subject. If I invite a person to tell me what occurs to him in relation
to some certain element of his dream I am asking him to abandon himself
to free association, _controlled by a given premise_. This demands a
special delimitation of the attention, quite different from cogitation,
in fact, exclusive of cogitation. Many persons put themselves into such
a state easily; others show an extraordinarily high degree of
clumsiness. There is a higher level of free association again, where I
omit this original premise and designate only the manner of the
association, e.g., rule that the subject freely give a proper name or a
number. Such an association would be more voluntary, more
indeterminable, than the one called forth by our technique. But it can
be shown that it is strongly determined each time by an important inner
mental set which, at the moment at which it is active, is unknown to us,
just as unknown as the disturbing tendencies in the case of errors and
the provocative tendencies in the case of accidental occurrences.
I, and many others after me, have again and again instigated such
investigations for names and numbers which occur to the subject without
any restraint, and have published some results. The method is the
following: Proceeding from the disclosed names, we awaken continuous
associations which then are no longer entirely free, but rather are
limited as are the associations to the dream elements, and this is true
until the impulse is exhausted. By that time, however, the motivation
and significance of the free name associations is explained. The
investigations always yield the same results, the information often
covers a wealth of material and necessitates lengthy elaboration. The
associations to freely appearing numbers are perhaps the most
significant. They follow one another so quickly and approach a hidden
goal with such inconceivable certainty, that it is really startling. I
want to give you an example of such a name analysis, one that, happily,
involves very little material.
In the course of my treatment of a young man, I referred to this subject
and mentioned the fact that despite the apparent volition it is
impossible to have a name occur which does not appear to be limited by
the immediate conditions, the peculiarities of the subject, and the
momentary situation. He was doubtful, and I proposed that he make such
an attempt immediately. I know he has especially numerous relations of
every sort with women and girls, and so am of the opinion that he will
have an unusually wide choice if he happens to think of a woman's name.
He agrees. To my astonishment, and perhaps even more to his, no
avalanche of women's names descends upon my head, but he is silent for a
time, and then admits that a single name has occurred to him--and no
other: _Albino_. How extraordinary, but what associations have you with
this name? How many albinoes do you know? Strangely enough, he knew no
albinoes, and there were no further associations with the name. One
might conclude the analysis had proved a failure; but no--it was already
complete; no further association was necessary. The man himself had
unusually light coloring. In our talks during the cure I had frequently
called him an albino in fun. We were at the time occupied in determining
the feminine characteristics of his nature. He himself was the Albino,
who at that moment was to him the most interesting feminine person.
In like manner, melodies, which come for no reason, show themselves
conditioned by and associated with a train of thought which has a right
to occupy one, yet of whose activity one is unconscious. It is easily
demonstrable that the attraction to the melody is associated with the
text, or its origin. But I must take the precaution not to include in
this assertion really musical people, with whom, as it happens, I have
had no experience. In their cases the musical meaning of the melody may
have occasioned its occurrence. More often the first reason holds. I
know of a young man who for a time was actually haunted by the really
charming melody of the song of Paris, from _The Beautiful Helen_, until
the analysis brought to his attention the fact that at that time his
interest was divided between an Ida and a Helen.
If then the entirely unrestrained associations are conditioned in such a
manner and are arranged in a distinct order, we are justified in
concluding that associations with a single condition, that of an
original premise, or starting point, may be conditioned to no less
degree. The investigation does in fact show that aside from the
conditioning which we have established by the premise, a second farther
dependence is recognizable upon powerful affective thoughts, upon cycles
of interest and complexes of whose influence we are ignorant, therefore
unconscious at the time.
Associations of this character have been the subject matter of very
enlightening experimental investigations, which have played a noteworthy
role in the history of psychoanalysis. The Wundt school proposed the
so-called association-experiment, wherein the subject is given the task
of answering in the quickest possible time, with any desired reaction,
to a given stimulus-word. It is then possible to study the interval of
time that elapses between the stimulus and the reaction, the nature of
the answer given as reaction, the possible mistake in a subsequent
repetition of the same attempt, and similar matters. The Zurich School
under the leadership of Bleuler and Jung, gave the explanation of the
reactions following the association-experiment, by asking the subject to
explain a given reaction by means of further associations, in the cases
where there was anything extraordinary in the reaction. It then became
apparent that these extraordinary reactions were most sharply determined
by the complexes of the subject. In this matter Bleuler and Jung built
the first bridge from experimental psychology to psychoanalysis.
Thus instructed, you will be able to say, "We recognize now that free
associations are predetermined, not voluntary, as we had believed. We
admit this also as regards the associations connected with the elements
of the dream, but that is not what we are concerned with. You maintain
that the associations to the dream element are determined by the unknown
psychic background of this very element. We do not think that this is a
proven fact. We expect, to be sure, that the association to the dream
element will clearly show itself through one of the complexes of the
dreamer, but what good is that to us? That does not lead us to
understand the dream, but rather, as in the case of the
association-experiment, to a knowledge of the so-called complexes. What
have these to do with the dream?"
You are right, but you overlook one point, in fact, the very point
because of which I did not choose the association-experiment as the
starting point for this exposition. In this experiment the one
determinate of the reaction, viz., the stimulus word, is voluntarily
chosen. The reaction is then an intermediary between this stimulus word
and the recently aroused complex of the subject. In the dream the
stimulus word is replaced by something that itself has its origin in the
psychic life of the dreamer, in sources unknown to him, hence very
likely itself a product of the complex. It is not an altogether
fantastic hypothesis, then, that the more remote associations, even
those that are connected with the dream element, are determined by no
other complex than the one which determines the dream element itself,
and will lead to the disclosure of the complex.
Let me show you by another case that the situation is really as we
expect it to be. Forgetting proper names is really a splendid example
for the case of dream analysis; only here there is present in one person
what in the dream interpretation is divided between two persons. Though
I have forgotten a name temporarily I still retain the certainty that I
know the name; that certainty which we could acquire for the dreamer
only by way of the Bernheim experiment. The forgotten name, however, is
not accessible. Cogitation, no matter how strenuous, does not help.
Experience soon tells me that. But I am able each time to find one or
more substitute names for the forgotten name. If such a substitute name
occurs to me spontaneously then the correspondence between this
situation and that of the dream analysis first becomes evident. Nor is
the dream element the real thing, but only a substitute for something
else, for what particular thing I do not know, but am to discover by
means of the dream analysis. The difference lies only in this, that in
forgetting a name I recognize the substitute automatically as
unsuitable, while in the dream element we must acquire this
interpretation with great labor. When a name is forgotten, too, there
is a way to go from the substitute to the unknown reality, to arrive at
the forgotten name. If I centre my attention on the substitute name and
allow further associations to accumulate, I arrive in a more or less
roundabout way at the forgotten name, and discover that the spontaneous
substitute names, together with those called up by me, have a certain
connection with the forgotten name, were conditioned by it.
I want to show you an analysis of this type. One day I noticed that I
could not recall the name of the little country in the Riviera of which
Monte Carlo is the capital. It is very annoying, but it is true. I steep
myself in all my knowledge about this country, think of Prince Albert,
of the house of Lusignan, of his marriages, his preference for deep-sea
study, and anything else I can think of, but to no avail. So I give up
the thinking, and in place of the lost name allow substitute names to
suggest themselves. They come quickly--Monte Carlo itself, then
Piedmont, Albania, Montevideo, Colico. Albania is the first to attract
my attention, it is replaced by Montenegro, probably because of the
contrast between black and white. Then I see that four of these
substitutes contain the same syllable _mon_. I suddenly have the
forgotten word, and cry aloud, "_Monaco_." The substitutes really
originated in the forgotten word, the four first from the first
syllable, the last brings back the sequence of syllables and the entire
final syllable. In addition, I am also able easily to discover what it
was that took the name from my memory for a time. Monaco is also the
Italian name of Munich; this latter town exerted the inhibiting
influence.
The example is pretty enough, but too simple. In other cases we must add
to the first substitute names a long line of associations, and then the
analogy to the dream interpretation becomes clearer. I have also had
such experiences. Once when a stranger invited me to drink Italian wine
with him, it so happened in the hostelry that he forgot the name of the
wine he had intended to order just because he had retained a most
pleasant memory of it. Out of a profusion of dissimilar substitute
associations which came to him in the place of the forgotten name, I was
able to conclude that the memory of some one named Hedwig had deprived
him of the name of the wine, and he actually confirmed not only that he
had first tasted this wine in the company of a Hedwig, but he also, as
a result of this declaration, recollected the name again. He was at the
time happily married, and this Hedwig belonged to former times, not now
recalled with pleasure.
What is possible in forgetting names must work also in dream
interpretation, viz., making the withheld actuality accessible by means
of substitutions and through connecting associations. As exemplified by
name-forgetting, we may conclude that in the case of the associations to
the dream element they will be determined as well by the dream element
as by its unknown essential. Accordingly, we have advanced a few steps
in the formulation of our dream technique.
SEVENTH LECTURE
THE DREAM
_Manifest Dream Content and Latent Dream Thought_
We have not studied the problem of errors in vain. Thanks to our efforts
in this field, under the conditions known to you, we have evolved two
different things, a conception of the elements of the dream and a
technique for dream interpretation. The conception of the dream element
goes to show something unreal, a substitute for something else, unknown
to the dreamer, similar to the tendency of errors, a substitute for
something the dreamer knows but cannot approach. We hope to transfer the
same conception to the whole dream, which consists of just such
elements. Our method consists of calling up, by means of free
associations, other substitute formations in addition to these elements,
from which we divine what is hidden.
Let me ask you to permit a slight change in our nomenclature which will
greatly increase the flexibility of our vocabulary. Instead of hidden,
unapproachable, unreal, let us give a truer description and say
inaccessible or unknown to the consciousness of the dreamer. By this we
mean only what the connection with the lost word or with the interfering
intention of the error can suggest to you, namely, unconscious _for the
time being_. Naturally in contrast to this we may term _conscious_ the
elements of the dream itself and the substitute formations just gained
by association. As yet there is absolutely no theoretical construction
implied in this nomenclature. The use of the word unconscious as a
suitable and intelligible descriptive epithet is above criticism.
If we transfer our conception from a single element to the entire dream,
we find that the dream as a whole is a distorted substitute for
something else, something unconscious. To discover this unconscious
thing is the task of dream interpretation. From this, three important
rules, which we must observe in the work of dream interpretation, are
straightway derived:
1. What the dream seems to say, whether it be sensible or absurd, clear
or confused is not our concern, since it can under no condition be that
unconscious content we are seeking. Later we shall have to observe an
obvious limitation of this rule. 2. The awakening of substitute
formations for each element shall be the sole object of our work. We
shall not reflect on these, test their suitability or trouble how far
they lead away from the element of the dream. 3. We shall wait until the
hidden unconscious we are seeking appears of itself, as the missing word
_Monaco_ in the experiment which we have described.
Now we can understand, too, how unimportant it is how much, how little,
above all, how accurately or how indifferently the dream is remembered.
For the dream which is remembered is not the real one, but a distorted
substitute, which is to help us approach the real dream by awakening
other substitute formations and by making the unconscious in the dream
conscious. Therefore if our recollection of the dream was faulty, it has
simply brought about a further distortion of this substitute, a
distortion which cannot, however, be unmotivated.
One can interpret one's own dreams as well as those of others. One
learns even more from these, for the process yields more proof. If we
try this, we observe that something impedes the work. Haphazard ideas
arise, but we do not let them have their way. Tendencies to test and to
choose make themselves felt. As an idea occurs, we say to ourselves "No,
that does not fit, that does not belong here"; of a second "that is too
senseless"; of a third, "this is entirely beside the point"; and one can
easily observe how the ideas are stifled and suppressed by these
objections, even before they have become entirely clear. On the one
hand, therefore, too much importance is attached to the dream elements
themselves; on the other, the result of free association is vitiated by
the process of selection. If you are not interpreting the dream alone,
if you allow someone else to interpret it for you, you will soon
discover another motive which induces you to make this forbidden choice.
At times you say to yourself, "No, this idea is too unpleasant, I either
will not or cannot divulge this."
Clearly these objections are a menace to the success of our work. We
must guard against them, in our own case by the firm resolve not to give
way to them; and in the interpretation of the dreams of others by making
the hard and fast rule for them, never to omit any idea from their
account, even if one of the following four objections should arise: that
is, if it should seem too unimportant, absurd, too irrelevant or too
embarrassing to relate. The dreamer promises to obey this rule, but it
is annoying to see how poorly he keeps his promise at times. At first we
account for this by supposing that in spite of the authoritative
assurance which has been given to the dreamer, he is not impressed with
the importance of free association, and plan perhaps to win his
theoretic approval by giving him papers to read or by sending him to
lectures which are to make him a disciple of our views concerning free
association. But we are deterred from such blunders by the observation
that, in one's own case, where convictions may certainly be trusted, the
same critical objections arise against certain ideas, and can only be
suppressed subsequently, upon second thought, as it were.
Instead of becoming vexed at the disobedience of the dreamer, these
experiences can be turned to account in teaching something new,
something which is the more important the less we are prepared for it.
We understand that the task of interpreting dreams is carried on against
a certain _resistance_ which manifests itself by these critical
objections. This resistance is independent of the theoretical conviction
of the dreamer. Even more is apparent. We discover that such a critical
objection is never justified. On the contrary, those ideas which we are
so anxious to suppress, prove _without exception_ to be the most
important, the most decisive, in the search for the unconscious. It is
even a mark of distinction if an idea is accompanied by such an
objection.
This resistance is something entirely new, a phenomenon which we have
found as a result of our hypotheses although it was not originally
included in them. We are not too pleasantly surprised by this new factor
in our problem. We suspect that it will not make our work any easier. It
might even tempt us to abandon our entire work in connection with the
dream. Such an unimportant thing as the dream and in addition such
difficulties instead of a smooth technique! But from another point of
view, these same difficulties may prove fascinating, and suggest that
the work is worth the trouble. Whenever we try to penetrate to the
hidden unconscious, starting out from the substitute which the dream
element represents, we meet with resistance. Hence, we are justified in
supposing that something of weight must be hidden behind the substitute.
What other reason could there be for the difficulties which are
maintained for purposes of concealment? If a child does not want to open
his clenched fist, he is certainly hiding something he ought not to
have.
Just as soon as we bring the dynamic representation of resistance into
our consideration of the case, we must realize that this factor is
something quantitatively variable. There may be greater or lesser
resistances and we are prepared to see these differences in the course
of our work. We may perhaps connect this with another experience found
in the work of dream interpretation. For sometimes only one or two ideas
serve to carry us from the dream element to its unconscious aspect,
while at other times long chains of associations and the suppression of
many critical objections are necessary. We shall note that these
variations are connected with the variable force of resistance. This
observation is probably correct. If resistance is slight, then the
substitute is not far removed from the unconscious, but strong
resistance carries with it a great distortion of the unconscious and in
addition a long journey back to it.
Perhaps the time has come to take a dream and try out our method to see
if our faith in it shall be confirmed. But which dream shall we choose?
You cannot imagine how hard it is for me to decide, and at this point I
cannot explain the source of the difficulty. Of course, there must be
dreams which, as a whole, have suffered slight distortion, and it would
be best to start with one of these. But which dreams are the least
distorted? Those which are sensible and not confused, of which I have
already given you two examples? This would be a gross misunderstanding.
Testing shows that these dreams have suffered by distortion to an
exceptionally high degree. But if I take the first best dream,
regardless of certain necessary conditions, you would probably be very
much disappointed. Perhaps we should have to note such an abundance of
ideas in connection with single elements of dream that it would be
absolutely impossible to review the work in perspective. If we write the
dream out and confront it with the written account of all the ideas
which arise in connection with it, these may easily amount to a
reiteration of the text of the dream. It would therefore seem most
practical to choose for analysis several short dreams of which each one
can at least reveal or confirm something. This is what we shall decide
upon, provided experience should not point out where we shall really
find slightly distorted dreams.
But I know of another way to simplify matters, one which, moreover, lies
in our path. Instead of attempting the interpretation of entire dreams,
we shall limit ourselves to single dream elements and by observing a
series of examples we shall see how these are explained by the
application of our method.
1. A lady relates that as a child she often dreamt "_that God had a
pointed paper hat on his head_." How do you expect to understand that
without the help of the dreamer? Why, it sounds quite absurd. It is no
longer absurd when the lady testifies that as a child she was frequently
made to wear such a hat at the table, because she could not help
stealing glances at the plates of her brothers and sisters to see if one
of them had gotten more than she. The hat was therefore supposed to act
as a sort of blinder. This explanation was moreover historic, and given
without the least difficulty. The meaning of this fragment and of the
whole brief dream, is clear with the help of a further idea of the
dreamer. "Since I had heard that God was all-knowing and all-seeing,"
she said, "the dream can only mean that I know everything and see
everything just as God does, even when they try to prevent me." This
example is perhaps too simple.
2. A sceptical patient has a longer dream, in which certain people
happen to tell her about my book concerning laughter and praise it
highly. Then something is mentioned about a certain "_'canal,' perhaps
another book in which 'canal' occurs, or something else with the word
'canal' ... she doesn't know ... it is all confused_."
Now you will be inclined to think that the element "canal" will evade
interpretation because it is so vague. You are right as to the supposed
difficulty, but it is not difficult because it is vague, but rather it
is vague for a different reason, the same reason which also makes the
interpretation difficult. The dreamer can think of nothing concerning
the word canal, I naturally can think of nothing. A little while later,
as a matter of fact on the next day, she tells me that something
occurred to her that _may perhaps_ be related to it, a joke that she has
heard. On a ship between Dover and Calais a well-known author is
conversing with an Englishman, who quoted the following proverb in a
certain connection: "_Du sublime au ridicule, il n'y a qu'un pas_."[24]
The author answers, "_Oui, le pas de Calais_,"[25] with which he wishes
to say that he finds France sublime and England ridiculous. But the
"_Pas de Calais_" is really a canal, namely, the English Channel. Do I
think that this idea has anything to do with the dream? Certainly, I
believe that it really gives the solution to the puzzling dream
fragments. Or can you doubt that this joke was already present in the
dream, as the unconscious factor of the element, "canal." Can you take
it for granted that it was subsequently added to it? The idea testifies
to the scepticism which is concealed behind her obtrusive admiration,
and the resistance is probably the common reason for both phenomena, for
the fact that the idea came so hesitatingly and that the decisive
element of the dream turned out to be so vague. Kindly observe at this
point the relation of the dream element to its unconscious factor. It is
like a small part of the unconscious, like an allusion to it; through
its isolation it became quite unintelligible.