Mountains of Lebanon. ―― Grand Scenery. ―― Sublime View. ――
Mountain Traveling. ―― Scriptural Allusions. ―― Cedars of
Lebanon. ―― Their Number, Appearance, and symbolic Character.
―― Population of the Mountains. ―― Districts and Peculiarities
of the Druzes and Maronites. ―― New Road. ―― Crossing the
Mountains. ―― Plain of the Bukâ’a. ―― Leontes. ―― A swollen
River. ―― Ancient Cities. ―― Imposing Cavalcade. ―― Wives of
the Pasha of Damascus. ―― First View of Damascus. ―― Splendor
and Enjoyments of the Interior of the City. ―― Great Plain
of Damascus. ―― Abana and Pharpar. ―― Scene of St. Paul’s
Conversion. ―― City without Ruins. ―― Antiquity and thrilling
History of Damascus. ―― House of Judas. ―― Home of Ananias.
―― “Street called Straight.” ―― Naaman’s Palace. ―― Tombs of
the Great. ―― Location of Damascus. ―― Walls and Gates. ―― Old
Castle. ―― Great Mosque. ―― Gardens of Damascus. ―― Commerce
of the City. ―― Curiosities in the Bazars. ―― Population.
―― Christian Citizens. ―― Origin of the Massacre of 1860. ――
Its Progress. ―― Terrible Scenes. ―― American Vice-Consul.
―― Ruins. ―― Sad Results. ―― Defense of the Christians by
Abd-el-Kader. ―― Visit to the Chieftain of Algiers. ―― Our
Reception. ―― Testimonials. ―― His Appearance. ―― Conclusion.
―― Political History of Palestine. ―― Its Condition under the
Turks. ―― It is now in a Transition State. ―― Possessions of
European Nations. ―― Future of the Holy Land. ―― Christian
Missions. ―― Decline of Mohammedanism. ―― Religious Liberty.
―― Future Glory.
BRANCHES of the ancient Taurus chain, the parallel mountain ranges
of Lebanon and anti-Lebanon, extend from north to south through the
whole length of the Land of Promise. Geologically they consist of a
hard, calcareous, whitish stone, and are disposed in strata variously
inclined. Varying in altitude from 3000 to 13,000 feet above the sea,
and skirted with plains at different points, they continually change
their form and appearance with their levels and situation. Their three
highest summits are Hermon, Sunnîn, and Mukhmel. The first is 10,000
feet high, the second 11,000, the third 13,000. Their surface is
generally smooth, bare, and rounded, but in sections it is broken and
rugged, resembling huge piles of rocks, not unlike, in form, the ruins
of towns and castles. They abound in springs, which, together with
the melting snows covering their higher portions, form torrents, that
descend to the plains on either side, refreshing the parched fields,
and imparting an air of liveliness to the scene. Both their sides and
summits are dotted with forests and groves of oak, fir, larch, box,
laurel, myrtle, and cedar-trees; and, though the soil is scanty, the
industrious peasants have planted vineyards on artificial terraces
which yield the most delicious wines. In the region about the great
Valley of Kadîsha are vast mulberry groves, the leaves of which serve
as food for the silk-worm, and the villagers in that section are
chiefly employed in the production of silk in its raw state.
In crossing the Lebanons the traveler meets with scenes in which Nature
displays beauty or grandeur, sometimes romantic wildness, but always
variety. The sublime elevation and steep ascent of this magnificent
rampart, which seems to inclose the country, and the gigantic masses
which shoot into the clouds, inspire him with astonishment and
reverence. At times he seems to be traveling in the middle regions
of the atmosphere; above him the sky is clear and serene, below him
the thick clouds are dissolving into rain and watering the plains. On
gaining the loftier peaks, he is filled with delight by the immensity
of space which expands around him, and which becomes a fresh subject
of admiration. On every side he beholds a horizon without bounds, while
in clear weather the sight is lost over the desert, extending to the
Persian Gulf, and over the Mediterranean, the waters of which wash
the shores of Europe. Apparently his view commands the world; and the
wandering eye, surveying the successive chains of mountains, transports
the mind in an instant from Antioch to Jerusalem. Approaching nearer
objects, he observes the white coast of the “Great Sea” on the west,
with a boundless expanse of water beyond, and examines with greater
minuteness the rocks, the woods, the torrents, the sloping sides of the
hills, the villages and towns around him, and exults at the diminution
of objects which formerly appeared so great. He sees the valleys
obscured by storm-clouds with fresh delight, and smiles at hearing
the thunder muttering beneath his feet. The once threatening summits
now appear like the furrows of a plowed field or the steps of an
amphitheatre, and he feels himself gratified by an elevation above so
many lofty objects, on which he now looks down with inward satisfaction.
On penetrating into the interior districts of these mountains, the
roughness of the roads, the steep descents and precipices, strike him
at first with terror; but the sagacity of the horse he rides, which
can traverse them with safety, soon relieves him, and he calmly surveys
those picturesque scenes that entertain him in quick succession. He
travels whole days together to reach a place which was in sight at
his departure; he winds, descends, skirts hills, and climbs their
precipitous sides, and in this perpetual change it seems as if Nature
herself varied for him at every step the decorations of the scenery.
Sometimes he beholds villages clinging to the steep declivities on
which they are built, and so arranged that the terraces of one row
of houses serve as streets to those above them. Sometimes he espies
the habitation of a recluse standing on a solitary height, or a gray
convent, whose bell awakens the echoes of the Lebanons. At times he
sees a rock perforated by a torrent, and which has become a natural
arch, and another worn perpendicular, resembling a high wall. On the
hill-sides he passes beds of stones, uncovered and detached by the
waters, rising up like artificial ruins; and in many places, where the
waters meet with inclined beds, the intermediate earth has been washed
away, leaving immense caverns, or subterranean channels have been
formed, through which rivulets flow the year round.[668]
In traversing the Lebanons, the traveler is impressed with the accuracy
of the allusions of the inspired writers to these wonderful mountains.
Such was their fame in the days of Moses that he earnestly prayed, “Let
me go over and see the good land that is beyond Jordan, that goodly
mountain, and Lebanon.”[669] Considered wild and dreary, the seat of
storm and tempest, Lebanon was the type of national desolation in the
mind of the prophet; and regarding its restoration to fertility as
the symbol of returning national prosperity, he asks the significant
question, “Is it not a very little while, and Lebanon shall be turned
into a fruitful field, and the fruitful field shall be esteemed as a
forest?”[670] Always regarded a strong barrier to the Land of Promise,
and opposing an almost insuperable obstacle to the movements of
chariots of war, it was the arrogant boast of Sennacherib, “By the
multitude of my chariots am I come up to the height of the mountains,
to the sides of Lebanon; and I will cut down the tall cedars thereof,
and the choice fir-trees thereof; and I will enter into the height of
his border, and the forest of his Carmel.”[671] As of old, so now, the
less inhabited portions of the range are the chosen haunts of beasts of
prey, to which the prophet thus alludes: “The violence of Lebanon shall
cover thee, and the spoil of beasts, which made them afraid, because of
men’s blood, and for the violence of the land, of the city, and of all
that dwell therein;”[672] and to such ferocious animals that roam on
its summits and lodge in its thickets, and occasionally descend to the
plain in quest of prey, Solomon refers, in that animated invitation to
his spouse, “Come with me from Lebanon, my spouse, with me from Lebanon;
look from the top of Amana, from the top of Shenir and Hermon, from
the lions’ dens, from the mountains of the leopards.”[673] In allusion
to the fragrant odors wafted from the aromatic plants growing upon
its sides, the poet apostrophizes the same imaginary being in these
elegant words: “And the smell of thy garments is like the smell of
Lebanon.”[674] The large vineyards which adorn the terraced sides of
the mountains produce wines of great richness and choice flavor; they
are of a beautiful color, and so oily that they adhere to the glass.
It was to their reviving effect and odor that Hosea refers: “They
that dwell under his shadow shall return; they shall revive as the
corn, and grow as the vine; the scent thereof shall be as the wine
of Lebanon.”[675] The rapid growth of the Christian Church, her great
extent, and the countless number of her converts, was announced in
the no less sublime than truthful figure, “There shall be a handful
of corn in the earth upon the tops of the mountains; the fruit thereof
shall shake like Lebanon.”[676] The stupendous size, the extensive
range, and great elevation of Lebanon; its towering summits capped with
perpetual snow or crowned with fragrant cedars; its olive plantations;
its vineyards, producing the most delicious wines; its clear fountains
and cold-flowing brooks; its fertile vales and odoriferous shrubberies,
combine to form, in Scripture language, “the glory of Lebanon.” In
preintimating the conversion of the Gentiles from their idolatry and
corruption to the purity and blessings of Christianity, Isaiah employs
the majestic figure, “The wilderness and the solitary place shall be
glad for them; and the desert shall rejoice, and blossom as the rose.
It shall blossom abundantly, and rejoice, even with joy and singing;
the glory of Lebanon shall be given unto it, the excellency of Carmel
and Sharon, they shall see the glory of the Lord, and the excellency of
our God.”[677]
In all ages the cedar of Lebanon has been regarded as an object
of unrivaled grandeur and beauty in the vegetable kingdom. It is,
accordingly, one of the natural images which occur in the poetical
style of the Hebrew prophets, and is appropriated to denote kings,
princes, and potentates of the highest rank. In the days of Solomon
the cedar forests of Lebanon were extensive, but at present there is
but one known group on all the range. At the head of Wady Kadîsha, in a
vast but secluded recess formed by the loftiest of the Lebanon summits,
and encircled by a region of perpetual snow, is the small remaining
forest of 400 trees of all sizes and ages. The axe of the builder
and the ruthless hands of peasants have done much to reduce the once
grand forests to this small clump of trees, to preserve which the
mountains seem to have gathered round, covering them from the gaze of
the destroyer. Their solitude strangely affected me; they stand alone,
without another tree in sight or a patch of verdure on the surrounding
acclivities. They cover the sides and summits of a pretty knoll, which
is at the northeastern end of a recess eight miles in diameter, in the
central ridge of Lebanon. The encircling summits are the highest in
Syria, and streaked with perpetual snow. They are white and rounded,
and their sides descend in naked, uniform slopes in the form of a
semicircle. Some of the trees are in the vigor of their growth, others
are gnarled and venerable. In form they are perfect images of grace and
majesty. They are tall and straight, with fanlike branches, contracting
like a cone toward the top. The shag-bark is coarse and heavy; the
leaves are small, narrow, rough, exceedingly green, of a sombre hue,
and arranged in tufts along the branches; they shoot in spring, and
fall in early winter; the cones resemble those of the pine. From the
full-grown trees a fluid trickles naturally and without incision; it is
clear, transparent, whitish, and, after a time, dries and hardens. In
most cases the branches shoot out horizontally from the parent trunk,
forming beautiful pyramidal circles. On the summit of the knoll are
several aged trees 40 feet in girth, and on the northern side is one
the very image of strength and grandeur; its branches are larger than
the trunks of ordinary trees, and its majestic limbs, stretching out
over a vast area, afford a grateful shade. In the centre of the group
is the patriarch of the grove. Measuring 48 feet in circumference, the
trunk is gnarled, the stronger branches have fallen off, and its once
majestic form bends toward the earth under the weight of many years.
Standing beneath its patriarchal shade, I could but ask, “How old art
thou?” for it seemed to have come down from the days of the ancient
seers.
Illustration: CEDARS OF LEBANON.
Pre-eminently the cedars are “sacred” trees. The inspired narrator has
linked them inseparably to many of the grandest events of Bible history.
These are the “trees of the Lord,” the “cedars of Lebanon which he hath
planted;”[678] here is the remnant of that forest from which the timber
was taken for God’s Temple in Jerusalem;[679] these are the inspired
similitudes of grandeur, strength, power, and glory. In denouncing the
judgments of the Lord upon the proud and arrogant, the prophet declares:
“For the day of the Lord of hosts shall be upon every one that is
proud and lofty, and upon every one that is lifted up, and he shall
be brought low; and upon all the cedars of Lebanon that are high and
lifted up, and upon all the oaks of Bashan.”[680] To awaken grateful
emotions in the hearts of the degenerate Jews, Amos reminds them, “Yet
destroyed I the Amorite before them, whose height was like the height
of the cedars;”[681] and, as an illustration of Jehovah’s displeasure
with royal pride, Ezekiel exclaims, “Behold, the Assyrian was a cedar
in Lebanon with fair branches, and with a shadowing shroud, and of a
high stature; and his top was among the thick boughs.”[682] To break
the cedars, and shake the enormous mass on which they grow, are figures
selected by the Psalmist to express the awful majesty and infinite
power of God. “The voice of the Lord is powerful; the voice of the Lord
is full of majesty. The voice of the Lord breaketh the cedars; yea,
the Lord breaketh the cedars of Lebanon.”[683] The forests of the
East, always near the point of ignition under the intense beams of a
vertical sun, are frequently set on fire by the carelessness of those
who have taken shelter in their recesses, and the devouring element
continues its ravages till extensive plantations are consumed. To
such a conflagration the prophet compares the destructive operations
of the Roman armies under Vespasian and Titus against the Jews, when
the nobles and rulers were slaughtered, the city and temple reduced to
ashes, the people either put to the sword or sold into slavery, and the
whole country laid waste. “Open thy doors, O Lebanon, that the fire may
devour thy cedars. Howl, fir-tree, for the cedar is fallen; because the
mighty are spoiled: howl, O ye oaks of Bashan, for the forest of the
vintage is come down.”[684] And as the noblest of trees, and the most
perfect symbol of prosperity when in their prime, they contain the
significance of the precious promise, “The righteous shall flourish
like the palm-tree; he shall grow like a cedar in Lebanon.”[685]
The population of Lebanon is generally estimated at 400,000 souls,
residing in more than 600 towns, villages, and hamlets. The inhabitants
are designated according to their religious faith, and are known as
Moslems, Jews, Greeks, Latins, Armenians, Maronites, and Druzes. Though
the Mohammedans are in power, they are not the ruling class in these
mountain regions. The Maronites and Druzes form the chief part of the
population, and are the hereditary and inveterate foes of each other.
The former occupy chiefly Lebanon, and number about 200,000. They
derive their sectarian name from John Maron, a monk, who was the great
apostle of the Monothelitic heresy in the seventh century, and who died
in 701 A.D. Renouncing their Monothelitism in 1180, they submitted to
the Pope, and are now devoted to the See of Rome. Though residing in
villages from Nazareth to Aleppo, their strong-hold is in the district
of Kesrawân; and their patriarch, who receives his robe of investiture
from Rome, resides in the convent of Kanobîn, in the romantic glen
of Kadîsha, near the cedars. They have 82 convents, in which are
2000 monks and nuns, who have a revenue of $350,000 per annum. Though
brave, independent, and industrious, the Maronites are illiterate and
superstitious, and are subject to the dictation of their clergy in all
matters of religion and politics.
The Druzes occupy the southern half of Lebanon, extending over to Mount
Hermon, and out into the Hauran. They are the descendants of Arabs who
came from the eastern confines of Syria about 900 years ago, and now
number 100,000. They believe in the unity of God; the transmigration of
souls; in the ministry of Hâkim; in the mutual obligation of veracity
and protection; and in the renunciation of all other religions, and
their separation from those in error. Their peculiar doctrines were
first propagated in Egypt by the notorious Hâkim, third of the Fatimite
dynasty, who asserted that the Deity resided in Aly. In 1017 A.D. the
error of the Fatimite was embraced by a Persian by the name of Mohammed
Ben-Ismail ed-Derazy, who settled in Egypt, but who, having excited the
displeasure of the Egyptians by his fanaticism, was compelled to fly to
the base of Mount Hermon, where he became the founder of the Druzes. At
a later period, Hamza, a Persian, asserted that Hâkim was the expected
Messiah, who is to reign triumphant over all the earth. Secret and
exclusive in their worship, the sect is divided into two classes, the
“initiated” and the “ignorant.” Absolute privacy being their object,
their temples of devotion are in remote but conspicuous places――most
of them on the summits of hills. Professedly religious, they are,
nevertheless, a political body, and aim at the conquest of Syria. They
are thoroughly organized. Their whole country is divided into districts.
In each district a weekly council is held, and, by means of delegates,
constant communication is maintained between the different branches of
their community. In peace the Druzes are industrious and hospitable;
in war, daring and ferocious. In their mountain homes they are readily
distinguished from all other sects by their trim beards, and their
neatly-folded turbans of spotless white.[686]
Thanks to the civilization of the West, and especially to French
enterprise, a Macadamized road has been constructed from Beirût to
Damascus. It is a noble highway, 16 feet wide, with deep water-drains
on each side, and with drains, bridges, and buttresses of substantial
mason-work. Regarding bad roads as barriers to the advance of an
invading army, but forgetting that such also impede the retreat of
their own forces, the Turks are the enemies of good roads. And although
the antiquary, with the Turk, may deprecate the destruction of the
camel-route which had been the great highway from Damascus to the sea
since the days of Abraham, yet the interests of commerce and religion
will be promoted by this new and grand turnpike.
Following the Mediterranean coast from Sidon to Beirût, which is the
commercial emporium of Syria and Palestine, we passed through the busy
streets of the latter town, and, leaving the pine forests and mulberry
groves which environ the city to the west, we began the ascent of
Lebanon. Riding rapidly over the newly-made road, we soon mounted the
western spurs of Lebanon, and at midday reached the summit. The skies
were lowery, and a dense fog hung upon the mountains. At times the
fog was impenetrable, and the muleteers were compelled to call to
each other frequently, and ring the warning bell of their approach.
Turning to the southeast of Wady Hummâna, we began to descend amid wild
and varied scenery. The clouds now were lifted up; the sun shone with
unwonted splendor; and at our feet lay the glorious Plain of the Bukâ’a.
The descent was along the southern side of this magnificent glen, the
upper part of which is nine miles across; the bottom is dotted with
villages, and the rocky sides are sprinkled with pines. The banks are
shelving, and the new road not having been completed to this point, our
horses cautiously picked their way among the rocks. To the north of the
ravine, and on the summit of a lofty spur of the mountain, stand the
ruins of a Druze castle, and to the south of it are a few excavated
tombs.
Misdirected by a muleteer, our dragoman attempted to cross the Bukâ’a
in a straight line, avoiding a long sweep over the ordinary path; but
the recent rains had flooded the plains to the depth of three feet,
and the Leontes swept by with increased velocity. Fording one branch
of the river in safety, we were compelled to ride for several miles
in water up to our horses’ haunches, and, on reaching the main channel
of the Leontes, we found the banks too steep and the stream too deep
and rapid to ford. Night was upon us, and, as our only alternative, we
rode northward eight miles, and, after crossing four or five bridges,
pursued our journey in the darkness of the hour to the small village
of Mejdel, where, after having been in the saddle fourteen consecutive
hours, we obtained lodgings in the humble cottage of a Maronite
Christian.
Not far from the town is a hill crowned with the ruins of some
extraordinary but unknown temple, and from its broken walls we obtained
a view of the great Plain of Bukâ’a. The eye followed the mountains on
each side to the northward till lost to view, and southward to where
the chains converge and form the gorge of the Leontes. “The plain is
smooth as a lake, and the artificial mounds which here and there dot
its surface might well pass for islands.” Three miles to the northeast
are the remains of the ancient city of Chalcis, and 25 miles beyond
are the stupendous and splendid ruins of Ba’albek, the Heliopolis of
Antoninus Pius, and the rival of Athens in the grandeur and proportions
of its temples and palaces.
Mounting our horses, in half an hour we entered the defiles of
anti-Lebanon. Ascending the long but picturesque glen of Wady Harîr,
we met a pompous cavalcade, escorting the wives and female slaves of
the Pasha of Damascus to Beirût. The ladies rode in sedans, the sides
of which were of glass, and which were borne on poles by two mules, one
in front and the other behind. The chief ladies were in the maturity
of womanhood, and their countenances were exceedingly fair. They were
attired in the most costly manner, and over their faces were drawn thin
white veils. In the sedans which followed were beautiful Circassian
girls, and behind them came Nubian girls, remarkable only for their
blackness. All seemed happy, and each returned our salutation with
exquisite grace. The eunuchs were mounted on magnificent Arabian horses,
elegantly caparisoned, and the Turkish cavalry, well mounted, and each
bearing a long lance, appeared proud and vigilant.
On leaving Wady Harîr we ascended a ridge of gray hills, and were
soon on the desert plateau of Sahl Judeideh. In all my wanderings in
Arabia and Palestine, I had seen nothing to exceed the sterility and
forbidding aspect of this upland plain. But, as Nature loves contrasts,
the bleak hills and plains of Judeideh only enhance, by way of contrast,
the glorious Plain of El-Merj, on which Damascus stands. Reaching the
summit of the ridge, the city of Eliezer and Naaman lay before me,
embowered in gardens of vast extent and of the most enchanting beauty.
Beholding it for myself, I could no longer wonder at the sublime
encomiums which Arabian writers and modern travelers have pronounced
upon this entrancing prospect. On a magnificent plain, bounded by lofty
mountains, are gardens of olive, apricot, pomegranate, cypress, poplar,
willow, walnut, lemon, and orange trees, covering an area of 30 miles
in circuit, from the midst of which rise tapering minarets, swelling
domes, castellated towers, and white-roofed palaces, the abodes of
merchant princes. It is this half-opened and half-secluded view of
the city that gives power and charm to the vision. Now you see a
golden crescent peering above the bright green foliage, sparkling in
the sunlight like a diamond in a circlet of emeralds; now appears a
half-ruined castle through an opening glade of cypresses and walnuts;
and again is seen the white dome of an ancient mosque, embowered with
stately palms and gracefully drooping willows.
Unlike other Oriental cities, Damascus retains the charm of her beauty
even when seen from within. There is a fascination in her sparkling
fountains and golden-flowing Abana, meandering amid bright oleanders
and tall poplars, and breaking ever and anon into dashing cascades;
in her marble palaces, with mosaic walls and arabesque ceilings, and
splendid mosques, where the khalifs of a thousand years have worshiped;
and in her long, rich bazars, where are seen the shawls of Cashmere,
the carpets of Persia, the silks of the East, and her own Damascus
blades, jeweled daggers, and gold-embroidered robes.
The great plain on which Damascus stands is 21 miles wide, and has
an elevation of 2200 feet above the sea. Triangular in shape, it is
bounded on the northwest by the anti-Lebanon range, which varies in
height from 500 to 1500 feet; along its southwestern border flows the
River Pharpar, beyond which are the Mountains of Haurân, which are
dimly seen upon the horizon; on the east are three lakes, surrounded by
a dense thicket, and bounding the horizon beyond is a range of conical
hills. On this rich plain, covered with vegetation, are over 100
villages, containing a population of 40,000 souls. The eastern portion
is called El-Merj, while that lying around the city bears the name
of Ghûtah. Its perennial fertility is due to the Abana and Pharpar,
“rivers of Damascus.” The highest sources of the latter are near the
village ’Arny, in a large basin-like glen in Mount Hermon. Enlarged by
several smaller streams near Sa’sa’, its clear waters sweep along in
a deep, narrow bed, confined on one side by a rugged wall of volcanic
rock, and on the other by cliffs of limestone. At first a small,
lively stream, it increases in volume as it flows eastward, and, after
meandering through rich meadows, it enters the southern of the three
lakes, not far from the town of Heijâny. The Abana rises in a high
plain south of Zebedâny, on anti-Lebanon. The head of the stream is
called Fijeh, and is one of the largest and most beautiful fountains in
Syria. Bursting forth from a narrow cave, it leaps, foams, and roars as
it descends to a confluence with other streams, when at once it becomes
a rapid torrent 30 feet wide and four deep. Cutting its way through the
mountain, its channel widens and deepens, and from its bed rise cliffs
1000 feet high, and white almost as the snow of Hermon. Rushing in a
southeasterly direction down the mountain, and issuing upon the plain
through a wild chasm, it turns eastward, and, flowing along the north
wall of Damascus, takes its way across the plain to the two northern
lakes. Whether we consider the beautiful blue tinge of its waters, or
their deliciousness, or their fertilizing power, or the sylvan lakes
and pretty cascades they form, the Abana is deservedly the most
celebrated of Syrian rivers. To secure the advantages to be derived
from such a deep, broad stream, its waters are diverted from its
channel through not less than nine canals for the supply of the city
and the irrigation of the plain.
Somewhere on this plain, to the southeast of the city, occurred
two great events――the meeting of Hazael and the Prophet Elisha,[687]
and the conversion of St. Paul.[688] Elisha came from Palestine,
and, when near Damascus, Hazael met him with a present from Benhadad,
the then reigning king, who was lying dangerously ill. Ambitious and
unscrupulous, Hazael returned to his royal master with the prophetic
promise of recovery; but, taking advantage of the king’s debility,
Hazael murdered Benhadad and mounted the throne of Syria.
Nearly a thousand years later, and perhaps upon the same spot,
occurred the other and grander event. On leaving Jerusalem, Saul of
Tarsus pursued the ancient caravan track to the capital of Syria.
Having passed in his journey the most renowned cities in Palestine, and
the scenes of the most important events in the history of Christ, he at
length drew near to Damascus. It was while his heart swelled with pride
and hope at the prospect of the speedy consummation of his terrible
mission that “suddenly there shined round about him a light from heaven,
above the brightness of the sun,” and he “heard a voice saying unto
him, Saul, Saul, why persecutest thou me?” Though it is not possible
to identify the exact spot where he fell to the ground, the features of
the landscape remain unchanged. There now, as then, the white dome of
Hermon is on the south; the bare ridge of anti-Lebanon is on the north;
while to the east are the gardens, the domes, and towers of Damascus.
Now, as then, the sky is cloudless, and a Syrian sun shines in his
strength; and now, as then, the peasant in the same field drives his
oxen with sharp goads, which illustrate, if they did not suggest, the
words of Jesus, “It is hard for thee to kick against the pricks.”
Damascus is too old to have ruins. She has outlived Nineveh, and
Babylon, and Thebes, and Palmyra, and Ba’albek, and Greece, and Rome,
and, retaining the freshness of her youth, seems destined to live
throughout all time. Though successively the prize of the Persian, the
Greek, the Roman, the Saracen, the Christian, and now of the Turk, yet
by some mysterious law she has resisted the changes of fortune incident
to the change of rulers, and, prospering under each dynasty, she is
still the greatest commercial city of Asiatic Turkey, carrying on, as
in olden times, an extensive trade with Egypt, Persia, Bagdad, and the
Bedouins of the Eastern desert.
But her high antiquity and thrilling religious history possess a
peculiar interest. Coming from Southern Mesopotamia, the cradle of our
race, across the Syrian desert, the great grandchildren of Noah settled
on the banks of the Abana. Here, in after years, Abraham found Eliezer,
the faithful steward of his household;[689] and in the little town of
Burzeh, near by, the patriarch lived. Here flow the Abana and Pharpar,
which Naaman thought “better than all the waters of Israel;” and here
was the captive home of the little maid, whose simple story about the
Lord’s prophet of Samaria induced the proud Syrian to visit Gilgal
to be “recovered of his leprosy.”[690] Hither came Elijah and Elisha
to reprove kings and anoint their successors;[691] and hither, but
paramount in the grandeur of its results to all other events, came
St. Paul, to receive his sight and obtain the peace of heaven.[692]
Christian affection has preserved the memory of the sites of many of
these events. The house of Judas, where Paul lodged, and the home of
Ananias, who baptized the great apostle of the Gentiles, are still
pointed out with affectionate remembrance. The “street which is called
Straight,” into which the repentant persecutor was led, is correctly
named, being a mile long, and running east and west through the centre
of the town. In the Roman age it was 100 feet wide, and divided into
three avenues by rows of Corinthian columns, with corresponding portals;
but at present neither the gates nor the colonnades remain. To the
south of the city is the gate Kisân, which has been closed for 700
years. Near this portal is located the scene of St. Paul’s escape,
where, in his own words, “Through a window in a basket was I let down
by the wall and escaped.”[693] In the lapse of time and through the
devastations of war the window is gone, but on the east wall of the
city are several buildings, with projecting windows, from which many
persons were let down during the recent massacre; and to the east of
the wall is the traditional site of Naaman’s palace, on which has been
erected a leper’s hospital, probably for his descendants.
Though Damascus has survived the mightiest cities of the past, the
vast cemeteries in the environs of the town, crowded with the dead, are
a mournful proof that the countless generations, which from the most
remote ages have dwelt within her gates and reclined in her fragrant
gardens, have gone down to their graves. Wandering among the monuments
of those venerable grave-yards, I saw the tombs of three of Mohammed’s
wives; of Fatima, his granddaughter, the unfortunate child of Aly; of
Moawyeh, the founder of the dynasty of the Ommiades; and of Saladîn,
the victor of Hattîn.
Damascus is built on both banks of the Abana, a mile and a half from
the base of the lowest ridge of anti-Lebanon. It is encompassed with a
wall, exhibiting specimens of the masonry of every age from the Roman
to the present time, and which is penetrated by seven gates occupying
their ancient sites. Of an irregular oval shape, the old city, the
nucleus of the present town, is on the south bank of the river. Here
stands the massive castle, a large quadrangular building 840 feet long
by 600 broad, the foundations of which were laid by the Romans and the
superstructure reared by the Saracens. Through this portion of the city
runs the “street called Straight,” and on its northern side are the
principal buildings――the churches of the Christians, the Khan As’ad
Pasha, and the Great Mosque. The latter structure is the most imposing
and magnificent edifice in Damascus. Built in the form of a quadrangle,
it is 489 feet long by 324 wide. On its northern side is a spacious
court 431 feet long and 125 broad, surrounded by cloisters, with arches
springing from granite and marble columns. The interior is divided
into a nave and aisles, formed by two rows of Corinthian columns. The
floor is of tesselated marble, covered with Persian carpets, and the
walls are incased with mosaics and various colored marbles. Beneath
the transept is a cave, said to contain, in a gold casket, the head of
John the Baptist. From the centre of the transept rises a noble dome,
50 feet in diameter and 120 high, resting on four massive piers. The
exterior is adorned with three minarets, the loftiest of which is
250 feet high. It is generally supposed that this grand mosque stands
on the site of the temple of the god Rimmon, and that here Naaman
deposited the “two mules’ burden of earth” which he had brought from
the Plains of Jericho;[694] and here probably stood that beautiful
altar which excited the admiration of King Ahaz, and which served as
the model for the altar he caused to be constructed in Jerusalem.[695]
On the opposite bank of the river is a large suburb, the Turkish
quarter of the city, containing the residences of the chief officers
of the government and of the army. To the west are the barracks, and
to the southward is the Meidân, through which runs a broad avenue, the
ordinary route taken by the pilgrim caravan on its way to Mecca.
The chief resorts of the Damascenes for pleasure are the numerous
and elegant cafés, several of which are on the banks of the Abana.
Here platforms are erected over the foaming waters, shaded by willows,
poplars, palms, and cypresses. At night a thousand miniature lamps of
varied forms and colors glimmer among the branches of the trees and
are reflected in the river below, while turbaned Turks while away the
hours sipping delicious Mocha coffee from thimble-sized cups, whiffing
the best Stamboul tobacco-smoke through ornamented chibouks, humming
some monotone chant, or listening to the recital of some Oriental tale
of love, prodigality, or war. Damascus is at once a commercial and
manufacturing city. The principal articles manufactured are silks,
woolen and cotton cloths, gold and silver ornaments, confections,
nargilies, boots, shoes, slippers, and pattens worn by the belles
of the town. The bazars are usually filled with articles of home
manufacture, and those imported from Manchester, Birmingham, Lyons,
Paris, Constantinople, Cashmere, and Bagdad. Arranged in open stalls,
the bazars are among the most interesting objects to be seen by the
Occidental. Here he witnesses the activity and trade of the city, and
beholds scenes unlike any thing of the kind to be seen in the West. He
is soothed by the odor of perfumes and spices; his appetite is tempted
by preserved fruits and confectioneries; he is delighted or offended
by the scent of various kinds of tobacco; he is bewildered by the sound
of the hammers of the silversmiths; his curiosity is awakened by the
odd-shaped boots and slippers; and his admiration is excited by costly
diamonds, emeralds, rubies, robes, antique armors, Damascus blades, and
jeweled daggers.
Previous to the fearful massacre of 1860 the population of Damascus
numbered 150,000 souls. Of these, 129,000 were Moslems, 6000 Jews,
and 15,000 Christians; but the murders, captivities, and dispersions
incident to that dreadful tragedy have reduced the Christian population
to less than two thirds its original number. The Christians were among
the most wealthy and intelligent citizens; their dwellings and churches
were of the most splendid order, and by their thrift and industry they
had added largely to the revenues of the city. But the fanaticism of
the Moslems culminated in a murderous assault, the results of which are
too well known to the world. The cause was deep-seated and inveterate,
the occasion puerile and trifling. Several Mohammedan and Christian
boys were at play in one of the streets, and the former, evincing the
spirit of persecution, drew the figure of a cross upon the sand, and
then attempted to compel the latter to trample upon it; but, equally
and strongly attached to the religion of their fathers, they resisted,
and a scuffle followed. Learning the cause of the trouble, the parents
of the Christian boys caused the Mohammedan lads to be arrested and
brought before the city judge. It was the torch applied to the magazine.
Indignant and infuriated, the Moslem parents collected their friends,
who proceeded to the Christian Quarter and commenced the terrible
assault. The fathers, sons, and husbands of the Christian families
were absent from their residences, absorbed in the business of their
several callings. The attack was made in mid-afternoon, and in an
hour the whole Moslem population was engaged in the work of death and
destruction. Their religious hatred had been long suppressed, but their
pent-up fury now burst forth like the sudden and violent irruption of
a volcano. The tocsin was sounded, and the followers of the Crescent
hastened to exterminate the adherents of the Cross. Entering their
dwellings, Christian mothers, wives, and daughters were surprised by
their ravishers and murderers, while their husbands, fathers, and sons
were slain in the streets by hundreds while hastening to rescue their
beloved ones. Escaping through windows, and leaping from the roofs of
their dwellings, the Christian women sought refuge in their churches
and monasteries; but, forgetful of the reverence due the sacred
sanctuaries, the Moslems applied the torch, consuming the edifices
and the helpless refugees within them. The flames continued to spread
till a third of the city, and by far the most elegant portion, had been
reduced to ashes. Where the house of a Christian adjoined that of a
Mohammedan, it was torn down rather than fired, lest the ungovernable
flames might consume what had not been doomed to destruction. In
a covered alley not far from “Straight” street, 300 women, the
accomplished wives and daughters of merchant princes, took refuge; but
their merciless persecutors added death to insult, and sabred them on
the spot. The wild Bedouins who chanced to be in the city dispatched
couriers to their companions, who, mounted on their fleet horses, came
as on the wings of the wind to abuse and murder the helpless.
The third point of attack on that memorably sad day was the residence
of the American Vice-Consul, Dr. Mashaka, one of the most eminent of
Arabic scholars. His ample fortune allowed him to live in princely
style, and his family is the most accomplished I saw in the East.
His daughter was wounded, his son was missing for three days, and the
person of his beautiful and excellent wife was barely rescued from
the licentious and murderous Moslems by the timely interposition of
a female friend. He himself was wounded, and only escaped death by
the heroic behavior of his Mohammedan cawass, and by flight to the
residence of Abd-el-Kader.
Day after day the work of death and conflagration went on. Magnificent
cathedrals, stately monasteries, and splendid private residences were
reduced to heaps of shapeless ruins. Every where were to be seen broken
fountains, shattered vases, fragments of mosaic pavements, tesselated
marble walls, and arabesque ceilings, with costly furniture strewn
about in utter confusion. Even the small stone house which tradition
had consecrated as the home of the good Ananias suffered from the
torch of persecution. The fine residences of the American missionaries
were consumed, and their large and valuable libraries scattered among
the débris of their homes. In addition to the slain, 500 of the fair
sisters and daughters of those who survived the massacre were carried
to the mountains by the wild Bedouins of the Hauran. Thousands of
Christian families became fugitives, their homes, fortunes, and hopes
forever ruined. The Christian Mission was broken up, and their church,
in which 400 worshipers assembled on the Sabbath in the enjoyment
of a pure faith, was consumed. Bishops, priests, and monks fled, and
Damascus was given over to Mohammed and the Devil. The authorities of
the city connived with the mob, and the government troops joined in the
acts of violence. But there was one humane Mohammedan who attempted to
stay the massacre, and whose home afforded shelter to the defenseless.
Abd-el-Kader, with 300 Algerian soldiers, who had followed their
celebrated chief into exile, stood as a wall of brass against the
fanaticism and fury of the murderers. At the head of his little band,
he drove the mob from places which they had attacked, he pursued those
who were bearing off helpless women, and swore the death of any who
should invade his home to dispatch those who had taken refuge beneath
his roof. Inflexible in purpose as he was invincible in courage, he
himself became the object of their revenge. Undaunted by their threats
and repelling their attacks, he became the enemy of the Moslem, but the
friend and benefactor of the Christian. Great as he is humane, he will
long be remembered with delight by the civilized world.
It was in the afternoon of the last day I spent in Damascus that
I enjoyed an interview with this distinguished man. After waiting in
the reception-room, which was plainly furnished, while the servant
announced our names, the Emir appeared at the fountain in a spacious
court-yard, and invited us to seats in an elegant apartment, on divans
of embroidered satin. Small cups of Mocha coffee were passed, according
to the invariable etiquette of a Mohammedan house. The conversation,
which had been general, now turned upon the recent massacre, and the
noble part he had acted in the sad drama. His modesty, however, allowed
him to say but little, but he kindly showed us the several national
presents he had received as testimonials of his generous deeds. Greece
had sent him two gold stars, on one of which was a medallion likeness
of King Otho, and on the other were the words, “Thy right hand, O Lord,
is glorified;” Turkey had presented him with two massive silver stars,
bearing the appropriate inscription, “Protection, Zeal, and Fidelity;”
France had conferred on him the “Cross of the Legion of Honor,”
encircled with emeralds and diamonds, and surmounted with a gold crown;
the “Free and Accepted Masons” had bestowed upon him the symbols of
their Order; Sardinia, and Russia, and Austria, and Prussia had honored
him with gold stars set with jewels; and from the United States he had
received a magnificent brace of revolvers, of which he seemed justly
proud. Though thus honored by all these great powers, he had received
no gift of remembrance from England; and when assured by an English
gentleman present that much had been said in his country about a gift,
the Emir quietly replied, “I prefer works to words.” This failure on
the part of England to recognize the magnanimity of this extraordinary
man is inexplicable. By the Turks it is regarded as an acquiescence
in the fearful slaughter. This is unjust; the cause, however, is to
be found in her truckling policy toward the Turkish empire, and in
her unwillingness to offend the religious sensibilities of the inhuman
Moslem. Abd-el-Kader is now in the prime of life, of full habit,
above the medium height, with a full face, large head, high, rounded
brow, eyes large, black, and lustrous, beard slight and dark, and the
expression of his countenance, when in repose, is that of benevolence
and kindliness; but the peculiar shape of his mouth, together with
his general air, indicate decision, courage, and the capacity of
being, when circumstances demand, impetuous and even desperate. He
is celebrated for the terrible battles he fought with the French in
Algiers, and at present is confined within the limits of Damascus as
their prisoner of war. The protection he extended to the Christians has
rendered him unpopular with the Moslems of the city of his exile, and
he desires another more congenial with his tastes and sentiments. He is
a devout Mohammedan, but, were he a Christian, what a splendid leader
he would make to unite and lead the Syrian Christians to victory!
CONCLUSION.
Some master-mind is yet to write the political history of the
Holy Land from the conquest of Titus to the death of the late Sultan
Abd-ul-Medjid. Such a history would bring to light crusades the most
chivalrous and ruinous, political schemes the most ambitious and
degrading, and religious systems the most fanatical and corrupting
the world has ever known. Such a work would advance the science of
government and the higher purposes of Christianity; it would be the
echo of the prophetic voice uttered centuries ago, and furnish an
unanswerable argument that the present physical and moral condition
of the Land of Promise is the result of misrule, and of a stupendous
system of oppression, extortion, and fanaticism. It would especially
prove the undeniable fact that the Turk is the enemy of good government,
of national greatness, of social and intellectual refinement, of
domestic and individual purity, and demonstrate beyond dispute that the
reign of the Turk is the reign of ruin. Suited best to the excitement
of battle, and to the plunder and murder of the vanquished, in times of
peace the unrestrained passions of the Turk drive him to vices no less
destructive of himself than they are blighting to civilized society. In
the camp and on the field he has always prospered; but when unimpelled
by the excitement of war, his vigor has disappeared, and he has been a
leech on the body politic, and a drone in community. Whether in Europe,
Asia, or Africa, he has run a regular course of rapid attainment of
power by bloody and devastating wars, and then as regularly declined
from the moment when, as conqueror, he sat down to reap the fruits of
victory. The Turk and Islam are identical; the former is the embodiment
of the latter, and the latter is exterminating to all who refuse
submission to the sway of the False Prophet, and annihilating to every
thing which does not subserve the ends of his religion. No country
has risen to greatness under his power; and those which were great
in national resources, in splendor of architecture, in the wealth of
agriculture, and in the superiority of art and science, have dwindled
into insignificance, or utterly perished under his deteriorating
influence.
Palestine is a deplorable instance of national wretchedness, to
which one of the fairest lands upon the face of the globe has been
reduced since the reign of the Islamitic Turk. From the Arab invasion
in 633 A.D., headed by the famous generals Khâled and Abu Obeidah,
to the present time, the cultivation of the soil has been neglected,
commerce diminishing, and government perverted to the worst of purposes.
Sixteen years subsequent to that invasion the Crescent was the ensign
of dominion from the shores of the Atlantic to the confines of India.
Of the then nine flourishing cities in Syria, Damascus alone retains
its earlier grandeur, and this only in part, as in the conflagration
and massacre of 1860 a third of its most magnificent edifices were
destroyed, and 15,000 of its noblest citizens slain, captured, or
dispersed. Led by the heroic Godfrey, the Crusaders in 1099 A.D.
recovered the much-abused land from the neglect and cruelty of the Turk,
and for three quarters of a century the Land of Promise was restored to
comparative prosperity. Under those Christian rulers the resources of
the country were developed to an astonishing degree; the fleets of Pisa,
Genoa, and Venice traded along its shores, and populous cities sprung
up as if by magic. But in 1187 the battle of Kurûm Hattîn decided the
fate of the Crusaders. Jerusalem was retaken by Saladîn; the Franks
were expelled from Palestine; and four years thereafter the celebrated
Melek-ed-Dhâher replaced all Syria under the domination of the Turks,
and thenceforward to the present time the Holy Land has been the
prey of Mohammedan adventurers, and is now a dependency to the Porte,
divided into three pashalics.
Six centuries prove that the Moslem is neither the fosterer of the fine
arts nor the promoter of agriculture, commerce, manufactures, or public
works of any kind. When, in the 12th century, the Christians were
expelled, the large and fertile plains of Sharon, Phœnicia, Esdraelon,
and Mukhnah were fruitful fields yielding golden harvests, the reward
of honest husbandry; but now those plains are the camping-grounds of
the wandering Arab, where he feeds his flocks _ad libitum_, and then,
mounting his fleet horse, scours the adjoining country in search of
plunder. The Crusaders left to their conquerors large and flourishing
maritime cities, with a lucrative commerce with Europe and the Levant;
but, under the dominion of the Turks, those commercial towns are poor
and filthy, without harbors, without vessels, without mariners, without
trade. The Koran, forbidding the “making of any thing like unto that
which is in heaven above or in the earth beneath,” has not only left
Syria without a picture and without a statue, but has also led to the
wanton destruction of the splendid edifices of mediæval times. The
knights of that period rivaled the Romans, and even Herod the Great,
in the erection of costly temples, palaces, and churches. In Jerusalem,
Ramleh, Ludd, Beeroth, Bethel, Samaria, ’Akka, Tyre, Sidon, and
especially in Athlît――the _Castellum Peregrinorum_ of the defenders of
the Cross, were structures worthy to adorn any age; but, content with
a shade-tree under which to whiff his nargily, and an ill-formed hovel
for the accommodation of his many wives, the Moslem has allowed those
magnificent buildings to crumble to ruins, or has ruthlessly destroyed
them. With one or two exceptions, the celebrated edifices which
remain are the work of other hands. The great mosque in Damascus
was originally a Christian church, erected by Arcadius, the son of
Theodosius, and dedicated to John the Baptist; the Mosque of El-Aksa,
in Jerusalem, was once a church, built by order of the Emperor
Justinian, and dedicated to “My Lady,” the Virgin Mary; and the mosque
covering the cave of Machpelah was also a Christian temple. Excepting
the Mosque of Omar, the Mohammedans have scarcely a structure of any
importance of their own erection in the Holy Land, and, unlike the
descendants of the Greeks and Romans, the posterity of the Turks will
never sit amid the splendid ruins of ancestral greatness.
Palestine is now in a transition state, and there are indications that
great political and moral changes are at hand. Numbering in all more
than a million and a half, the present inhabitants are a mixed race,
the several portions of which are designated by their religion rather
than by their nationality. Their religious appellations are party
names, and are the symbols of power, fear, or reproach, according to
the comparative strength of the different parties. Three of the most
numerous of the sects represent three great powers――France, Russia,
and Turkey, and by intrigue, bribery, and fanaticism, will inevitably
involve those mighty nations in a bloody strife for the possession of
the Holy Land. Palestine seems destined to be again contended for by
the nations of Western Europe, and the Plain of Esdraelon may once more
become the battle-field of nations. At present most of these powers
have landed possessions there, and are annually making new purchases.
On Mount Akra, to the southwest of the Holy City, the Russians have
inclosed a large area with high, strong walls; within is a monastery,
which in time of war will serve all the purposes of a fortress, and to
the inclosure they have given the name of “New Jerusalem.” Prussia has
a large hospice within the city, and also several flourishing religious
and literary institutions. The French hold possession of the ancient
Church of St. Anne, and have recently purchased the land adjoining it;
they own the large green plat of ground opposite the Church of the Holy
Sepulchre, which was once occupied by the Knights of St. John; they
have bought the old castle in Beirût, and have constructed a noble
Macadamized road from that city to Damascus, and have the right of way
for 49 years. And on Mount Zion England has a consular building, and a
church of which any nation might be justly proud, and by her diplomacy
controls the policy of the Sublime Porte more than any other European
power.
But, whatever may be the political relations of Palestine in the
future, the great and only hope of her regeneration and elevation
is to be found in her Christian missions. These are established in
Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Joppa, Nablous, Nazareth, Sidon, Beirût, Damascus,
and in several of the larger towns in the Lebanon Mountains. In
Jerusalem the mission is well and thoroughly organized, and is attended
by the happiest results; the numerous schools are in a prosperous
condition, and the places of worship filled with sincere and attentive
listeners. But the Beirût Mission is really doing the greatest work in
evangelizing the land. The Bible has been translated into Arabic, and
is now given to the millions who speak that language. At Abuh, in the
mountains, there is a seminary for the training of native missionaries,
and a college of a high order will soon be opened in Beirût, liberally
endowed by American citizens.
Smitten with decay, and retiring before the advance of Western
civilization, Mohammedanism is yielding to the superior power of
Christianity. The Crescent, which for so many centuries was the ensign
of the conquering Turk, no longer excites alarm. It was once the
Crescent of the new moon, expanding and brightening till it shone
resplendent on the plains of Asia, the shores of Africa, and the hills
of Europe; but it is now the Crescent of the old moon, contracting and
dim, from the horns of which are slipping the conquering sword of the
Prophet and the diadem of Othman. Demanded by the Christian powers of
the earth, and protected by their armies and navies, religious liberty
in Palestine is offered to the Christian and the Jew. The Land of
Promise has a glorious past, and an equally glorious future awaits to
dawn upon it. Prophecy is big with an exalted destiny, the unfoldings
of which will turn all eyes to the land of sacred song, the cradle of
our religion, and the scene of our Lord’s incarnation. Thrice happy
will be that day when Jerusalem shall be rebuilt and made holy; when
the scattered tribes shall be recalled, and go up to worship in a
temple more magnificent than that of Solomon; and when, from the Plains
of Bethlehem to the snow-capped summits of Mount Hermon, and from the
coasts of Tyre and Sidon to the Mountains of Gilead, light shall arise
out of darkness, and the voice of Christian praise, mingling with the
song of angels, shall be as sincere as it shall be universal.
THE END.
FOOTNOTES.
1 – Num., xxxiv., 2‒12; Ezek., xlvii., 15‒20.
2 – Num., xxxiv.
3 – 2 Sam., iii., 10.
4 – Gen., xv., 18; 2 Sam., viii., 3; 1 Kings, iv., 21‒25.
5 – Volney’s Travels.
6 – Ex., iii., 17.
7 – Ib.
8 – Levit., xxvi., 5.
9 – Deut., viii., 9.
10 – Ib., xi., 10‒12.
11 – Ps. lxv., 13; civ., 14, 15.
12 – Gibbon’s Rome, vol. i., p. 27.
13 – Stanley’s Palestine, p. 121.
14 – Olin’s Travels, ii., p. 429.
15 – Barclay’s C. G. K., p. 416.
16 – Jer., iii., 3, 4.
17 – Amos, iv., 7.
18 – Barclay, p. 53.
19 – See Milman’s note in Gibbon’s Rome, i., p. 27, 28.
20 – Josephus, Anti B., b. xv., c. iv.
21 – Milman’s note on Gibbon, i., p. 27, 28.
22 – Olin’s Travels.
23 – Volney’s Travels.
24 – Ps. civ., 24, 25.
25 – Ps. cvii., 23‒26.
26 – Ib., civ., 18.
27 – Ib., cxlvii., 16, 17.
28 – Ib., lxiii., 1.
29 – Isa., xxxii., 2.
30 – Gen., xx., 1.
31 – Ps. civ., 32.
32 – 1 Chron., v., 26.
33 – Gen., xlix., 3, 4.
34 – Ib., xlix., 19.
35 – Hibbard’s Palestine.
36 – Gen., xlviii., 19.
37 – Gen., xlix., 7; Deut., xxxiii.; Num., i., 23, and xxvi., 14.
38 – Gen., xlix., 16, 17.
39 – Deut., xxxiii., 22; Judges, xviii., and xvi., 31.
40 – Gen., xlix., 8‒12.
41 – Ib., xlix., 27.
42 – Josh., xviii., 16, 17; 2 Sam., v., 6‒9.
43 – Deut., xxxiii., 12.
44 – Judges, iii., 15.
45 – 1 Sam., ix., 21.
46 – 1 Sam., xiv., 1.
47 – Esther, ii., 5.
48 – Ib., ii., 7.
49 – Phil., iii., 5.
50 – Hibbard’s Palestine, p. 76, and Clark on Num., xxvi.
51 – Gen., xlix., 22.
52 – Deut., xxxiii., 17.
53 – Gen., xlix., 25.
54 – Deut., xxxiii., 13‒17.
55 – Gen., xlix., 14, 15.
56 – Judges, v., 15.
57 – Deut., xxxiii., 18.
58 – Gen., xlix., 13.
59 – Deut., xxxiii., 19.
60 – Napoleon.
61 – Gen., xlix., 20.
62 – Deut., xxxiii., 24.
63 – Hibbard’s Palestine, p. 97.
64 – 1 Chron., xii., 36.
65 – Deut., xxxiii., 25.
66 – Luke, ii., 36.
67 – Luke, iv., 26.
68 – Bochart’s translation.
69 – Deut., xxxiii., 23.
70 – Matt., iv., 13.
71 – Ps. cxxv., 2.
72 – Stanley’s Palestine, p. 174.
73 – Ps. xlviii., 12, 13.
74 – 1 Pet., ii., 6.
75 – Ps. cxliv., 12.
76 – Isa., xxviii., 16.
77 – Matt., iv., 5, 6.
78 – Anti B., xv., c. xi.; Robinson’s B. R., i., p. 290.
79 – Mark, xiii., 2.
80 – Robinson’s B. R., i., p. 287.
81 – Barclay’s C. G. K., p. 459.
82 – 1 Kings, vi., 7.
83 – Neh., ii., 13.
84 – Jer., xix., 2.
85 – 2 Kings, xi., 16‒19.
86 – Ib., xxv., 4.
87 – Jer., xxxviii., 7‒13.
88 – Luke, xxii., 55.
89 – Book v., chap. iv., p. 528.
90 – Jer., xxvi., 18.
91 – Josephus, B. J., b. v., c. iv., p. 3.
92 – Luke, xxii., 12.
93 – John, xiii., 12.
94 – Ib., xx., 19.
95 – John, xx., 25.
96 – Acts, ii., 1.
97 – Acts, ii., 2‒39.
98 – Neh., ii., 3.
99 – Ib., iii., 16.
100 – Anti B., vii., c. xv., s. 3.
101 – Ib.
102 – Josephus, anti B., xvi., c. vii., s. 1.
103 – Acts, ii., 29.
104 – Barclay’s City of the Great King, p. 214, 215.
105 – 2 Kings, v., 12.
106 – Ib., v., 27.
107 – Ib., xv., 5.
108 – Anti B., xv., c. xi., s. 3.
109 – B. J., b. v., c. v., s. 8.
110 – Acts, iv., 6.
111 – Ib., v., 34.
112 – Isa., lxvi., 9‒12.
113 – Ps. lxxix., 1‒5.
114 – Anti B., xv., c. xv., s. 3.
115 – Luke, xix., 44.
116 – Wars of the Jews, b. vii., c. i.
117 – Wars of the Jews, b. vi., c. vi.
118 – Antiquities of the Jews, b. xiv., c. iv.
119 – 1 Kings, x., 5.
120 – Antiquities, b. xv., c. xi.
121 – John, xix., 5.
122 – 71,000 were slain.
123 – Robinson’s B. R., vol. i., p. 298‒300.
124 – Gen., xxii., 9.
125 – 1 Chron., xxi., 15‒20.
126 – Ib., xxi., 21‒27.
127 – 2 Chron., iv., 1.
128 – Robinson’s B. R., vol. i., p. 299.
129 – Josephus, anti B., xv., c. xv., s. 3.
130 – Barclay’s City of the Great King, p. 525.
131 – Josephus, W. J., b. vi., c. iii., s. 4;
Robinson’s B. R., vol. i., p. 364‒405.
132 – Stanley.
133 – Gen., xxiii., 4.
134 – Matt., xxiii., 27.
135 – Dr. Barclay.
136 – Porter.
137 – 2 Sam., xviii., 18.
138 – 2 Chron., xxi., 1.
139 – Joel, iii., 2.
140 – 2 Chron., xxiv., 21.
141 – Matt., xxiii., 35.
142 – Matt., xxiii., 27.
143 – Ecc., xii., 5.
144 – Matt., ix., 23.
145 – Ps. lvi., 8.
146 – 1 Kings, xi., 4‒8.
147 – Neh., ii., 14.
148 – 2 Sam., xviii., 18.
149 – Ex., xv., 20, 21.
150 – Isa., viii., 6, 7.
151 – Neh., iii., 15.
152 – John, ix., 1‒7.
153 – Ib., v., 7.
154 – Josh., xv., 7.
155 – Maccabees, i., 19, 22.
156 – Josh., xv., 7.
157 – 2 Sam., xvii., 17.
158 – 1 Kings, i., 9.
159 – Josh., xv., 8.
160 – Jer., vii., 31.
161 – Ib., vii., 32.
162 – 2 Kings, xxiii., 10.
163 – Josephus, W. J., b. vi., c. viii., s. 5.
164 – Josephus, W. J., b. v., c. xiii., s. 7.
165 – Mark, ix., 44.
166 – Matt., xxvii., 4‒10.
167 – Ib., xxvii., 5.
168 – 1 Kings, i., 40.
169 – 2 Chron., xxxii., 30.
170 – Isa., vii., 3.
171 – Ib., xxxvi., 2‒10.
172 – 2 Kings, xx., 20.
173 – 2 Chron., xxxii., 30.
174 – 2 Chron., xxxii., 3‒4.
175 – Eccl., ii.
176 – Gen., xxi., 25.
177 – Num., xx., 19.
178 – 1 Sam., xxv., 11.
179 – Prov., v., 15.
180 – John, iv., 14.
181 – Study of Words, p. 13.
182 – Robinson.
183 – Lazarus.
184 – John, xi., 31.
185 – Luke, x., 38.
186 – John, xi., 7.
187 – Matt., xxvi., 6.
188 – John, xii., 3.
189 – Luke, x., 38‒42.
190 – John, xi.
191 – Mark, xiv., 9.
192 – Luke, xviii. and xix.
193 – John, xii., 1‒11.
194 – Zech., ix., 9.
195 – Matt., xxi., 9.
196 – Zech., xiv., 4.
197 – 2 Sam., xv. and xvi.
198 – Num., xix., 2‒10.
199 – Ezek., xi., 23.
200 – John, xviii., 2.
201 – Matt., xxiv., 3‒41.
202 – Ib., xxv.
203 – John, xviii.
204 – Luke, xxiv., 50.
205 – Acts, i., 12.
206 – 2 Samuel, v., 24.
207 – John, xii., 1‒12.
208 – Mark, xi., 12‒14.
209 – Mark, xi., 15‒17; John, ii., 13‒17.
210 – Matt., xxi., 15, 16.
211 – Matt., xxi.‒xxvi.
212 – Mark, xiv., 10, 11.
213 – Matt., xxvi., 20.
214 – Mark, xiv., 22‒25.
215 – See John, xiii.‒xvii.; Matt., xxvi., 30.
216 – Luke, xxiii., 1‒38.
217 – This bridge will probably last for 1000 years to come.
218 – John, xix., 20.
219 – Heb., xii., 12.
220 – Luke, xxiii., 26.
221 – John, xix., 20.
222 – Matt., xxvii., 55.
223 – Luke, xxiii., 27.
224 – Matt., xxvii., 41‒42.
225 – Ib., xxvii., 39‒40.
226 – Matt., xxvii., 51.
227 – Ib., xxvii., 52.
228 – John, xix., 41.
229 – Matt., xxvii., 31.
230 – Luke, xxiii., 33.
231 – John, xix., 20.
232 – Ib., xix., 41.
233 – Matt., xxviii., 6‒7.
234 – Acts, i., 9‒13.
235 – Ib., ii., 22.
236 – Ib., ii., 8‒11.
237 – Ib., ii., 44‒46.
238 – Ib., viii., 1.
239 – Josephus, B. J., b. vii., c. i.
240 – Robinson’s Biblical Researches, vol. i., p. 407‒418.
Barclay’s City of the Great King, p. 219‒238.
241 – See Lane’s Egypt.
242 – Ex., xii., 1‒20.
243 – Luke, xiii., 25.
244 – Ex., xii., 4.
245 – J. D. Phelps. Esq.
246 – Josh., xv., 7.
247 – Matt., iv., 1.
248 – Luke, x., 30‒37.
249 – 1 Kings, xvii., 3‒7.
250 – Josh., vii., 21‒26.
251 – Num., xxxiii., 47, 48.
252 – Josh., ii.
253 – Ib., vi., 1‒25.
254 – Ib., vi., 26; 1 Kings, xvi., 34.
255 – 2 Sam., x., 5.
256 – 2 Kings, ii., 5.
257 – Ib., ii., 6‒18.
258 – Ib., ii., 19‒24.
259 – Josephus, anti B., xiii., c. vii., s. 4;
1 Mac., xvi. 14, 15.
260 – Anti B., xv., c. iv.
261 – Ib., b. xvii., c. x.
262 – Luke, xix.; Mark, x., 46.
263 – Anti B., v., c. i., s. 4.
264 – Josh., iv., 1‒20.
265 – Ib., v., 9.
266 – Ib., v., 10.
267 – Ib., v., 13‒15.
268 – Ib., xviii., 1.
269 – 1 Sam., vii., 16; x., 8.
270 – Ib., xi., 15.
271 – Ib., xiii., 8‒14.
272 – 2 Sam., xix., 15.
273 – 2 Kings, iv., 38‒41.
274 – Ib., v.
275 – Deut., xxxiv., 3.
276 – 2 Kings, ii., 21.
277 – Robinson’s B. R., vol. i., p. 562.
278 – B. J., b. iv., c. x., s. 3.
279 – Josh., xi., 6‒10.
280 – Josh., xii., 2‒5.
281 – Gen., xxxii., xxxiii.
282 – Judges, vii., 24, 25.
283 – Ib., xii., 5, 6.
284 – Num., xxii., 41.
285 – Ib., xxiii., 14.
286 – Ib., xxiii., 28.
287 – Num., xxiii., 10.
288 – Ib., xxiii., 24.
289 – Ib., xxiv., 5.
290 – Deut., xxxiv., 1‒3.
291 – Ib., xxxiv., 5.
292 – Josh., iii., 16.
293 – Josh., iii., 16.
294 – Ib., iii., 15.
295 – 2 Kings, ii.
296 – 2 Kings, v., 12.
297 – Luke, iii., 3.
298 – John, i., 28.
299 – Ib., iii., 23.
300 – Clark’s Comment. on John, i., 28.
301 – Stanley’s Palestine, p. 304, 305.
302 – Matt., iii., 1.
303 – Ib., iii., 5.
304 – Gen., xiii., 10.
305 – Gen., xiii., 10.
306 – Josephus, b. xviii., c. v.
307 – Num., xxii., 36.
308 – Judges, xi., 19.
309 – Ib., xi., 13.
310 – Josh., xiii., 8.
311 – 2 Kings, iii., 37.
312 – Gen., xix., 17‒20.
313 – Ib., xix., 28.
314 – 2 Sam., viii., 13.
315 – 2 Kings, xiv., 7.
316 – Josephus, B. J., b. vii., c. viii.
317 – 1 Sam., xxiv., 1‒7.
318 – 2 Chron., xx., 1, 2.
319 – Species of fragrant grape.――THOMPSON.
320 – Cant., i., 14.
321 – 1 Sam., xxv., 1‒42.
322 – Judges, iv., 19.
323 – Josh., xix., 15.
324 – Matt., ii., 1.
325 – Micah, v., 2.
326 – Ib.
327 – Gen., xxxv., 18‒20.
328 – Ruth, iv., 13.
329 – Ib., iv., 17‒22.
330 – Luke, ii., 7.
331 – Matt., ii., 11.
332 – Luke, ii., 7.
333 – Anti B., b. xv., c. ix., s. iv.;
B. J., b. i., c. xxi., s. x.;
Ib., b. iv., c. ix., s. v.
334 – 2 Sam., xiv., 1‒20.
335 – Amos, i., 1.
336 – 1 Sam., xxii., 1‒3.
337 – 2 Sam., xxiii., 14‒17.
338 – Ib., xxii., 3, 4.
339 – 1 Sam., xxii., 1.
340 – Ib.
341 – 1 Chron., xi., 15.
342 – Gray.
343 – Num., xiii., 22.
344 – Gen., xiii., 18.
345 – Ib., xiv., 13.
346 – Gen., xiv., 14.
347 – Ib., xviii.
348 – Ib., xix., 28.
349 – Ib., xvi., xvii.
350 – Ib., xxiii.
351 – Ib., xxxv., 29.
352 – Ib., l., 13.
353 – Josh., xv., 13.
354 – 2 Sam., ii., 11.
355 – 2 Sam., iv., 12.
356 – See Stanley’s Account of the Visit of the Prince of Wales,
Appendix II. to his History of the Jewish Church.
357 – Gen., xxi., 33.
358 – Ib., xxii., 1‒19.
359 – Ib., xxv., 27‒34.
360 – Ib., xxviii.
361 – Ib., xlvi., 1.
362 – 1 Kings, xix., 1‒4.
363 – Gen., xviii., 2.
364 – Ib., xviii., 4.
365 – Ib., xxix., 6.
366 – Ib., xviii., 8.
367 – Ib., xviii., 9.
368 – Num., xiii., 16‒26.
369 – Micah, iv., 4.
370 – Num., xiii.
371 – Matt., xxi., 33.
372 – Josh., xv., 58.
373 – Gen., xxxv., 16‒20.
374 – 2 Sam., v., 24.
375 – Deut., ii., 23.
376 – Acts, viii., 27‒29.
377 – Luke, i., 39.
378 – 1 Sam., v. and vi.
379 – Judges, xiii., 2.
380 – Ib., xiv., 1.
381 – Judges, xiv., 5, 6.
382 – Ib., xiv., 14.
383 – Ib., xv., 4.
384 – Ib., xvi., 4.
385 – Ib., xvi., 5‒21.
386 – 1 Sam., xvii.
387 – 1 Sam., xxi., 10‒15.
388 – Robinson.
389 – Josh., x., 31, 32.
390 – 1 Chron., xi., 5‒12.
391 – Gen., x., 19.
392 – Josh., xiii., 3.
393 – Judges, xiii., 1.
394 – Judges, xvi., 2‒3.
395 – Ib., xvi., 21.
396 – Heb., xi., 32.
397 – Robinson.
398 – Zeph., ii., 4.
399 – Zech., ix., 5.
400 – 1 Sam., iv., v.
401 – 2 Chron., xxvi., 6.
402 – Neh., xiii., 23‒26.
403 – Acts, viii., 40.
404 – Zech., ix., 6.
405 – 2 Chron., xxvi., 6.
406 – 1 Sam., v., 10‒12.
407 – Josh., xix., 46.
408 – Acts, ix., 36.
409 – Josh., xix., 46.
410 – 2 Chr., ii., 16; Ezra, iii., 7.
411 – Jonah, i., 3.
412 – Acts, ix., 36.
413 – Ib., x., 6.
414 – Judge.
415 – Ruth, xiv., 11.
416 – Ex., vii., 12.
417 – 1 Chron., viii., 12.
418 – Acts, ix., 32.
419 – 2 Chron., xxviii., 18.
420 – Deut., xxii., 10.
421 – Josh., xxi., 22.
422 – Josh., x.
423 – Inn.
424 – Josh., xviii., 25.
425 – Ib., xxi., 17.
426 – 1 Chron., xvi., 39.
427 – 2 Sam., ii., 16.
428 – Ib., ii., 17.
429 – Ib., xx., 8‒10.
430 – 1 Kings, iii., 5‒12.
431 – Judges, xx.
432 – 1 Sam., vii., 6‒12.
433 – 1 Sam., x., 23, 24.
434 – 2 Kings, xxv., 25.
435 – 1 Sam., xi., 4.
436 – Judges, xix. and xx.
437 – 1 Sam., ix., 1, 2.
438 – Ib., x., 26.
439 – 1 Sam., xi.
440 – Ib., xiv.
441 – Ib., xvi.
442 – Ib., xviii.
443 – Ib., xix.
444 – Ib., xxv.
445 – Ib., xxxi.
446 – 2 Sam., xxi., 1.
447 – Ib., xxi., 8.
448 – 2 Sam., xxi.
449 – Matt., xii.
450 – 1 Sam., xxii.
451 – 1 Kings, ii.
452 – 1 Sam., xiii.
453 – Ib.
454 – Gen., xxv.
455 – Ezek., ix., 2.
456 – John, x., 3.
457 – Gen., xii., 8.
458 – Ib., xiii., 10‒14.
459 – Mark, ii., 9.
460 – Gen., xxviii.
461 – Ib., xxxv.
462 – 1 Sam., vii.
463 – 1 Kings, xiii.
464 – 2 Kings, ii.
465 – Ib., xxiii.
466 – Amos, v., 5.
467 – Dr. Robinson.
468 – Judges, xxi., 19.
469 – Josh., xviii.
470 – 1 Sam., i., 24; ii., 1‒18.
471 – Ib., iv.
472 – Judges, xxi.
473 – 1 Kings, xiv.
474 – Jer., vii., 12.
475 – Judges, xxi., 19.
476 – Gen., xlviii., 20.
477 – Gen., xii.
478 – Ib., xxxiii.
479 – Ib., xxxiv.
480 – Ib., xxxvii.
481 – Josh., viii.
482 – Judges, ix.
483 – 1 Kings, xii.
484 – 2 Kings, xvii.
485 – Deut., xxvii., 11‒26; Ib., xxviii.; Josh., viii., 30‒35.
486 – One hundred lambs, or coins with the image of a lamb upon
them. Gen., xxxiii., 19.
487 – John, iv., 1‒42.
488 – Gen., l., 25.
489 – Josh., xxiv., 32.
490 – Gen., xlix., 22.
491 – Cant., vi., 4.
492 – 1 Kings, xvi., 8.
493 – 2 Kings, v., 20‒27.
494 – Luke, xvii., 11‒13.
495 – Ex., xii., 11.
496 – Sixty piastres.
497 – 1 Kings, xvi., 23, 24.
498 – Cant., vi., 4.
499 – 1 Kings, xvi., 33.
500 – Ib., xx.
501 – 2 Kings, vi., 12‒22.
502 – 2 Kings, vi., 24‒33; Ib., vii., 1‒20.
503 – Acts. viii.
504 – Book xvi., p. 316.
505 – Micah, i., 6.
506 – Hosea, xiii., 16.
507 – 1 Chron., xxvii., 29.
508 – Isa., lxv., 10.
509 – Josephus, A. J., b. xv.
510 – Acts, viii.
511 – Acts, xxi.
512 – Ib., xxiii., xxiv., xxv., and xxvii.
513 – A. B., b. xv.
514 – Acts, xii.
515 – Josephus, A. J., b. xix.
516 – Josh., xi.
517 – Isa., xxxv., 2.
518 – Amos, i., 2.
519 – 1 Kings, xviii.
520 – 2 Kings, iv.
521 – Gen., xlix., 15.
522 – Josephus, A. J., b. v.
523 – Judges, iv.
524 – 2 Chron., xxxv.
525 – 1 Sam., xxxi.
526 – Ps. lxxxix., 12.
527 – Judges, vii., 3.
528 – Ib., vii.
529 – 1 Sam., xxviii. and xxxi.
530 – 1 Sam., xxviii. and xxxi.
531 – 1 Kings, xix. and xxii.
532 – 2 Kings, iv.
533 – Luke, vii.
534 – 1 Sam., xxviii.
535 – Josh., xix.
536 – Judges, iv.
537 – Ib., viii.
538 – Hosea, v.
539 – Ps. lxxxix.
540 – Jer., xlvi., 18.
541 – Matt., xvii., 1; Mark, ix., 2.
542 – Luke, ix., 28.
543 – Matt., xvii., 24, and xix., 1.
544 – Luke, ix., 37.
545 – Luke, iii., 1.
546 – Matt., xix., 1.
547 – Bashan.
548 – Bathanyeh.
549 – Jaulân.
550 – Porter.
551 – Josephus, Antiq., b. xix., c. v., s. 1.
552 – Josh., xx., 7.
553 – Ib.
554 – Isa., ix., 1; Matt., iv., 15.
555 – Wars of the Jews, b. iii., c. iii., s. 1.
556 – Num., xxxiv., 11; Josh., xix., 35.
557 – John, xxi., 1.
558 – Ib., vi., 1.
559 – Matt., xiv., 34.
560 – Matt., xiv. Josephus, Antiq., b. xviii., c. v.
561 – Robinson, B. R., vol. ii.
562 – John, xxi.
563 – Luke, ix., 7‒9.
564 – Luke, xxiii., 6-12.
565 – W. J., b. iii., c. x.
566 – Thomson and Clarke.
567 – Matt., viii.; Mark, v.; Luke, viii.
568 – Luke, iii.
569 – Antiq., b. xviii., c. ii.
570 – Ib., c. iv.
571 – Matt., xiv., 13.
572 – Matt., xiv., 13.
573 – Ib., xiii., 21.
574 – Mark, vi., 39.
575 – Matt., xiv.
576 – W. J., b. iii., c. x.
577 – Matt., xiv., 34.
578 – Luke, v., 1‒3; Mark, iv.
579 – Matt., xiii.
580 – Matt., xiv., 34; John, vi., 24.
581 – B. J., b. iii., ch. x., s. 8.
582 – Robinson’s B. R., vol. iii., p. 348.
583 – Matt., iv., 13.
584 – Ib., ix., 1.
585 – Mark, i., 21‒34.
586 – Matt., ix., 2‒9.
587 – Luke, vii., 1‒10.
588 – Mark, v., 22‒43.
589 – Matt., xvii., 24‒27.
590 – Ib., xiii.
591 – Ib., ix.
592 – Ib., xv.
593 – John, vi., 24.
594 – Mark, ix., 33‒50.
595 – Matt., xi., 23, 24.
596 – Matt., iv., 18‒22.
597 – Luke, v.
598 – Mark, vi., 32.
599 – John, vi., 1.
600 – Ib., vi., 17.
601 – Matt., xiv., 34, and Mark, vi., 53.
602 – John, vi., 24.
603 – Mark, iv., 37‒39.
604 – Matt., xi., 21, 22.
605 – B. J., b. iv., ch. i.
606 – Josh., xi., 6‒10.
607 – Nephew.
608 – Gen., xiv., 14‒16.
609 – Judges, xviii.
610 – Deut., xxxiii., 22.
611 – Judges, xx., 1.
612 – Robinson.
613 – Josephus, Antiq., b. xv., ch. x., s. 3.
614 – Matt., xvi. and xvii.; Mark, viii. and ix.
615 – Deut., iii., 9.
616 – Ib., iv., 48.
617 – Ib., iii., 8.
618 – Stanley’s S. and P., 396.
619 – Ps. lxxxix., 12.
620 – Sion.
621 – Ps. cxxxiii., 3.
622 – Josephus, B. J., b. i., ch. xvi.
623 – Matt., iv. and v.
624 – Gibbon’s Rome, vol. vi., c. lix.;
Tytler’s U. H., vol. iv., c. ix.;
Robinson’s B. R., vol. ii., s. xv., p. 372‒377.
625 – John, i., 46.
626 – Luke, iv., 28, 29.
627 – Luke, i. and ii.
628 – Ib., iv., 16.
629 – Matt., xiii., 55, 56.
630 – Luke, iv., 31.
631 – Porter.
632 – Gen., x., 15.
633 – Tytler’s U. H., vol. i., p. 86; Hibbard’s Palestine.
634 – John, xxi., 2.
635 – Ib., ii., 1‒11.
636 – Ib., iv., 46‒54.
637 – Gen., xlix., 20; Deut., xxxiii., 24.
638 – Judges, v., 17.
639 – Judges, i., 31.
640 – Acts, xxi., 7.
641 – French of ’Akka.
642 – Gibbon’s Rome, vol. vi., p. 46, 47.
643 – Josh., xix., 29.
644 – Isa., xxiii.
645 – Josh., xix.
646 – 1 Kings, v.
647 – Anti B., b. ix., c. xiv.
648 – Anti B., b. vii., c. ii., Hiram’s Letter to Solomon.
649 – Ib., b. ix., c. xiv.
650 – Amos, i., 9.
651 – Joel, iii., 4, 5.
652 – Ib., iii., 6.
653 – Ezek., xxvi., 2.
654 – Ezek., xxvi., 21.
655 – Ib., xxvi., 12.
656 – Ib., xxvi., 14.
657 – Acts, xxi., 4.
658 – Robinson, vol. ii., p. 470.
659 – Gibbon.
660 – 1 Kings, xvii.
661 – Mark, vii., 24‒30.
662 – Gen., x., 19.
663 – Ib., x., 15; Josephus, Anti B., b. i., c. vi.
664 – Josh., xix., 28.
665 – Pope’s Il., b. vi., 360‒370.
666 – Isa., xxiii., 12.
667 – 1 Kings, v.
668 – Volney’s Trav., vol. i.; Paxton’s Illustrations, vol. i.
669 – Deut., iii., 25.
670 – Isa., xxix., 17.
671 – Isa., xxxvii., 24.
672 – Hab., ii., 17.
673 – Song, iv., 8.
674 – Ib., iv., 11.
675 – Hosea, xiv., 7.
676 – Ps. lxxii., 16.
677 – Isa., xxxv., 1, 2.
678 – Ps. civ., 16.
679 – 1 Kings, v. and vi.; Ezra, iii., 7.
680 – Isa., ii., 12, 13.
681 – Amos, ii., 9.
682 – Ezek., xxxi., 3‒10.
683 – Ps. xxix., 4, 5.
684 – Zech., xi., 1‒2.
685 – Ps., xcii., 12.
686 – Porter’s Palestine; Thomson’s Land and the Book, vol. i.,
p. 248.
687 – 1 Kings, xix., 15; 2 Kings, viii., 7‒15.
688 – Acts, ix., 1‒22.
689 – Gen., xv., 2.
690 – 2 Kings, v., 1‒14.
691 – Ib., viii.
692 – Acts, ix.
693 – 2 Cor., xi., 33.
694 – 2 Kings, v., 18.
695 – Ib., xvi., 10‒16; Porter’s Five Years in Damascus.
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES.
The following corrections have been made in the text:
Page 37:
Sentence starting: Surmounting this corner....
– ‘assurring’ replaced with ‘assuring’
(assuring him of the charge)
Page 40:
Sentence starting: This section of the wall....
– ‘Pilot’ replaced with ‘Pilate’
(in which Pilate held his “Judgment Hall.”)
Page 167:
Sentence starting: Expressing surprise at her absence....
– ‘househould’ replaced with ‘household’
(if the household be too little)
Page 235:
Sentence starting: Having an elevation of....
– ‘28,000’ replaced with ‘2,800’
(Having an elevation of 2,800 feet)
Page 309:
Sentence starting: Nearly two centuries later....
– ‘Hanor’ replaced with ‘Hamor’
(at the hand of the children of Hamor,)
Page 365:
Sentence starting: Her house, with the....
– ‘soliel’ replaced with ‘soleil’
(the fatal _coup de soleil_)
Page 391:
Sentence starting: Considered one of the most....
– ‘impotrant’ replaced with ‘important’
(one of the most important cities)
Page 404:
Sentence starting: St. John, with greater....
– ‘exacitude’ replaced with ‘exactitude’
(with greater exactitude, says)
Page 464:
Sentence starting: The shag-bark is coarse....
– ‘fail’ replaced with ‘fall’
(and fall in early winter;)
Footnote 20:
Sentence starting: Josephus, Anti B....
– added omitted volume reference ‘b. xv.,’
(Josephus, Anti B., b. xv., c. iv.)
Footnote 560:
Sentence starting: Matt., xiv....
– ‘lxxviii’ replaced with ‘xviii’
(Josephus, Antiq., b. xviii., c. v.)