes very rapidly compounds of ammonia,
phosphorus, and sulphur, which are offensive, instantly removing the
odor. Simple vegetables, like mould, are completely destroyed by it.
Obtained by gradually mixing three parts of sulphuric acid with two
parts of permanganate of potash. This mixture will continue to give off
ozone for several months. Or, put a piece of phosphorus on a plate, and
pour in water sufficient to cover two thirds of it. These methods are
used in the patented ozone generators. Phosphorus, 40 cents an ounce;
sulphuric acid, 5 cents an ounce.
=Permanganate of Potash.=—Dark purple crystals, almost black. A
solution is of a beautiful purple color, but stains brown almost
everything it touches. Can not be used with carbolic acid or the
coal-tar disinfectants. Is a powerful oxidizer, and is used to
disinfect excreta, and to purify drinking-water. Fifty cents an ounce.
=Sulphate of Iron.= See =Copperas=.
=Sulphate of Lime.= See =Lime=.
=Sulphate of Zinc.= See =Zinc=.
=Sulphurous Acid.= An irrespirable gas, produced by burning sulphur.
Powerful disinfectant. Coagulates albuminous matters and probably
destroys germs. Destroys sulphureted hydrogen and ammonia. Dry articles
are not hurt by it, but wet clothes are bleached. Can not be used with
chlorine, as they neutralize each other. Chlorine is as effective, but
is so destructive that it can only be used in empty rooms. It requires
about a tablespoonful of alcohol to light a pound of sulphur. Sulphur
(roll-brimstone), 10 cents a pound.
=Thymol.= See =Carbolic Acid=.
=Zinc Salts.=—The sulphate and the chloride of zinc are excellent
disinfectants. They are colorless, and can therefore be used on
clothing. They form, with albuminous matters, extremely insoluble
compounds, and also absorb gases from putrefying material. They are the
best disinfectants of their class. The sulphate is cheaper, but the
chloride more efficient. Sulphate of zinc, 10 cents an ounce; chloride
of zinc, 20 cents an ounce.
It is better and cheaper to buy and mix one’s own disinfectants.
The many proprietary articles are no more efficient, and are very
expensive. The composition of some of those most in use is here given.
(Analyses by Waller, of the New York City Health Department.)
The first column gives parts in 100, and the second, ounces in a gallon
in the case of liquids, and ounces in a pound in case of powders.
Bromo-chloralum (Tilden & Co.), 50 cents a pint.
Chloride of aluminum 8.152 12.71
Water, bromide of aluminum, lime salts, etc. 91.848 143.25
———- ———
100.000 155.96
Burnett’s Fluid is a solution of chloride of zinc (25 grains to the
drachm).
Carbolate of lime, in three-quarter pound boxes, at 25 cents.
Lime 64.245 10.28
Magnesia 0.602 0.09
Sand, oxide of iron, etc. 0.670 0.11
Carbolic acid 0.472 0.07
Carbonic acid and organic impurities 34.021 5.45
———- ——-
100.000 16.00
Chloralum (English Chloralum Co.), 50 cents a pint.
Chloride of aluminum 13.213 20.14
Sulphate of lime 0.197 0.30
Water, chloride of calcium, etc. 86.590 131.99
———- ———
100.000 152.43
Chloride of lime, 20 cents a pound.
Available chlorine 31.38 5.02
Lime salts, water, etc. 68.62 10.98
——— ——-
100.00 16.00
Condy’s Fluid is a solution of permanganate of potash (9.26 grains to
a fluid ounce, about 2-1/2 drachms to the pint).
Darby’s Prophylactic Fluid, 50 cents a half-pint.
Permanganate of potash 0.055 0.08
Sulphate of potash 1.750 2.50
Chloride of potassium 1.270 1.81
Carbonate of potash 6.570 9.40
Water 90.355 129.24
———- ———
100.000 143.03
Egyptian Disinfectant, 25 cents a pound.
Clay 87.810 14.05
Lime 0.354 0.06
Carbolic acid 0.320 0.05
Other constituents of dead oil 5.685 0.91
Organic matter and water 5.831 0.93
———- ——-
100.000 16.00
Excelsior Disinfectant, 15 cents a pound.
Protosulphate of iron (copperas) 31.464 5.03
Chloride of sodium (salt) 19.251 3.08
Flowers of sulphur 7.800 1.25
Water of crystallization, cassia-oil, etc. 41.485 6.64
———- ——-
100.000 16.00
The Germicide is a patented apparatus for discharging chloride of zinc
into the bowl of the water-closet, and impregnating the air at the same
time with the vapor of thymol.
Girondin Disinfectant, 75 cents a quart.
Sulphate of zinc 19.692 32.64
Sulphate of copper 1.202 1.99
Sulphate of lime 0.480 0.79
Water, traces of calcium chloride, etc. 78.626 130.34
———- ———
100.000 165.76
Labarraque’s Solution, 50 cents a pint.
Available chlorine 1.423 1.96
Water and soda salts 98.577 135.54
———- ———
100.000 137.50
Metropolitan Disinfectant, 30 cents a quart.
Protosulphate of iron (copperas) 11.413 17.10
Carbolic acid (about) 3.330 4.99
Water, dead oil, and impurities 85.257 127.74
———- ———
100.000 149.83
Phenix Disinfectant, 35 cents a pound.
Silicate of alumina (clay) 56.876 9.10
Sesquichloride of iron 1.192 0.19
Sesquioxide of iron 7.102 1.14
Lime 2.470 0.39
Carbolic acid 0.400 0.06
Carbonic acid and organic impurities 31.960 5.12
———- ———
100.000 16.00
Phenol Sodique, 50 cents a half pint.
Carbolic acid 1.177 1.61
Soda salts, water, and impurities 98.823 134.29
———- ———
100.000 135.90
Platt’s Chlorides, 50 cents a quart.
Solution chloride of zinc (saturated) 40 parts.
” ” ” lead ” 20 ”
” ” ” calcium ” 15 ”
” ” ” aluminum ” 15 ”
” ” ” magnesium ” 5 ”
” ” ” potassium ” 5 ”
—-
100 ”
APPENDIX B.
List of the prices of plumber’s materials and labor, from which a rough
estimate may be formed of the probable cost of proposed plumbing. The
prices given are wholesale ones, and it must be remembered that every
plumber is also a retail merchant, who obtains his materials at a
discount, and charges them to his customer at an average advance of 10
or 15 per cent on the prices here given.
All measurements are of inside diameters.
=Bands.=—Ordinary thickness, 2 by 2 inches, 75 cents; 6 by 6 inches,
$1.90. Intermediate sizes at corresponding prices.
=Bends= and =Offsets=.—Two inches in diameter, 40 cents; extra heavy,
50 cents. Six inches in diameter, $1.20; extra heavy, $1.75.
=Cisterns= and =Service-boxes= (for water-closets), $10 to $20;
(waste-preventing), $13 to $26.
=Offsets.= See =Bends=.
=Pipe.=—Tile or earthenware (vitrified), in lengths of 2-1/2 feet
each, 2-inch, 13 cents a foot; 3-inch, 16 cents a foot; 4-inch, 20
cents a foot; and 5 cents more per foot for each additional inch of
diameter.
Iron, in lengths of 5 feet each: Ordinary, about 10 cents a foot for
every inch of diameter. Extra heavy, about twice as much. Double-hub
pipe, about 6 cents a foot more. The tar-coating costs about 3 cents a
foot for 2-inch pipe, 4 cents for 3-inch pipe, etc.
Lead, about 9 cents a pound. Manufactured pipe (traps, etc.), 10 cents
a pound. Qualities are marked according to thickness—i. e., weight
for each size, AAA (best), AA, A, B, C, D, and E. 3/8-inch pipe, AAA
weighs 1 pound 12 ounces per foot; B weighs 1 pound per foot; C weighs
14 ounces per foot; D weighs 7 ounces per foot. 5/8-inch pipe, AAA
weighs 3 pounds 8 ounces per foot; AA weighs 2 pounds 12 ounces per
foot; B weighs 2 pounds per foot. 3/4-inch pipe, AAA weighs 4 pounds
14 ounces per foot; B weighs 2 pounds 3 ounces per foot. 1-inch pipe,
AAA weighs 6 pounds per foot; AA weighs 4 pounds 8 ounces per foot;
A weighs 4 pounds per foot; B weighs 3 pounds 4 ounces per foot; D
weighs 2 pounds 4 ounces per foot. 2-inch pipe, AAA weighs 10 pounds
11 ounces per foot; AA weighs 8 pounds 14 ounces per foot; A weighs
7 pounds per foot; B weighs 6 pounds per foot; D weighs 4 pounds per
foot. 3-inch pipe, 3/8 thick, weighs 19 pounds 9 ounces per foot.
4-inch pipe, 3/8 thick, weighs 25 pounds 6 ounces per foot, and so on.
For supply-pipes, AA pipe is generally used.
=Privy-Sinks.=—About $5 for every foot in length.
=Saddle-Hubs.=—2 by 2 inches, 30 cents; extra heavy, 40 cents. 6 by 6
inches, $1.10; extra heavy, $1.40.
=School-Sinks.= See =Privy-Sinks=.
=Traps.=—Adee traps about 5 cents apiece less than ordinary S-traps,
and Bower traps about twice as much.
Earthenware, 2-inch, $1 each; 6-inch, $3.25 each.
Iron (S-traps), 2-inch, 80 cents; extra heavy, $1.25; 6-inch, $3.75;
extra heavy, $5. Running traps, with or without hand-holes, about the
same.
Lead, made of 6-pound lead (lead weighing 6 pounds to the square
foot), 1-1/4-inch, 65 cents; 1-1/2-inch, 80 cents; 2-inch, $1.10;
4-1/2-inch, $3.25, etc.
=Urinals.=—(Earthenware), $5 to $6 each.
=Wash-Basins.=—(Iron, enameled or marbled), $1.50 to $4.50.
=Water-Closets.=—Demarest’s (plunger), $15 to $40. Earthenware hopper,
$10 to $12. Earthenware hopper, with trap, waste-preventing cistern,
chain and bracket, wood-seat, etc., $30. Hopper-valve closet, with
self-raising, round seat, $9.
=Pan-Closets.=—$4.50 to $22.
A journeyman and helper are charged for at the rate of from $5 to $6
per day.
INDEX.
Acid, carbolic, 72, 91.
carbonic, 7-9, 13, 15.
carbonic, test for, 9.
hydrochloric, 93.
nitric, 88.
nitrous, 95.
sulphuric, 89, 93, 95.
sulphurous, 70, 96.
Adulterations of food, 73.
Air, contaminated by combustion, 9.
contaminated by excreta, 12, 21.
contaminated by respiration, 8, 11.
contaminated by the sick, 11.
dangers of impure, 11-14.
Air-bound pipes, 57.
Air in ground, 15.
Alum, 75.
Aluminum, chloride of, 93.
Annotto, 77, 78.
Areas, drainage of, 34.
Arrowroot, 74.
Asphalt in walls, 34, 66.
Bacilli, 11, 14.
Bacteria, 11.
Bad odors, sources of, 52.
Bakers’ chemicals, 74.
Baking-powders, 75.
Ball-cock, 48.
Bands, 60, 100.
Basins, 32, 102.
Bath-tubs, 30.
Bedclothing, disinfection of, 69.
Beer, 75.
Bends, 42, 100.
Blow-offs, 33.
Board of Health, plumbing rules of, 25.
Boilers, sediment-pipe of, 32.
Boiling, disinfection by, 94.
Brandy, 76.
Bread, 76.
Brimstone, 67, 96.
Bromo-chloralum, 97.
Burnett’s Fluid, 97.
Butter, 76.
Caldwell,, Ph. D., 78, 82.
Calking of joints, 45.
Calx-powder, 94.
Candy, 77.
Canned fruits and vegetables, 77.
Canned meats, 78.
Caramel, 76.
Carbolate of lime, 97.
Carbolic acid, 72, 91.
powders, 92.
Carbonic acid, 7-9, 13, 15.
Carbureted hydrogen, 12.
Carmichael, 46.
Carpené, 85.
Cast-iron pipes, 44, 101.
Cellars, 34, 66.
Cemented joints, 52.
Cement, tempered-up, 26, 39.
Cereals, 78.
Cesspools, 12, 34, 35.
Chandler,, Professor, 67, 82, 83.
Charcoal, 94.
Cheese, 78.
Check-valves, 47.
Chester,, Ph. D., 79, 80.
Chiccory, 79.
Chicken-pox, 12.
Chimneys as pipe-vents, 44.
Chimneys, smoky, 20.
Chloralum, 97.
Chloride of aluminum, 93.
of lime, 71, 93, 97.
mercuric, 94.
of sodium, 89.
of zinc, 70, 96.
Chlorine, method of obtaining, 92.
properties of, 96.
test for, 88.
Chocolate, 78.
Cholera, precautions _vs._, 72.
propagation of, 14.
Chromate of lead in candy, 77.
Cisterns for water-closets, 32, 47.
City houses, drainage of, 65.
Closet, earth, 23.
Closets, water, 39, 102.
Clothing, disinfection of, 69.
Cocoa, 78.
Coffee, 78.
extract of, 79.
Coffins, air-tight, 70.
Cognac, 76.
Colby,, Ph. B., 83.
Combustion, 9.
Condensers, 33.
Condy’s fluid, 97.
Confectionery, 77.
Connections, pipe, 30, 52.
Construction, faulty, 52.
Consumption, precautions _vs._, 72.
propagation of, 12, 72.
Contagious diseases, propagation of, 11.
Copperas, 70, 93.
solution of, 67, 70.
Copper, sulphate of, 77.
Corpses, disinfection of, 69, 71.
Corrosive sublimate, 94.
Country houses, drainage of, 50, 65.
Cream of tartar, 74.
Cushioning, 42, 44, 56.
how determined, 61.
Damp soil, danger of, 15.
Dampers, position of, 19.
Darby’s Prophylactic Fluid, 98.
Dead bodies, disinfection of, 69, 71.
Dead oil, 92.
Deodorizers, 67.
Diphtheria, precautions _vs._, 72.
propagation of, 12, 72.
Discharges, disinfection of, 68.
Diseases, contagious, 11.
Disinfectant, Egyptian, 98.
Excelsior, 98.
Girondin, 98.
Metropolitan, 99.
Phenix, 99.
Disinfectants, 91.
how to use, 67.
Disinfection, 66.
National Board of Health rules for, 67.
of bedclothing, 69.
Disinfection of clothing, 69, 91.
of corpses, 69, 71.
of furniture, 69.
of premises, 68, 92, 94.
of privies, 71, 91.
of water-closets, 71, 91.
of woolen stuffs, etc., 69.
Double windows, 20.
Drain, fall of, 27.
house, 35.
house, trap in, 42.
location of, 27.
pipes, 59.
size of, 27.
Drainage, 21.
diagram of, 49.
essentials of, 24.
examination of, 61.
of city houses, 65.
of country houses, 50, 65.
of farm-houses, 65.
of sea-side houses, 65.
New York City Board of Health, 25.
subsoil, 50.
Drains, defective, 52, 59.
Draughts, how produced, 17, 20.
how to avoid, 20.
when perceived, 17.
Drinking-water, tanks for, 33, 86.
tests of, 89.
Durand-Claye, 13.
Durham house-drainage system, 44.
Dysentery, precautions _vs._, 72.
propagation of, 14.
Earth as a disinfectant, 23.
closet, 23.
Earthenware pipes, 26, 59, 100.
Egyptian Disinfectant, 98.
Engelhardt,, Ph. D., 76, 79, 82, 84, 85.
Erysipelas, propagation of, 14.
Evaporation from traps, 60.
Excelsior Disinfectant, 98.
Excreta, contamination of air by, 14, 21.
dangers from, 14, 21.
removal of, 24.
Exhaust-steam in soil-pipes, 33, 50.
Farm-houses, drainage of, 65.
Faulty construction of drains, 52.
Ferrules, 30, 45, 52.
Fever, malarial, 14.
puerperal, 14.
scarlet, 11, 72.
typhoid, 14, 72.
typhus, 11, 73.
yellow, 14, 72.
Field’s flush-tank, 50.
Filters, 87.
Fireplace, Galton’s, 18, 19.
Fireplaces, 18.
Flanges, lead, 53.
Flues for ventilation, 20.
Flush-tank, 50.
Fomites, 71, 73.
Food, 73.
Fresh-air inlet, 28, 43.
Fruits, canned, 77.
Fumigation, methods of, 68, 69.
precautions during, 70.
treatment of rooms after, 70.
Funerals, 71.
Furniture, disinfection of, 69.
of sick-room, 68.
Fusel-oil, 76, 84.
Galton’s fireplace, 18, 19.
Gas, sewer, composition of, 12.
Gasket, 45.
General debility, 11, 13.
German measles, 12.
Germicide, 98.
Gin, 79.
Girondin Disinfectant, 98.
Glucose, 75, 79, 82.
Grains, cereal, 78.
Green vitriol, 70, 93.
Ground air, danger of, 15.
air, exclusion of, 66.
water, high and low, 15.
Gum-drops, 77.
Gypsum, 74, 79, 94.
Hand-holes, 59.
Heat, disinfection by, 94.
Honey, 79.
Hops, 75.
Horizontal pipes, 28.
Horse-radish, 79.
Hospital gangrene, 14.
House-drain, 35.
drain, trap in, 27, 42.
drainage, Durham system of, 44.
drainage, essentials of, 24.
sewer, material of, 26.
Hydrant-sinks, 35.
Hydrochloric acid, 93.
Impurity of air, measure of, 9.
Inlet, fresh-air, 28, 43.
Iodide of potassium, 89.
Iron, sulphate of, 93.
Iron pipes, weight of, 29.
Isinglass, 79.
Jellies, 79.
Joints, calking of, 45, 52.
cement, 52, 59.
imperfect, 59.
lead, 45, 52.
putty, 52, 59.
Joints, rust, 30, 45.
wiped, 46.
Labarraque’s Solution, 99.
Labor, plumber’s, 102.
Lactometer, method of using, 81.
Lard, 80.
Lattimore,, Ph. D., 77-79, 82-84.
Lead, chromate of, 77.
dissolving of, in water, 86.
flanges, 53.
nitrate of, 95.
Leaders, bad odors from, 53.
as soil-pipes, 33, 49.
trapping of, 33, 53.
Lead pipes, weight of, 101.
Letheby, 13.
Lime, 94.
chloride of, 93.
sulphate of, 94.
Louvered sky-light, 39.
Love,, Ph. D., 74-76, 78.
Malarial fevers, 14.
Manganese, oxide of, 93.
Marsh-gas, 13.
Measles, precautions _vs._, 72.
propagation of, 11.
Meat, 80.
Meats, canned, 78.
preserved, poisoning by, 80.
Mercuric chloride, 94.
Mercury seal for traps, 39.
Metropolitan Disinfectant, 99.
Microscopic organisms, 11, 43.
Milk, composition of, 81.
Mines, air of, 7.
Morin, estimate by, 19.
Movable tanks for excreta, 22.
Mumps, 12.
Munsell,, Ph. D., 81.
National Board of Health, rules, etc., 67.
Nichols, Professor, 8, 12, 87.
Nitrate of lead, 95.
of silver, 88.
Nitrates, tests for, 89.
Nitric acid, 88.
Nitrites, test for, 89.
Nitrogen, 7.
in sewers, 12, 13.
Nitrous acid, 95.
New York City Board of Health, rules, etc., 25.
New York State Board of Health, rules, etc., 74.
Oakum, 45.
Odors, offensive, 52.
Offsets, 35, 100.
Oil, dead, 92.
fusel, 76, 84.
of cognac, 76.
of peppermint, 63.
olive, 81.
Oleomargarine, 76.
One trap, etc., how determined, 58, 62.
Organic matter of respired air, 9.
matters, test for, 89.
Organisms, microscopic, 11, 43.
Overflow-pipes, 32, 33, 46, 54, 58.
Oxidation, 15, 43.
Oxide of manganese, 93.
Oxygen, 7, 8, 13.
Ozone, 95.
Pails for excreta, 22.
Paris, plaster-of-, 94.
Peppermint test, 63.
Permanganate of potash, 95.
Pettenkofer’s test for carbonic acid, 9.
Phenix Disinfectant, 99.
Phenol Sodique, 99.
Phosphorus, 95.
Pickles, 82.
Pipe connections, 30, 52.
Pipes, air, 31.
air-bound, 57.
cast-iron, 27, 28, 44, 101.
corrosion of, 50, 59.
drain, 27, 59.
earthenware, 26, 100.
galvanized iron, 59, 86.
hub-end of, 44.
iron, weight of, 29.
lead, weight of, 101.
obstruction of, 61.
overflow, 32, 33, 46, 54, 58.
rat-holes in, 59.
service, 86.
spigot-end of, 44.
tarring of, 44, 101.
traps on vertical, 29, 44.
ventilating, size of, 31.
waste, 28.
wrought-iron, 44.
Pitt,,, 77, 79.
Plants, action of air on, 15.
Plaster-of-Paris, 94.
Platt’s chlorides, 99.
Plumber’s labor, 102.
materials, 101, 102.
Pork, 80.
Potash, permanganate of, 95.
Potassium, iodide of, 89.
Powders, calx, 94.
carbolic, 92.
Premises, disinfection of, 68, 92, 94.
Privies, disinfection of, 71.
Privy-sinks, 42, 102.
Privy-vaults, construction of, 22, 34, 35.
contents of, 12.
dangers of, 22.
Pumpelly, 46.
Purification of water, 87, 90.
Putty-joints, 52, 54.
Rat-holes in pipes, 59.
Refrigerator wastes, 32.
Respiration, organic matter of, 9.
Return bend, 43.
Rum, 82.
Saddle-hubs, 60, 102.
Safes, 32, 46.
draining of, 32, 54.
Safe-wastes, 32, 54.
Saleratus, 74.
Salt, 67, 70, 89.
“Sanitary Engineer,” 51.
Scarlet fever, precautions _vs._, 72.
propagation of, 11.
School-sinks, 34, 42, 102.
Seal of trap, 36.
Sea-side houses, drainage of, 65.
Seine, mud of, 13.
Service-pipes, 86.
Sewer-air, effects attributed to, 13.
Sewer-gas, composition of, 12.
Sewer, house, material of, 26.
Sewer-water, 13.
Sewers, contents of, 12.
private, 26.
Sherringham valve, 17.
Sick-room, care of, 67, 70.
precautions on entering, 73.
Sinks, 30.
Siphonage, 58.
how determined, 62.
prevention of, 31, 58.
Sirups, 82.
Sky-light, louvered, 39.
Sleeves, 30, 45.
Slops, dangers from, 21.
Small-pox, precautions _vs._, 71.
propagation of, 11.
Smoky chimneys, 20.
Smith, Angus, 8.
Soil, damp, danger of, 15.
Soil-pipe, 35.
material and size of, 28.
Spices, 82.
Stables, disinfection of, 94.
Starch, 75, 89.
Squibb’s carbolic acid, 92.
Steam in soil-pipes, 33, 50.
Steam-coils, heating by, 19.
Subsoil drainage, 50.
Sugar, 82.
Sulphate of copper, 77.
of iron, 89, 93.
of lime, 94.
of zinc, 67, 96.
Sulphide of ammonium, 12.
Sulphur, 67, 96.
use of, in disinfection, 68.
Sulphureted hydrogen, 12, 13.
Sulphuric acid, 89, 95.
Sulphurous acid, 70, 96.
Syrups (see Sirups).
Tanks for drinking-water, 33, 86.
lining of, 33.
movable, for excreta, 22.
Tarring of pipes, 44, 101.
Teas, 83.
Terra alba, 74, 75, 77.
Test, Carpené’s, for wine, 85.
for carbonic acid, 9.
for chlorine, 88.
for nitrates, 89.
for nitrites, 89.
Test for organic matters in water, 89.
peppermint, 63.
water, 45.
Thymol, 72, 92, 98.
Tin in canned fruits, 77.
in sirups, 82.
Traps, 35, 102.
cleaning of, 60.
efficiency of, 46.
empty, how to determine, 62.
in house-drains, 27, 42.
on vertical pipes, 29, 44.
position of, 30.
unsealing of, by cushioning, 56.
unsealing of, by evaporation, 60.
unsealing of, by siphoning, 58.
various kinds of, 36, 102.
ventilation of, 31.
Trap-screws, 59.
Trichinæ, 80.
Typhoid fever caused by water, 88.
precautions _vs._, 72.
propagation of, 14.
Typhus fever, precautions _vs._, 73.
propagation of, 11.
Urinals, 30, 102.
Valve-closets, dangers of, 47.
Valves, check, 47.
Vegetables, canned, 77.
Ventilating shaft, 25.
Ventilation, 15.
different methods of, 17-19.
flues for, 20.
Ventilation of pipes, 31, 54, 58.
Ventilators, whirling, 20.
Vent-pipes, 54.
Vertical pipes, traps on, 29, 44.
Vinegar, 84.
Waller, Elwyn, Ph. D., 83, 97.
Walls, damp-proof courses in, 66.
Wash-trays and tubs, 30.
Waste-pipes, 35.
material of, 28.
trapping of, 30.
Water, 86.
drinking, tanks for, 33, 86.
drinking, tests of, 89.
impure, disorders due to, 88.
in lead pipes, 86.
iron pipes for, 86.
of sewers, 13.
pollution of, 87.
precautions regarding, 90.
purification of, 90.
typhoid fever caused by, 88.
Water-carriage, 24.
Water-closets, 39, 102.
cisterns for, 32, 47, 100.
disinfection of, 71, 91.
valve, dangers of, 47.
Water-seal, 36, 46.
Water test, the, 45.
Weight of iron pipe, 29.
of lead pipe, 101.
Wernich, 46.
Whirling ventilators, 20.
Whisky, 76, 84.
Whooping-cough, propagation of, 12.
Windows, double, 20.
Wine, how to tell good, 84.
tests of, 85.
Wiped joints, 46.
Woolen stuffs, disinfection of, 69.
Wrought-iron pipes, 44.
Y-branches, 42.
Yards, drainage of, 34.
Yellow fever, 14, 72.
Zinc, chloride of, 70, 96.
sulphate of, 67, 96.
THE END.
WORKS ON HYGIENE.
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