PART II

COMPOSITION-RHETORIC

BY

STRATTON D. BROOKS

_Superintendent of Schools, Boston, Mass._

AND

MARIETTA HUBBARD

_Formerly English Department, High School La Salle, Illinois_

* * * * *

NEW YORK - CINCINNATI - CHICAGO

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY

1905

STRATTON D. BROOKS.

Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.

* * * * *

Brooks's Rhet.

W.P. 10

To MARCIA STUART BROOKS

Whose teaching first demonstrated

to the authors that composition

could become a delight and pleasure,

this book is dedicated......

PREFACE

The aim of this book is not to produce critical readers of literature, nor

to prepare the pupil to answer questions about rhetorical theory, but to

enable every pupil to express in writing, freely, clearly, and forcibly,

whatever he may find within him worthy of expression.

Three considerations of fundamental importance underlie the plan of the

book:--

First, improvement in the performance of an act comes from the repetition

of that act accompanied by a conscious effort to omit the imperfections of

the former attempt. Therefore, the writing of a new theme in which, the

pupil attempts to avoid the error which occurred in his former theme is of

much greater educational value than is the copying of the old theme for

the purpose of correcting the errors in it. To copy the old theme is to

correct a result, to write a new theme correctly is to improve a process;

and it is this improvement of process that is the real aim of composition

teaching.

Second, the logical arrangement of material should be subordinated to the

needs of the pupils. A theoretical discussion of the four forms of

discourse would require that each be completely treated in one place. Such

a treatment would ignore the fact that a high school pupil has daily need

to use each of the four forms of discourse, and that some assistance in

each should be given him as early in his course as possible. The book,

therefore, gives in Part 1 the elements of description, narration,

exposition, and argument, and reserves for Part II a more complete

treatment of each. In each part the effort has been made to adapt the

material presented to the maturity and power of thought of the pupil.

Third, expression cannot be compelled; it must be coaxed. Only under

favorable conditions can we hope to secure that reaction of intellect and

emotion which renders possible a full expression of self. One of the most

important of these favorable conditions is that the pupil shall write

something he wishes to write, for an audience which wishes to hear it. The

authors have, therefore, suggested subjects for themes in which high

school pupils are interested and about which they will wish to write. It

is hoped that the work will be so conducted by the teacher that every

theme will be read aloud before the class. It is essential that the

criticism of a theme so read shall, in the main, be complimentary,

pointing out and emphasizing those things which the pupil has done well;

and that destructive criticism be largely impersonal and be directed

toward a single definite point. Only thus may we avoid personal

embarrassment to the pupil, give him confidence in himself, and assure him

of a sympathetic audience--conditions essential to the effective teaching

of composition.

The plan of the book is as follows:--

1. Part 1 provides a series of themes covering description, narration,

exposition, and argument. The purpose is to give the pupil that

inspiration and that confidence in himself which come from the frequent

repetition of an act.

2. Each theme differs from the preceding usually by a single point, and

the teaching effort should be confined to that point. Only a false

standard of accuracy demands that every error be corrected every time it

appears. Such a course loses sight of the main point in a multiplicity of

details, renders instruction ineffective by scattering effort, produces

hopeless confusion in the mind of the pupil, and robs composition of that

inspiration without which it cannot succeed. In composition, as in other

things, it is better to do but one thing at a time.

3. Accompanying the written themes is a series of exercises, each designed

to emphasize the point presented in the text, but more especially intended

to provide for frequent drills in oral composition.

4. Throughout the first four chapters the paragraph is the unit of

composition, but for the sake of added interest some themes of greater

length have been included. Chapter V, on the Whole Composition, serves as

a review and summary of the methods of paragraph development, shows how to

make the transition from one paragraph to another, and discusses the more

important rhetorical principles underlying the union of paragraphs into a

coherent and unified whole.

5. The training furnished by Part 1 should result in giving to the pupil

some fluency of expression, some confidence in his ability to make known

to others that which he thinks and feels, and some power to determine that

the theme he writes, however rough-hewn and unshapely it may be, yet in

its major outlines follows closely the thought that is within his mind. If

the training has failed to give the pupil this power, it will be of little

advantage to him to have mastered some of the minor matters of technique,

or to have learned how to improve his phrasing, polish his sentences, and

distribute his commas.

6. Part II provides a series of themes covering the same ground as Part I,

but the treatment of these themes is more complete and the material is

adapted to the increased maturity and thought power of the pupils. By

means of references the pupils are directed to all former treatments of

the topics they are studying.

7. Part II discusses some topics usually treated in college courses in

rhetoric. These have been included for three reasons: first, because

comparatively few high school pupils go to college; second, because the

increased amount of time now given to composition enables the high school

to cover a wider field than formerly; and third, because such topics can

be studied with profit by pupils in the upper years of the high school

course.

8. It is not intended that the text shall be recited. Its purpose is to

furnish a basis for discussion between teacher and pupils before the

pupils attempt to write. The real test of the pupils' mastery of a

principle discussed in the text will be their ability to put it into

practice.

Any judgment of the success or failure of the book should be based upon

the quality of the themes which the pupils write. Criticisms and

suggestions will be welcomed from those who use the book.

The authors wish to express their obligation for advice and assistance to

Professor Edward Fulton, Department of Rhetoric, University of Illinois;

Messrs. Gilbert S. Blakely and H. E. Foster, Instructors in English,

Morris High School, New York; Miss Elizabeth Richardson, Girls' High

School, Boston; Miss Katherine H. Shute, Boston Normal School; Miss E.

Marguerite Strauchon, Kansas City High School.

The selections from Hawthorne, Longfellow, Lowell, Holmes, Whittier,

Warner, Burroughs, Howells, and Trowbridge are used by permission of and

by special arrangement with Hoaghton, Mifflin, and Company, publishers of

their works.

Grateful acknowledgment is made to Harper and Brothers; The Century

Company; Doubleday, Page, and Company; and Charles Scribner's Sons for

permission to use the selections to which their names are attached: to the

publishers of the _Forum, Century, Atlantic Monthly, McClure's, Harper's,

Scribner's_, and the _Outlook_ for permission to use extracts: and to

Scott, Foresman, and Company; D. Appleton and Company; Henry Holt and

Company; G. P. Putnam's Sons; Thomas Y. Crowell and Company; and Benjamin

H. Sanborn and Company for permission to use copyrighted material.

CONTENTS

PART I

1. Expression of Ideas arising from Experience

II. Expression of Ideas furnished by Imagination

III. Expression of Ideas acquired through Language

IV. The Purpose of Expression

V. The Whole Composition

VI. Letter Writing

VII. Poetry

PART II

VIII. Description

IX. Narration

X. Exposition

XI. Argument

Appendix

I. Elements of Form

II. Review of Grammar

III. Figures of Speech

IV. The Rhetorical Features of the Sentence

V. List of Synonyms

VI. List of Words for Exercise in Word Usage

Index

PART 1

1. EXPRESSION OF IDEAS ARISING FROM EXPERIENCE

+1. Pleasure in Expressing Ideas.+--Though we all enjoy talking, we cannot

write so easily as we talk, nor with the same pleasure. We seldom talk

about topics in which we are not interested and concerning which we know

little or nothing, but we often have such topics assigned to us as

subjects for compositions. Under such conditions it is no wonder that

there is little pleasure in writing. The ideas that we express orally are

those with which we are familiar and in which we are interested, and we

tell them because we wish to tell them to some one who is likewise

interested and who desires to hear what we have to say. Such expression of

ideas is enjoyed by all. If we but choose to express the same kinds of

ideas and for the same reason, there is an equal or even greater pleasure

to be derived from the expression of ideas in writing. The purpose of this

book is to show you how to express ideas _clearly, effectively_, and _with

pleasure_.

+2. Sources of Ideas.+--We must have ideas before we can express them.

There are three sources from which ideas arise. We may gain them from

experience; we may recombine them into new forms by the imagination; and

we may receive them from others through the medium of language, either by

conversation or by reading.

Every day we add to our knowledge through our senses. We see and hear and

do, and thus, through experience, acquire ideas about things. By far the

greater part of expression has to do with ideas that have originated in

this way. The first chapter in this book is concerned with the expression

of ideas gained through experience.

We may, however, think about things that have not actually occurred. We

may allow our minds to picture a football game that we have not seen, or

to plan a story about a boy who never existed. Nearly every one takes

pleasure in such an exercise of the imagination. The second chapter has to

do with the expression of ideas of this kind.

We also add to our knowledge through the medium of language. Through

conversation and reading we learn what others think, and it is often of

value to restate these ideas. The expression of ideas so acquired is

treated in the third chapter.

+3. Advantages of Expressing Ideas Gained from Experience.+--Young people

sometimes find difficulty in writing because they "have nothing to say."

Such a reason will not hold in regard to ideas gained from experience.

Every one has a multitude of experiences every day, and wishes to tell

about some of them. Many of the things which happen to you or to your

friends, especially some which occur outside of the regular routine of

school work, are interesting and worth telling about. Thus experience

furnishes an abundance of material suitable for composition purposes, and

this material is of the best because the ideas are _sure to be your own_.

The first requisite of successful composition is to have thoughts of your

own. The expressing of ideas that are not your own is mere copy work, and

seldom worth doing.

Ideas acquired through experience are not only interesting and your own,

but they are likely to be _clear_ and _definite_. You know what you do and

what you see; or, if you do not, the effort to express your ideas so that

they will be clear to others will make you observe closely for yourself.

Still another advantage comes from the fact that your experiences are not

presented to you through the medium of language. When experience furnishes

the ideas, you are left free to choose for yourself the words that best

set forth what you wish to tell. The things of your experience are the

things with which you are most familiar, and therefore the words that best

apply to them are those which you most often use and whose meanings are

best known to you.

Because experience supplies an abundance of interesting, clear, and

definite ideas, which are your own and which may be expressed in familiar

language, it furnishes better material for training in expression than

does either imagination or reading.

+4. Essentials of Expression.+--The proper expression of ideas depends

upon the observance of two essentials: first, you should say what you

mean; and second, you should say it clearly. Without these, what you say

may be not only valueless, but positively misleading. If you wish your

hearer to understand what occurred at a certain time and place, you must

first of all know yourself exactly what did occur. Then you must express

it in language that shall make him understand it as clearly as you do. You

will learn much about clearness, later; but even now you can tell whether

you know what is meant by each sentence which you hear or read. It is not

so easy to tell whether what you say will convey clearly to another the

meaning you intend to convey, but you will be helped in this if you ask

yourself the questions: "Do I know exactly what happened?" "Have I said

what I intended to say?" "Have I said it so that it will be clear to the

listener?"

+Oral Composition 1.+--_Report orally on one of the following:_--

1. Were you so interested in anything yesterday that you told it to your

parents or friends? Tell the class about it.

2. Tell about something that you have done this week, so that the class

may know exactly what you did.

3. Name some things in which you have been interested within the last two

or three months. Tell the class about one of them.

4. Tell the class about something that happened during vacation. Have you

told the event exactly as it occurred?

+5. Interest.+--In order to enjoy listening to a story we must take an

interest in it, and the story should be so told as to arouse and maintain

this interest. As you have listened to the reports of your classmates you

have been more pleased with some than with others. Even though the meaning

of each was clear, yet the interest aroused was in each case different.

Since the purpose of a story is to entertain, any story falls short of its

purpose when it ceases to be interesting. We must at all times say what we

mean and say it clearly; but in story telling especially we must also take

care that what we say shall arouse and maintain interest.

+6. The Introduction.+--The story of an event should be introduced in such

a manner as to enable the hearer to understand the circumstances that are

related. Such an introduction contributes to clearness and has an

important bearing upon the interest of the entire composition. In order to

render our account of an event clear and interesting it is usually

desirable to tell the hearers _when_ and _where_ the event occurred and

_who_ were present. Their understanding of it may be helped further by

telling such of the attendant circumstances as will answer the question,

_Why_? If I begin my story by saying, "Last summer John Anderson and I

were on a camping trip in the Adirondacks," I have told when, where, and

who; and the addition of the words "on a camping trip" tells why we were

in the Adirondacks, and may serve to explain some of the events that are

to follow. Even the statement of the place indicates in some degree the

trend of the story, for many things that might occur "in the Adirondacks"

could not occur in a country where there are no mountains. Certainly the

story that would follow such an introduction would be expected to differ

from one beginning with the words, "Last summer John Anderson and I went

to visit a friend in New York."

It is not always necessary to tell when, where, who, and why in the

introduction, but it is desirable to do so in most cases of oral story

telling. These four elements may not always be stated in incidents taken

from books, for the reader may be already familiar with them from the

preceding portions of the book. The title of a printed or written story

may serve as an introduction and give us all needed information. In

relating personal incidents the time element is seldom omitted, though it

may be stated indirectly or indefinitely by such expressions as "once" or

'lately.' In many stories the interest depends upon the plot, and the time

is not definitely stated.

EXERCISE

Notice what elements are included in each of the following

introductions:--

1. Saturday last at Mount Holly, about eight miles from this place, nearly

three hundred people were gathered together to see an experiment or two

tried on some persons accused of witchcraft.

2. On the morning of the 10th instant at sunrise, they were discovered

from Put-in-Bay, where I lay at anchor with the squadron under my command.

3. It was on Sunday when I awoke to the realization that I had quitted

civilization and was afloat on an unfamiliar body of water in an open

boat.

4. Up and down the long corn rows Pap Overholt guided the old mule and the

small, rickety, inefficient plow, whose low handles bowed his tall, broad

shoulders beneath the mild heat of a mountain June sun. As he went--ever

with a furtive eye upon the cabin--he muttered to himself, shaking his

head.

5. After breakfast, I went down to the Saponey Indian town, which is about

a musket shot from the fort.

6. The lonely stretch of uphill road, upon whose yellow clay the midsummer

sun beat vertically down, would have represented a toilsome climb to a

grown and unencumbered man. To the boy staggering under the burden of a

brimful carpet bag, it seemed fairly unscalable; wherefore he stopped at

its base and looked up in dismay to its far-off, red-hot summit.

7. One afternoon last summer, three or four people from New York, two from

Boston, and a young man from the Middle West were lunching at one of the

country clubs on the south shore of Long Island, and there came about a

mild discussion of the American universities.

8. "But where is the station?" inquired the Judge.

"Ain't none, boss. Dis heah is jes a crossing. Train's about due now, sah;

you-all won't hab long fer to wait. Thanky, sah; good-by; sorry you-all

didn't find no birds."

The Judge picked up his gun case and grip and walked toward his two

companions waiting on the platform a few yards away. Silhouetted against

the moonlight they made him think of the figure 10, for Mr. Appleton was

tall and erect, and the little Doctor short and circular.

9. I sprang to the stirrup, and Joris and he;

I galloped, Dirck galloped, we galloped all three;

"Good speed!" cried the watch, as the gate bolts undrew,

"Speed!" echoed the wall to us galloping through.

Behind shut the postern, the lights sank to rest,

And into the midnight we galloped abreast.

--Browning.

+Oral Composition II.+--_Relate orally to the class some incident in which

you were personally concerned._

The following may suggest a subject:--

1. How I made friends with the squirrels.

2. A trick of a tame crow.

3. Why I missed the train.

4. How a horse was rescued.

5. Lost and found.

6. My visit to a menagerie.

(When preparing to relate this incident ask yourself first whether you

know exactly what happened. Consider then how to begin the story so that

your hearer will know when and where it happened and who were there.

Include in the beginning any statement that will assist the reader in

understanding the events which follow.)

+7. The Point of a Story.+--It is not necessary that a story be concerned

with a thrilling event in order to be interesting. Even a most commonplace

occurrence may be so told that it is worth listening to. It is more

important that a story have a point and be so told that this point will be

readily appreciated than that it deal with important or thrilling events.

The story should lead easily and rapidly to its point, and when this is

reached the end of the story should not be far distant. The beginning of a

story will contain statements that will assist us in appreciating the

point when we come to it, but if the point is plainly stated near the

beginning, or even if it is too strongly suggested, our story will drag.

At what point in the following selection is the interest greatest?

During the Civil War, I lived in that portion of Tennessee which was

alternately held by the conflicting armies. My father and brothers were

away, as were all the other men in the neighborhood, except a few very old

ones and some half-grown boys. Mother and I were in constant fear of

injury from stragglers from both armies. We had never been disturbed,

for our farm was a mile or more back from the road along which such

detachments usually moved. We had periods of comparative quiet in which we

felt at ease, and then would come reports of depredation near at hand, or

rumors of the presence of marauding bands in neighboring settlements.

One evening such a rumor came to us, and we were consequently anxious.

Early next morning, before the fog had lifted, I caught sight of two men

crossing the road at the far end of the orchard. They jumped over the

fence into the orchard and disappeared among the trees. I had but a brief

glimpse of them, but it was sufficient to show me that one had a gun over

his shoulder, while the other carried a saber.

"Quick, Mother, quick!" I cried. "Come to the window. There are soldiers

in the orchard."

Keeping out of sight, we watched the progress of the men through the

orchard. Our brief glimpses of them through the trees showed that they

were not coming directly to the house, but were headed for the barn and

sheds, and in order to keep out of sight, were following a slight ravine

which ran across the orchard and led to the back of the barns.

Mother and I were very much excited and hardly knew what to do. Finally it

was determined to hide upstairs in hopes that the men were bent on

stealing chickens or pigs, and might leave without disturbing the house.

We locked the doors and went upstairs, taking with us the old musket and

the butcher knife. We could hear the men about the barn, and after what

seemed an interminable time we heard them coming towards the house.

Though shaking all over, I summoned courage enough to go to the window and

look out of a hole in the shade. As the men came into sight around the

corner, I screamed outright, but from relief rather than fear, for the men

were not soldiers, but Grandpa Smith and his fourteen-year-old grandson.

They stopped at the well to get a drink, and when we opened the window,

the old man said, "We're just on our way to mow the back lot and stopped

to grind the scythe on your stone. We broke ours yesterday."

Then he picked up the scythe which in the fog I had taken for a saber,

while the grandson again shouldered his pitchfork musket.

What effect would it have on the interest aroused by the preceding story

to begin it as follows?

"One morning during the Civil War, I saw two of my neighbors, Grandpa

Smith and his grandson, crossing our orchard, one carrying a scythe and

the other a pitchfork."

Why is the expression, "before the fog had lifted," used near the

beginning of the story? Would a description of the appearance of the

house, the barn, or the persons add to the interest aroused by the story?

Is it necessary to add anything to the story?

EXERCISE

In each of the following selections decide where the interest reaches its

climax. Has anything been said in the beginning of any of them which

suggests what the point will be, or which helps you to appreciate it when

you come to it?

1. The next evening our travelers encamped on a sand bar, or rather a

great bank of sand, that ran for miles along one side of the river. They

kept watch as usual, Leon taking the first turn. He seated himself on a

pile of sand and did his best to keep awake; but in about an hour after

the rest were asleep, he felt very drowsy and fell into a nap that lasted

nearly half an hour, and might have continued longer had he not slid down

the sand hill and tumbled over on his side. This awoke him. Feeling vexed

with himself, he rubbed his eyes and looked about to see if any creature

had ventured near. He first looked towards the woods, for of course that

was the direction from which the tigers would come; but he had scarcely

turned himself when he perceived a pair of eyes glancing at him from the

other side of the fire. Close to them another pair, then another and

another, until, having looked on every side, he saw himself surrounded by

a complete circle of glancing eyes. It is true they were small ones, and

some of the heads which he could see by the blaze were small. They were

not jaguars, but they had an ugly look. They looked like the heads of

serpents. Was it possible that a hundred serpents could have surrounded

the camp?

Brought suddenly to his feet, Leon stood for some moments uncertain what

to do. He believed that the eyes belonged to snakes which had just crept

out of the river; and he feared that any movement on his part would lead

them to attack him. Having risen to his feet, his eyes were above the

level of the blaze, and he was able in a little while to see more clearly.

He now saw that the snakelike heads belonged to creatures with large oval

bodies, and that, besides the fifty or more which had come up to look at

the fire, there were whole droves of them upon the sandy beach beyond. As

far as he could see on all sides, the bank was covered with them. A

strange sight it was, and most fearful. For his life he could not make out

what it meant, or by what sort of wild animals he was surrounded.

He could see that their bodies were not larger than those of small sheep;

and, from the way in which they glistened in the moonlight, he was sure

they had come out of the river. He called to the Indian guide, who awoke

and started to his feet in alarm. The movement frightened the creatures

round the fire; they rushed to the shore, and were heard plunging by

hundreds into the water.

The Indian's ear caught the sounds, and his eye took in the whole thing at

a glance.

"Turtles," he said.

"Oh," said the lad; "turtles, are they?"

"Yes, master," answered the guide. "I suppose this is one of their great

hatching places. They are going to lay their eggs in the sand."

--Captain Mayne Reid.

Would the preceding incident be interesting if we were told at the

beginning that the boy and the Indian had encamped near a hatching place

of turtles?

2. Not every story that reads like fiction is fact, but the _Brooklyn

Eagle_ assures its readers that the one here quoted is quite true. The man

who told it was for many years an officer of the Chicago, Burlington &

Quincy Railroad Company in Illinois, and had annual passes over all the

important railroads in the country. His duties took him to Springfield,

the state capital, and as he generally went by the Chicago, Alton & St.

Louis road, the conductors on that line knew him so well that they never

asked to see his pass.

"One day I received a telegram summoning me to meet one of the officers of

my company at Aurora the next morning. I had only a short time to catch my

train to Chicago, and in my haste left my passbook behind. I did not find

this out until I reached Chicago, and was about to take the last train for

Aurora that night. Then I saw that the conductor, a man brought over from

the Iowa division, was a stranger, and the fact that I would need my pass

reminded me that I did not have it.

"I told the conductor the situation, but he said he could not carry me on

my mere representation that I had a pass.

"Why, man," said I, "I am an officer of the company, going to Aurora on

company business, and this is the last train that will get me there in

time. You must take me."

"He was polite, but firm. He said he was a new man on this division, and

could not afford to make any mistakes.

"When I saw that he was determined, I rushed off to the telegraph office;

but it was too late to catch anybody authorized to issue passes, so I

settled it in my mind that I must go by carriage, and the prospect of an

all-night ride over bad roads through the dark was anything but inviting.

Indeed, it was so forbidding that I resolved to make one more appeal to

the conductor.

"You simply must take me to Aurora!" I said, with intense earnestness.

"I can't do it," he answered. "But I believe you are what you represent

yourself to be, and I will lend you the money personally. It is only one

dollar and twelve cents."

"Well, sir, you could have knocked me down with the flat side of a

palm-leaf fan. I had more than two thousand dollars in currency in my

pocket, but it had never for an instant occurred to me that I could pay my

fare and ride on that train. I showed the conductor a wad of money that

made his eyes stick out.

"I thought it was funny," said he, "that a man in your position couldn't

raise one dollar and twelve cents. It was that that made me believe you

were playing a trick to see if I would violate the rule."

"The simple truth was, I had ridden everywhere on passes so many years,

that it did not occur to me that I could ride in any other way."

+Oral Composition III.+[Footnote: Oral compositions should be continued

throughout the course. A few minutes may be profitably used once or twice

each week in having each member of the class stand before the class and

relate briefly some incident which he has witnessed since the last meeting

of the class. Exercises like those on page 53 also will furnish

opportunities for oral work.]--_Relate to the class some personal

incident suggested by one of the following subjects_:--

1. A day with my cousin.

2. Caught in the act.

3. A joke on me.

4. My peculiar mistake.

5. My experience on a farm.

6. My experience in a strange Sunday school.

7. What I saw when I was coming to school.

(In preparation for this exercise, consider the point of your story. What

must you tell first in order to enable the hearers to understand the

point? Can you say anything that will make them want to know what the

point is without really telling them? Can you lead up to it without too

long a delay? Can you stop when the point has been made?)

+8. Theme Writing and Correcting.+--Any written exercise, whether long or

short, is called a theme throughout this book. Just as one learns to skate

by skating, so one learns to write by writing; therefore many themes will

be required. Since the clear expression of thought is one of the essential

characteristics of every theme, theme correction should be primarily

directed to improvement in clearness. The teacher will need to assist in

this correction, but the really valuable part is that which you do for

yourself. After you leave school you will need to decide for yourself what

is right and what is best, and it is essential that you now learn how to

make such decisions.

To aid you in acquiring a habit of self-correction, questions or

suggestions follow the directions for writing each theme. In Theme I you

are to express clearly to others something that is already clear to you.

+Theme I.+-_Write a short theme on one of the subjects that you have used

for an oral composition._

(After writing this theme, read it aloud to yourself. Does it read

smoothly? Have you told what actually happened? Have you told it so that

the hearers will understand you? Have you said what you meant to say?

Consider the introduction. Has the story a point?)

+9. The Conclusion.+--Since the point of a story marks the climax of

interest, it is evident that the conclusion must not be long delayed after

the point has been reached. If the story has been well told, the point

marks the natural conclusion, and a sentence or two will serve to bring

the story to a satisfactory end. If a suitable ending does not suggest

itself, it is better to omit the conclusion altogether than to construct a

forced or flowery one. Notice the conclusion of the incident of the Civil

War related on page 18.

+Theme II.+-_Write a short theme suggested by one of the following

subjects:_--

1. A school picnic.

2. A race.

3. The largest fire I have seen.

4. A skating accident.

5. A queer mistake.

6. An experience with a tramp.

(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness. Consider the

introduction; the point; the conclusion.)

+10. Observation of Actions.+--Many of our most interesting experiences

arise from observing the actions of others. A written description of what

we have observed will gain in interest to the reader, if, in addition to

telling what was done, we give some indication of the way in which it was

done. A list of tools a carpenter uses and the operations he performs

during the half hour we watch him, may be dull and uninteresting; but our

description may have an added value if it shows his manner of working so

that the reader can determine whether the carpenter is an orderly,

methodical, and rapid worker or a mere putterer who is careless,

haphazard, and slow. Two persons will perform similar actions in very

different ways. Our description should be so worded as to show what the

differences are.

+Theme III.+--_Write a theme relating actions._

Suggested subjects:--

1. A mason, blacksmith, painter, or other mechanic at work.

2. How my neighbor mows his lawn.

3. What a man does when his automobile breaks down.

4. Describe the actions of a cat, dog, rabbit, squirrel, or other

animal.

5. Watch the push-cart man a half-hour and report what he did.

(Have you told exactly what was done? Can you by the choice of suitable

words show more plainly the way in which it was done? Does this theme need

to have an introduction? A point? A conclusion?)

+11. Selection of Details.+--You are at present concerned with telling

events that actually happen; but this does not mean that you need to

include everything that occurs. If you wish to tell a friend about some

interesting or exciting incident at a picnic, he will not care to hear

everything that took place during the day. He may listen politely to a

statement of what train you took and what you had in your lunch basket,

but he will be little interested in such details. In order to maintain

interest, the point of your story must not be too long delayed. Brevity is

desirable, and details that bear little relation to the main point, and

that do not prepare the listener to understand and appreciate this point,

are better omitted.

+Theme IV.+--_Write about something that you have done. Use any of the

following subjects, or one suggested by them:_--

1. My first hunt.

2. Why I was tardy.

3. My first fishing trip.

4. My narrow escape.

5. A runaway.

6. What I did last Saturday.

(Read the theme aloud to yourself. Does it read smoothly? Have you said

what you meant to say? Have you expressed it clearly? Consider the

introduction; the point; the conclusion. Reject unnecessary details.)

+12. Order of Events.+--The order in which events occur will assist in

establishing the order in which to relate them. If you are telling about

only one person, you can follow the time order of the events as they

actually happened; but if you are telling about two or more persons who

were doing different things at the same time, you will need to tell first

what one did and then what another did. You must, however, make it clear

to the reader that, though you have told one event after the other, they

really happened at the same time.

In the selection below notice how the italicized portions indicate the

relation in time that the different events bear to one another.

At the beach yesterday a fat woman and her three children caused a great

commotion. They had rigged themselves out in hired suits which might be

described as an average fit, for that of the mother was as much too small

as those of the children were too large. They trotted gingerly out into

the surf, wholly unconscious that the crowd of beach loungers had, for the

time, turned their attention from each other to the quartet in the water.

By degrees the four worked out farther and farther until a wave larger

than usual washed the smallest child entirely off his feet, and caused the

mother to scream lustily for help. The people on the beach started up, and

two or three men hastened to the rescue, but their progress was impeded by

the crowd of frightened girls and women _who were scrambling and splashing

towards the shore_. The mother's frantic efforts to reach the little boy

were rendered ineffectual by the two girls, _who at the moment of the

first alarm had been strangled_ by the salt water and _were now clinging_

desperately to her arms and _attempting_ to climb up to her shoulders.

_Meanwhile_, the lifeboat man was rowing rapidly towards the scene, but it

seemed to the onlookers _who had rushed to the platform railing_ that he

would never arrive. _At the same time_ a young man, _who had started from

the diving raft some time before_, was swimming towards shore with

powerful strokes. He _now_ reached the spot, caught hold of the boy, and

lifted him into the lifeboat, which had _at last_ arrived.

Such expressions as _meanwhile, in the meantime, during, at last, while_,

etc., are regularly used to denote the kind of time relations now under

discussion. They should be used when they avoid confusion, but often a

direct transition from one set of actions to another can be made without

their use. Notice also the use of the relative clause to indicate time

relations.

+Theme V.+-_Write a short theme, using some one of the subjects named

under the preceding themes or one suggested by them. Select one which you

have not already used._

(Have you told enough to enable the reader to follow easily the thread of

the story and to understand what you meant to tell? If your theme is

concerned with more than one set of activities, have you made the

transition from one to another in such a way as to be clear to the reader?

Have you expressed the transitions with the proper time relations? What

other questions should you ask yourself while correcting this theme?)

SUMMARY

1. There is a pleasure to be derived from the expression of ideas.

2. There are three sources of ideas: experience, imagination, language.

3. Ideas gained from experience may be advantageously used for

composition purposes because--

_a._ They are interesting.

_b._ They are your own.

_c._ They are likely to be clear and definite.

_d._ They offer free choice of language.

4. The two essentials of expression are--

_a._ To say what you mean.

_b._ To say it clearly.

5. A story should be told so as to arouse and maintain interest.

Therefore,--

_a._ The introduction usually tells when, where, who, and why.

_b._ Every story worth telling has a point.

_c._ Only such details are included as are essential to the

development

of the point.

_d._ The conclusion is brief. The story comes to an end shortly

after the point is told.

6. Care must be taken to indicate the time order, especially when two or

more events occur at the same time.

7. The correction of one's own theme is the most valuable form of

correction.

II. EXPRESSION OF IDEAS FURNISHED BY IMAGINATION

+13. Relation of Imagination to Experience.+--All ideas are based upon and

spring from experience, and the imagination merely places them in new

combinations. For the purpose of this book, however, it is convenient to

distinguish those themes that relate real events as they actually occurred

from those themes that relate events that did not happen. That body of

writing which we call literature is largely composed of works of an

imaginative character, and for this reason it has sometimes been

carelessly assumed that in order to write one must be possessed of an

excellent imagination. Such an assumption loses sight of the fact that

imaginative writings cover but one small part of the whole field. The

production of literature is the business of a few, while every one has

occasion every day to express ideas. It is evident that by far the greater

part of the ideas we are called upon to express do not require the use of

the imagination, but exercises in writing themes of an imaginative

character are given here because there is pleasure in writing such themes

and because practice in writing them will aid us in stating clearly and

effectively the many ideas arising from our daily experiences.

+14. Advantages and Disadvantages of Imaginative Theme Writing.+--Ideas

furnished by the imagination are no less your own than are those furnished

by experience, and the same freedom in the choice of language prevails.

Such ideas are, however, not likely to be so clear and definite. At the

time of their occurrence they do not make so deep and vital an impression

upon you. If not recorded as they occur, they can seldom be recalled in

the original form. Even though you attempt to write these imaginary ideas

as you think them, you can and do change and modify them as you go along.

This lack of clearness and permanent form, while it seems to give greater

freedom, carries with it disadvantages. In the first place the ideas are

less likely to be worth recording, and in the second place it is more

difficult to give them a unity and directness of statement that will hold

the attention and interest of the reader until the chief point is reached.

+15. Probability.+--Not everything that the imagination may furnish is

equally worth expressing. If you choose to write about something for which

imagination supplies the ideas, you may create for yourself such ideas as

you wish. Their order of occurrence and their time and place are not

determined by outward events, but solely by the mind itself. The events

are no longer real and actual, but may be changed and rearranged without

limit. An imaginative series of events may conform closely to the real and

probable, or it may be manifestly improbable. Which will be of greater

interest will depend upon the reader, but it will be found that the story

which comes nearest to reality is most satisfactory. In relating fairy

tales we confessedly attempt to tell events not possible in the real

world, but in relating tales of real life, however imaginary, we should

tell the events so that everything seems both possible and probable. An

imaginative story, in which the persons seem to be real persons who do and

say the things that real persons do and say, will be found much more

satisfactory than a story that depends for its outcome on something

manifestly impossible. He who really does the best in imaginative writing

is the one who has most closely observed the real events of everyday life,

and states his imaginary events so that they seem real.

+Theme VI.+--_Write a short theme, using one of the subjects below. You

need not tell something that actually happened, but what you tell should

be so told that your readers will think it might have happened._

1. A trip in a sailboat.

2. The travels of a penny.

3. How I was lost.

4. A cat's account of a mouse hunt.

5. The mouse's account of the same hunt.

6. My experience with a burglar.

7. The burglar's story.

+16. Euphony.+--Besides clearness in a composition there are other

desirable qualities. To one of these, various names have been applied, as

"euphony," "ease," "elegance," "beauty," etc. Of two selections equally

clear in meaning one may be more pleasing than the other. One may seem

harsh and rough, while the other flows along with a satisfying ease and

smoothness. If the thought that is in our mind fails to clothe itself in

suitable language and appropriate figures, we can do little by conscious

effort toward improving the beauty of the language; but by avoiding choppy

sentences and inharmonious combinations of words and phrases, we may

remove from our compositions much that is harsh and rough. That quality

which we call ease or euphony is better detected by the ear than by the

eye, and for this reason it has been suggested that you read each theme

aloud to yourself before presenting it to the class. Such a reading will

assist you to determine whether you have made your meaning clear and to

eliminate some of the more disagreeable combinations.

+17. Variety.+--Of the many elements which affect the euphony of a theme

none is more essential than variety. The constant repetition of the same

thing grows monotonous and distasteful, while a pleasing variety maintains

interest and improves the story. For the sake of this variety we avoid the

continual use of the same words and phrases, substituting synonyms and

equivalent expressions if we have need to repeat the same idea many times.

Most children begin every sentence of a story with "and," or perhaps it is

better to say that they conclude many sentences with "and-uh," leaving the

thought in suspense while they are trying to think of what to say next.

High school pupils are not wholly free from this habit, and it is

sometimes retained in their written work. This excessive use of _and_

needs to be corrected. An examination of our language habits will show

that nearly every one has one or more words which he uses to excess. A

professor of rhetoric, after years of correcting others, discovered by

underscoring the word _that_ each time it occurred in his own writing that

he was using it twice as often as necessary. _Got_ is one of the words

used too frequently, and often incorrectly.

EXERCISES

1. In the following selection notice how each sentence begins. Compare it

with one of your own themes.

I was witness to events of a less peaceful character. One day when I went

out to my woodpile, or rather my pile of stumps, I observed two large

ants, the one red, and the other much larger, nearly half an inch long,

and black, fiercely contending with each other. Having once got hold, they

never let go, but struggled and wrestled and rolled on the chips

incessantly. Looking farther, I was surprised to find that the chips were

covered with such combatants; that it was not a _duellum_, but a

_bellum_,--a war between two races of ants, the red always pitted against

the black, and frequently two red ones to one black. The legions of these

Myrmidons covered all the hills and vales in my woodyard, and the ground

was already strewn with the dead and the dying, both red and black.

It was the only battle which I have ever witnessed--the only battlefield I

ever trod while the battle was raging.... On every side they were engaged

in deadly combat, yet without any noise that I could hear, and human

soldiers never fought so resolutely.--Thoreau.

2. Examine one of your own themes. If some word occurs frequently,

underscore it each time, and then substitute words or expressions for it

in as many places as you can. If necessary, reconstruct the sentences so

as to avoid using the word in some cases. Notice how these substitutions

give a variety to your expression and improve the euphony of your

composition.

Theme VII.--_Write a short story suggested by one of the following

subjects:_--

1. The trout's revenge.

2. A sparrow's mistake.

3. A fortunate shot.

4. The freshman and the professor.

5. What the bookcase thought about it.

(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness. Cross out unnecessary

_ands_. Consider the beginnings of the sentences. Can you improve the

euphony by a different choice of words?)

18. Sentence Length.--Euphony is aided by securing a variety in the length

of sentences. In endeavoring to avoid the excessive use of _and_, some

pupils obtain results illustrated by the following example:--

Jean passed through the door of the church. He saw a child sitting on one

of the stone steps. She was fast asleep in the midst of the snow. The

child was thinly clad. Her feet, cold as it was, were bare.

A theme composed wholly of such a succession of short sentences is

tedious. Especially when read aloud does its monotony become apparent.

Though the thought in each sentence is complete, the effect is not

satisfactory to the reader, because the thought of the whole does not come

to him as fast as his mind can act. Such an arrangement of sentences might

be satisfactory to young children, because it would agree with their

habits of thought; but as one grows in ability to think more rapidly, he

finds that longer and more complicated sentences best express his thoughts

and are best understood by those for whom he writes. We introduce

sentences of different length and different structure, because they more

clearly express the thought of the whole and state it in a form more in

accordance with the mental activity of the hearer. When we have done this,

we at the same time secure a variety that avoids monotony.

In attempting to avoid a series of short sentences, care should be taken

not to go to the other extreme. Sentences should not be overloaded. Too

many adjectives or participles or subordinate clauses will render the

meaning obscure. The number of phrases and clauses that may safely be

introduced will be determined by the ability of the mind to grasp the

meaning readily and accurately. It is sometimes quite as important to

separate a long sentence into shorter ones as it is to combine short ones

into those of greater length.

Notice in the following selection the different ways in which several

ideas have been brought into the same sentence without rendering the

meaning obscure:--

Loki made his way across a vast desert moorland, and came, after three

days, into the barren hill country and among the rugged mountains of the

South. There an earthquake had split the rocks asunder, and opened dark

and bottomless gorges, and hollowed out many a low-walled cavern, where

the light of day was never seen. Along deep, winding ways, Loki went,

squeezing through narrow crevices, creeping under huge rocks, and gliding

through crooked clefts, until he came at last into a great underground

hall, where his eyes were dazzled by a light that was stronger and

brighter than the day; for on every side were glowing fires, roaring in

wonderful little gorges, and blown by wonderful little bellows.

+Theme VIII.+--_Write a story suggested by one of the following

subjects:_--

1. School in the year 2000.

2. The lost door key.

3. Our big bonfire.

4. Kidnapped.

5. A bear hunt.

6. A mistake in the telegram.

7. How Fido rescued his master.

(Can you render the meaning more clear by uniting short sentences into

longer ones, or by separating long sentences into shorter ones? Can you

omit any _ands_? How many of the sentences begin with the same word? Can

you change any of those words? Pick out the words which show the

subordinate relation of some parts to others. Do all of the incidents in

your story seem probable?)

+19. Conversation.+--It must not be inferred from the preceding section

that short sentences are never to be used. They are quite as necessary as

long ones, and in some cases, such as the portraying of strong emotion,

are more effective. Even a succession of short sentences may be used with

good results to describe rapid action. In conversation, also, sentences

are generally short, and often grammatically incomplete, though they may

be understood by the hearer. Sometimes this incompleteness is justified by

the idiom of the language, but more often it is the result of carelessness

on the part of the speaker. The hearer understands what is said either

because he knows about what to expect, or because the expression is a

familiar one. Such carelessness not only causes the omission of words

grammatically necessary, but brings about the incorrect pronunciation of

words and their faulty combination into sentences.

You speak much more often than you write. Your habits of speech are likely

to become permanent and your errors of speech will creep into your written

work. It is important therefore that you watch your spoken language.

Occasions will arise when the slang expressions that you so freely use

will seem inappropriate, and it will be unfortunate indeed if you find

that you have used the slang so long that you have no other words to take

their place. An abbreviated form of _gymnasium_ or of _mathematics_ may

not attract attention among your schoolmates, but there are circles where

such abbreviations are not used. By watching your own speech you will find

that some incorrect forms are very common. Improvement can be made by

giving your attention to one of them, such as the use of _guess_, or of

_got_, or of _don't_ and _doesn't_.

In making a written report of conversation you should remember that short

sentences predominate. A conversation composed of long sentences would

seem stilted and made to order. What each person says, however short, is

put into a separate division and indented. Explanatory matter accompanying

the conversation is placed with the spoken part to which it most closely

relates. Notice the indentations and the use of quotation marks in several

printed reports of conversation.

+20. Ideas from Pictures.+--If you look at a picture and then attempt to

tell some one else what you see, you will express ideas gained by

experience. A picture may, however, cause a very different set of ideas to

arise. Look at the picture on page 38. Can you imagine the circumstances

that preceded the situation shown by the picture? Or again, can you not

begin with that situation and imagine what would be done next? If you

write out either of the series of events, the theme, though suggested by

the picture, will be composed of ideas furnished by the imagination. In

the writing of a story suggested by a picture, the situation given in the

picture should be made the point of greatest interest, and should be

accounted for by relating a series of events supposed to have preceded it.

+Theme IX.+--_Write a story that will account for the condition shown in

the picture on page 38._

(Correct with reference to clearness and meaning. Do you need to change

the sentence length either for the sake of clearness or for the sake of

variety? Cross out unnecessary _ands_. Underscore _got_ and _then_ each

time you have used them. Can the reader follow the thread of your story to

its chief point?)

[Illustration]

+21. Vocabulary.+--A word is the symbol of an idea, and the addition of a

word to one's vocabulary usually means that a new idea has been acquired.

The more we see and hear and read, the greater our stock of ideas becomes.

As our life experiences increase, so should our supply of words increase.

We may have ideas without having the words with which to express them, and

we may meet with words whose meanings we do not know. In either case there

is chance for improvement. When you have a new idea, find out how best to

express it, and when you meet with a new word, add it to your vocabulary.

It is necessary to distinguish between our reading vocabulary and our

writing vocabulary. There are many words that belong only to the first. We

know what they mean when we meet them in our reading, but we do not use

them in our writing. Our speaking vocabulary also differs from that which

we employ in writing. We use words and phrases on paper that seldom appear

in our speech, and, on the other hand, many of the words that we speak do

not appear in our writing. There is, however, a constant shifting of words

from one to another of these three groups. When we meet an unknown word,

it usually becomes a part of our reading vocabulary. Later it may appear

in our written work, and finally we may use it in speaking. We add a word

to our reading vocabulary when we determine its meaning, but _we must use

it_ in order to add it to our writing and speaking vocabulary. A conscious

effort to aid in this acquisition of words is highly desirable.

A limited vocabulary indicates limited ideas. If one is limited to

_awfully_ in order to express a superlative; if his use of adjectives is

restricted to _nice, jolly, lovely_, and _elegant;_ if he must always

_abominate_ and never _abhor_, _detest, dislike_, or _loathe;_ if he can

only _adore_ and not _admire, respect, revere_, or _venerate_,--then he

has failed, indeed, to know the possibilities and beauties of English.

Such a language habit shows a mind that has failed to distinguish between

ideas. The best way to study the shades of meaning and the choice of words

is in the actual production of a theme wherein there is need to bring out

these differences in meaning by the use of words; but some help may be

gained from a formal study of synonyms and antonyms and of the distinction

in use and meaning between words which are commonly confused with each

other. For this purpose such exercises are given in the Appendix.

+22. Choice of Words.+--Even though our words may express the proper

meaning, the effect may not be a desirable one unless we use words suited

to the occasion described and to the person writing. Pupils of high school

age know the meaning of many words which are too "bookish" for daily use

by them. Edward Everett Hale might use expressions which would not be

suitable for a freshman's composition. Taste and good judgment will help

you to avoid the unsuitable or grandiloquent.

The proper selection of words not only implies that we shall avoid the

wrong word, but also that we shall choose the right one. A suitable

adjective may give a clearer image than is expressed by a whole sentence;

a single verb may tell better how some one acted than can be told by a

lengthy explanation. Since narration has to do with action, we need in

story telling to be especially careful in our choice of verbs.

What can you say of the suitability of the words in the following

selection, taken from an old school reader?

_Mrs. Lismore._ You are quite breathless, Charles; where have you been

running so violently?

_Charles._ From the poultry yard, mamma, where I have been diverting

myself with the bravado of the old gander. I did not observe him till he

came toward me very fiercely, when, to induce him to pursue me, I ran from

him. He followed, till, supposing he had beaten me, he returned to the

geese, who appeared to receive him with acclamations of joy, cackling very

loud, and seeming actually to laugh, and to enjoy the triumph of their

gallant chief.

_Emma._ I wish I had been with you, Charles; I have often admired the

gambols of these beautiful birds, and wondered how they came by the

appellation of _silly_, which is generally bestowed on them. I remember

Martha, our nursery maid, used often to call me a _silly goose_. How came

they to deserve that term, mamma? they appear to me to have as much

intelligence as any of the feathered tribe.

_Mrs. Lismore._ I have often thought with you, Emma, and supposed that

term, like many others, misapplied, for want of examining into the justice

of so degrading an epithet.

+23. Improbability.+--Up to this point we have been concerned with

relating events that _could_ exist, though we knew that they _did_ not. We

may, however, imagine a series of events that are manifestly impossible.

There is a pleasure in inventing improbable stories, and if we know from

the beginning that they are to be so, we enjoy listening to them. Such

tales are more satisfactory to young persons than to older ones, as is

shown by our declining interest in fairy stories as we grow older.

By limiting the improbability to a part of the story, it is possible to

give an air of reality to the whole. Though the conditions described in a

story about a trip to the moon might be wholly impossible, yet the reader

for the time being might feel that the events were actually happening if

the characters in the story were acting as real men would act under

similar circumstances. In stories such as those of Thompson-Seton, where

the animals are personified, the impossibilities are forgotten, because

the actions and situations are so real. In fairy stories and similar tales

neither characters nor actions are in any way limited by probability.

+Theme X.+--_Write a short story suggested by one of the subjects below.

Make either the characters or their surroundings seem real._

1. A week in Mars.

2. Exploring the lake bottom.

3. The cat's defense of her kittens.

(_a_) As told by the cat.

(_b_) As told by the dog.

4. How the fox fooled the hound.

5. Diary of a donkey.

6. A biography of Jack Frost.

(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness and two other points to

be assigned by the teacher.)

+24. How to Increase One's Vocabulary.+--In your daily work do what you

can to add words to your reading vocabulary, and especially to increase

your writing vocabulary. In the conversation of others and in reading you

will meet with many new words, and you should attempt to make them your

own. To do this, four things must be attended to:--

1. _Spelling._ Definite attention should be given to each new word until

its form both as written and as printed is indelibly stamped upon the

mind. In your general reading and in each of the subjects that you will

study in the high school you will meet unfamiliar words. It is only by

mastering the spelling of each new word _when you first meet it_ that you

can insure yourself against future chagrin from bad spelling. A part of

the time in each high school subject may well be devoted to the mastering

of the words peculiar to that subject.

2. _Pronunciation._ The complete acquisition of a word includes its

pronunciation. In reading aloud and in speaking, we have need to know it,

and faulty pronunciation is considered an indication of lack of culture.

3. _Meaning._ This includes more than the ability to give the definition

as found in the dictionary. It is possible to recite such definitions

glibly without in reality knowing the meaning of the word defined. It is

necessary to connect the word definitely and permanently in our mind with

the idea for which it is the symbol and to be able to distinguish the idea

clearly from others closely related to it.

4. _Use._ The actual use of a word is very important. If a word is to come

into our speaking and writing vocabulary, we must use it. It is important

that the spelling, pronunciation, and meaning be determined when you

_first_ meet the word, and it is equally important that the word be _used_

soon and often.

+Theme XI.+--_Write a short story suggested by one of the following

subjects. It may be wholly improbable, if you choose._

1. The good fairy.

2. Mary's luck.

3. The man in the moon.

4. The golden apple.

5. A wonderful fountain pen.

6. The goobergoo and the kantan.

(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness and two other points to

be assigned by the teacher.)

SUMMARY

1. The clear expression of the ideas connected with our daily experiences

is of greater importance to most of us than is the production of

literature.

2. Ideas furnished by imagination may be advantageously used for

composition purposes, because--

_a._ They are your own.

_b._ They offer free choice of language.

They are less desirable than those gained from experience, because--

_a._ They generally lack clearness and permanency.

_b._ They are less likely to be worth recording.

_c._ It is more difficult to give them that unity and directness of

statement that will keep the interest of the reader.

3. An imaginative series of events may seem probable or improbable. He who

most closely observes real life and states his imaginary events so

that they seem real will succeed best in imaginative writing.

4. Euphony is a desirable quality in a composition.

5. Variety aids euphony. It is gained by--

_a._ Avoiding the repetition of the same words and phrases.

_b._ Beginning our sentences in various ways.

_c._ Using sentences of different lengths.

6. Conversation is usually composed of short sentences.

7. Pictures may suggest ideas suitable for use in compositions.

8. Our reading, writing, and speaking vocabularies differ.

Each should be increased. With each new word

attention should be given to--

_a._ Spelling.

_b._ Pronunciation.

_c._ Meaning.

_d._ Use.

III. EXPRESSION OF IDEAS ACQUIRED THROUGH LANGUAGE

+25. Language as a Medium through Which Ideas are Acquired.+--We have

been considering language as a means of expression, an instrument by which

we can convey to others the ideas which come to us from experience and

imagination. We shall now consider it from a different point of view.

Language is not merely a means of expressing ideas, but it is also a

medium through which ideas are acquired. It has a double use: the writer

must put thought into language; the reader must get it out. A large part

of your schooling has been devoted to acquiring ideas from language, and

these ideas may be used for purposes of composition. _Since it is

absolutely necessary to have ideas before you can express them_, it will

be worth while to consider for a time how to get them from language.

+26. Image Making.+--Read the following selection from Hawthorne and form

a clear mental image of each scene:--

At first, my fancy saw only the stern hills, lonely lakes, and venerable

woods. Not a tree, since their seeds were first scattered over the infant

soil, had felt the ax, but had grown up and flourished through its long

generation, had fallen beneath the weight of years, been buried in green

moss, and nourished the roots of others as gigantic. Hark! A light paddle

dips into the lake, a birch canoe glides around the point, and an Indian

chief has passed, painted and feather-crested, armed with a bow of

hickory, a stone tomahawk, and flint-headed arrows. But the ripple had

hardly vanished from the water, when a white flag caught the breeze, over

a castle in the wilderness, with frowning ramparts and a hundred

cannon.... A war party of French and Indians were issuing from the gate to

lay waste some village of New England. Near the fortress there was a group

of dancers. The merry soldiers footing it with the swart savage maids;

deeper in the wood, some red men were growing frantic around a keg of the

fire-water; and elsewhere a Jesuit preached the faith of high cathedrals

beneath a canopy of forest boughs.

Did you form clear mental images? Can you picture them all at the same

time, or must you turn your attention from one image to another? The

formation of the proper mental images will be aided by making a persistent

effort to create them.

Many words do not cause us to form images; for example, _goodness,

innocence, position, insurance_; but when the purpose of a word is to set

forth an image, we should take care to get the correct one. In this the

dictionary will not always help us. We must distinguish between the

ability to repeat a definition and the power to form an accurate image of

the thing defined. The difficulty of forming correct images by the use of

dictionary definitions is so great that the definitions are frequently

accompanied by pictures.

EXERCISES

Notice the different mental images that come to you as you read each of

the following selections. Distinguish words that cause images to arise

from those that do not.

1. Before these fields were shorn and tilled,

Full to the brim our rivers flowed;

The melody of waters filled

The fresh and boundless wood;

And torrents dashed, and rivulets played,

And fountains spouted in the shade.

--Bryant: _An Indian at the Burial Place of his Fathers_.

2. At that moment the woods were filled with another burst of cries, and

at the signal four savages sprang from the cover of the driftwood. Heyward

felt a burning desire to rush forward to meet them, so intense was the

delirious anxiety of the moment; but he was restrained by the deliberate

examples of the scout and Uncas. When their foes, who leaped over the

black rocks that divided them, with long bounds, uttering the wildest

yells, were within a few rods, the rifle of Hawkeye slowly rose among the

shrubs and poured out its fatal contents. The foremost Indian bounded like

a stricken deer and fell headlong among the clefts of the island.

--Cooper: _Last of the Mohicans_.

3. The towering flames had now surmounted every obstruction, and rose to

the evening skies, one huge and burning beacon, seen far and wide through

the adjacent country. Tower after tower crashed down, with blazing roof

and rafter; and the combatants were driven from the courtyard. The

vanquished of whom very few remained, scattered and escaped into the

neighboring wood. The victors, assembling in large bands, gazed with

wonder, not unmixed with fear, upon the flames, in which their own ranks

and arms glanced dusky red. The maniac figure of the Saxon Ulrica was for

a long time visible on the lofty stand she had chosen, tossing her arms

abroad with wild exaltation as if she reigned empress of the conflagration

which she had raised. At length, with a terrific crash, the whole turret

gave way and she perished in the flames which had consumed her tyrant.

--Scott: _Ivanhoe_.

4. Under a spreading chestnut tree

The village smithy stands;

The smith, a mighty man is he,

With large and sinewy hands;

And the muscles of his brawny arms

Are strong as iron bands.

--Longfellow: _The Village Blacksmith_.

5. Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered weak and weary,

Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore--

While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping,

As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door;

"'Tis some visitor," I muttered, "tapping at my chamber door--

Only this, and nothing more."

--Edgar A. Poe: _The Raven_.

6. Where with black cliffs the torrents toil,

He watch'd the wheeling eddies boil,

Till, from their foam, his dazzled eyes

Beheld the River Demon rise;

The mountain mist took form and limb

Of noontide hag or goblin grim.

--Scott: _Lady of the Lake_.

7. On nearer approach he was still more surprised at the singularity of

the stranger's appearance. He was a short, square-built old fellow, with

thick, bushy hair and a grizzled beard. His dress was of the antique Dutch

fashion--a cloth jerkin strapped around the waist--several pairs of

breeches, the outer ones of ample volume, decorated with rows of buttons

down the sides and bunches at the knees. He bore on his shoulder a stout

keg that seemed full of liquor, and made signs for Rip to approach and

assist him with his load.

--Washington Irving: _Rip Van Winkle_.

+27. Complete and Incomplete Images.+--Some sentences have for their

purpose the presentation of an image, but in order to form that image

correctly and completely, we must be familiar with the words used. If an

unfamiliar word is introduced, the mind may omit entirely the image

represented, or may substitute some other for it. Notice the image

presented by this sentence from Henry James: "Her dress was dark and rich;

she had pearls around her neck and an old rococo fan in her hand." If the

meaning of _rococo_ is unknown to you, the image which you form will not

be exactly the one that Mr. James had in mind. The pearls and the dress

may stand out clearly in your image, but the fan will be lacking or

indistinct. The whole may be compared to a photograph of which a part is

blurred. If your attention is directed to the fan, you may recall the word

_rococo_, but not the image represented by it. If your attention is not

called to the fan, the mind is satisfied with the indistinct image, or

substitutes for it an image of some other fan. Such an image is therefore

either incomplete or inaccurate.

An oath in court provides that we shall "tell the truth, the whole truth,

and nothing but the truth," but, in forming images, it is not always

possible to hold our minds to such exactness. We are prone to picture more

or less than the words convey. In fact, in some forms of prose, and often

in poetry, the author purposely takes advantage of this habit of the mind

and wishes us to enlarge with creations of our own imagination the bare

image that his words convey. Such writing, however, aims to give pleasure

or to arouse our emotions. It calls out something in the reader even more

strongly than it sets forth something in the writer. This suggestiveness

in writing will be considered later, but for the present it will be well

for you to bear in mind that most language has for its purpose the exact

expression of a definite idea. Much of the failure in school work arises

from the careless substitution of one image for another, and from the

formation of incomplete and inaccurate images.

EXERCISES

_A._ Make a list of the words in the following selections whose meanings

you need to look up in order to make the images exact and complete. Do not

attempt to memorize the language of the definition, but to form a correct

image.

1. The sun stared brazenly down on a gray farmhouse, on ranges of

whitewashed outbuildings, and on a goodly array of dark-thatched ricks.

2. In his shabby frieze jacket and mud-laden brogans, he was scarcely an

attractive object.

3. In a sunlit corner of an old coquina fort they came suddenly face to

face with a familiar figure.

4. Somewhat back from the village street

Stands the old-fashioned country seat.

Across its antique portico

Tall poplar trees their shadows throw,

And from its station in the hall

An ancient timepiece says to all:

"Forever--never!

Never--forever!"

--Longfellow: _The Old Clock on the Stairs_.

5. There was a room which bore the appearance of a vault. Four spandrels

from the corners ran up to join a sharp cup-shaped roof. The architecture

was rough, but very strong. It was evidently part of a great building.

6. The officer proceeded, without affecting to hear the words which

escaped the sentinel in his surprise; nor did he again pause, until he had

reached the low strand, and in a somewhat dangerous vicinity to the

western water bastion of the fort.

7. She stood on the top step under the _porte-cochère_, on the extreme

edge, so that the toes of her small slippers extended a little over it.

She bent forward, and then tipped back on the high, exiguous heels again.

8. Before the caryatides of the fireplace, under the ancestral portraits, a

valet moves noiselessly about, arranging the glistening silver service on

the long table and putting in order the fruits, sweets, and ices.

9. No sooner is the heavy gate of the portal passed than one sees from

afar among the leafage the court of honor, to which one comes along an

alley decorated uniformly with upright square shafts like classic termae

in stone and bronze. The impression of the antique lines is striking: it

springs at once to the eyes, at first in this portico with columns and a

heavy entablature, but lacking a pediment.

_B._ Read again the selections beginning on page 46. Do you form complete

images in every case?

_C._ Notice in each of your lessons for to-day what images are incomplete.

Bring to class a list of the words you would need to look up in order to

form complete images. Do not include all the words whose meanings are not

clear, but only those that assist in forming images.

+Theme XII.+--_Form a clear mental image of some incident, person, or

place. Write about it, using such words as will give your classmates

complete and accurate images. The following may suggest a subject:_--

1. A party dress I should like.

2. My room.

3. A cozy glen.

4. In the apple orchard.

5. Going to the fire.

6. The hand-organ man.

7. A hornets' nest.

8. The last inning.

9. An exciting race.

(Consider what you have written with reference to the images which the

_reader_ will form. Do you think that when the members of the class hear

your theme, each will form the same images that you had in mind when

writing? Notice how many of your sentences begin in the same way. Can you

rewrite them so as to give variety?)

+28. Reproduction of Images.+--If we were asked to tell about an accident

which we had seen, we could recall the various incidents in the order of

their occurrence. If the accident had occurred recently, or had made a

vivid impression upon us, we could easily form mental images of each

scene. If we had only read a description of the accident, it would be more

difficult to recall the image; because that which we gain through language

is less vitally a part of ourselves than is that which comes to us through

experience.

When called upon to reproduce the images suggested to us by language, our

memory is apt to concern itself with the words that suggested the image,

and our expression is hampered rather than aided by this remembrance. The

author has made, or should have made, the best possible selection of words

and phrases. If we repeat his language, we have but memory drill or copy

work; and if we do not, we are limited to such second-class language as we

may be able to find.

Word memory has its uses, but it is less valuable than image memory. It is

necessary to distinguish carefully between the images that a writer

presents and the words that he uses. If a botany lesson should consist of

a description of fifteen different leaves, a pupil deficient in image

memory will attempt to memorize the language of the book. A better-trained

pupil, on meeting such a term as _serrated_, will ask himself: "Have I

ever seen such a leaf? Can I form an image of it?" If so, his only task

will be to give the new name, _serrated_, to the idea that he already has.

In a similar way he will form images for each of the fifteen leaves

described in the lesson. The language of the book may help him form these

images, but he will make no attempt to commit the language to memory. With

him, "getting the lesson" means forming images and naming them, and

reciting the lesson will be but talking about an image that he has clearly

in mind. Try this in your own lessons.

If we are called upon to reproduce the incidents and scenes of some story

that has been read to us, our success will depend upon the clearness of

the images that we have formed. Our efforts should be directed to making

the images as definite and vivid as possible, and our memory will be

concerned with the recalling of these images in their proper order, and

not with the language that first caused them to appear.

EXERCISES

1. Report orally some interesting incident taken from a book which you

have recently read. Do not reread the story. Use such language as will

cause the class to form clear mental images.

2. Report orally upon some chapter selected from Cooper's _Last of the

Mohicans_ or Scott's _Ivanhoe_.

3. Read a portion of Scott's _Lady of the Lake_, and report orally what

happened.

4. Report orally some incident that you have read about in a magazine.

Select one that caused you to form images, and tell it so that the hearers

will form like images.

+Theme XIII.+--_Reproduce a story read to you by the teacher._

(Before writing, picture to yourself the scenes and recall the order of

their occurrence. If it is necessary to condense, omit events of the least

importance.)

+29. Comparison.+--Writing which contains unfamiliar words fails to call

up complete and definite images. It is often difficult to form the correct

mental picture, even though the words in themselves are familiar.

Definitions, explanations, and descriptions may cause us to understand

correctly, but our understanding usually can be improved by means of a

comparison. We can form an image of an object as soon as we know what it

is like.

If I wished you to form an image of an okapi, a lengthy description would

give you a less vivid picture than the statement that it was a horselike

animal, having stripes similar to those of a zebra. If an okapi were as

well known to you as is a horse, the name alone would call up the proper

image, and no comparison would be necessary. By means of it we are enabled

to picture the unfamiliar. In this case the comparison is literal.

If the comparison is imaginative rather than literal, our language becomes

figurative, and usually takes the form of a simile or metaphor. Similes

and metaphors are of great value in rendering thought clear. They make

language forceful and effective, and they may add much to the beauty of

expression.

We may speak of an object as being like another, or as acting like

another. If the comparison is imaginative rather than literal, and is

directly stated, the expression is a simile. Similes are introduced by

_like, as_, etc.

He fought like a lion.

The river wound like a serpent around the mountains.

If two things are essentially different, but yet have a common quality,

their _implied comparison_ is a metaphor. A metaphor takes the form of a

statement that one is the other.

"He was a lion in the fight."

"The river wound its serpent course."

Sometimes inanimate objects, abstract ideas, or the lower animals

are given the attributes of human beings. Such a figure is called

personification, and is in fact a modified metaphor, since it is based

upon some resemblance of the lower to the higher.

This music crept by me upon the waters.

Time is a very bankrupt, and owes more than he is worth to

season.

Nay, he's a thief, too; have you not heard men say,

That time comes stealing on by night and day?

--Shakespeare.

+30. Use of Figures of Speech.+--The three figures of speech, simile,

metaphor, and personification, are more frequently used than are the

others. Figures of speech are treated in a later chapter, but some

suggestions as to their use will be of value to beginners.

1. Never write for the purpose of using figures of speech. Nearly

everything that we need to say can be well expressed in plain, bare

English, and the ability to express our thoughts in this way is the

essential thing. If a figure that adds to the force and clearness of your

expression occurs to you, use it without hesitation. A figure may also add

to the beauty of our expression. The examples to be found in literature

are largely of this character. If well used, they are effective, but the

beginner should beware of a figure that is introduced for decorative

purposes only. An attempt to find figures of speech in ordinary prose

writing will show how rarely they are used.

2. The figures should fit the subject in hand. Some comparisons are

appropriate and some are not. If the writer is familiar with his subject

and deeply in earnest, the appropriate figures will rise spontaneously in

his mind. If they do not, little is gained by seeking for them.

3. The effectiveness of a comparison, whether literal or figurative,

depends upon the familiarity of the reader with one of the two things

compared. To say that a petrel resembled a kite would be of no value to

one who knew nothing of either bird. Similarly a figure is defective if

neither element of the comparison is familiar to the readers.

4. Suitable figures give picturesqueness and vivacity to language, but

hackneyed figures are worse than none.

5. Elaborate and long-drawn-out figures, or an overabundance of short

ones, should be avoided.

6. A figure must be consistent throughout. A comparison once begun must be

carried through without change; mixing figures often produces results

which are ridiculous. The "mixed metaphor" is a common blunder of

beginners. This fault may arise either from confusing different metaphors

in the same sentence, or from blending literal language with metaphorical.

The following will serve to illustrate:--

1. [Confused metaphor.] Let us pin our faith to the rock of perseverance

and honest toil, where it may sail on to success on the wings of hope.

2. [Literal and figurative blended.] Washington was the father of his

country and a surveyor of ability.

3. When the last awful moment came, the star of liberty went down with all

on board.

4. The glorious work will never be accomplished until the good ship

"Temperance" shall sail from one end of the land to the other, and with a

cry of "Victory!" at each step she takes, shall plant her banner in every

city, town, and village in the United States.

5. All along the untrodden paths of the future we see the hidden

footprints of an unseen hand.

6. The British lion, whether it is roaming the deserts of India, or

climbing the forests of Canada, will never draw in its horns nor retire

into its shell.

7. Young man, if you have the spark of genius in you, water it.

EXERCISES

Are the images which you form made more vivid by

the use of the figures in the following selections?

1. She began to screech as wild as ocean birds.

2. And when its force expended,

The harmless storm was ended;

And as the sunrise splendid

Came blushing o'er the sea--

3. As a demon is hurled by an angel's spear,

Heels over head, to his proper sphere--

Heels over head and head over heels,--

Dizzily down the abyss he wheels,--

So fell Darius.

--J.T. Trowbridge.

4. In this republican country, amid the fluctuating waves of our social

life, somebody is always at the drowning point.

--Hawthorne.

5. Poverty, treading close at her heels for a lifetime, has come up with

her at last.

--Hawthorne.

6. Friendships begin with liking or gratitude--roots that can be pulled

up.

--George Eliot.

7. Nearing the end of the narrative, Ben paced up and down the narrow

limits of the tent in great excitement, running his fingers through his

hair, and barking out a question now and then.

8. A sky above,

Where one white cloud like a stray lamb doth move.

--Lowell.

9. In days of public commotion every faction, like an Oriental army, is

attended by a crowd of camp followers, a useless and heartless rabble, who

prowl round its line of march in the hope of picking up something under

its protection, but desert it in the day of battle, and often join to

exterminate it after a defeat.

--Macaulay.

10. It is to be regretted that the prose writings of Milton should, in our

time, be so little read. As compositions, they deserve the attention of

every man who wishes to become acquainted with the full power of the

English language. They abound with passages compared with which the finest

declamations of Burke sink into insignificance. They are a perfect field

of cloth of gold. The style is stiff with gorgeous embroidery.

--Macaulay.

11. And close behind her stood

Eight daughters of the plow, stronger than men,

Huge women blowzed with health, and wind, and rain,

And labor. Each was like a Druid rock,

Or like a spire of land that stands apart

Cleft from the main and wall'd about with mews.

--Tennyson.

12. But bland the smile that, like a wrinkling wind

On glassy water, drove his cheek in lines.

--Tennyson.

13. The rush of affairs drifts words from their original meanings, as

ships drag their anchors in a gale, but terms sheltered from common use

hold to their moorings forever.

--Mill.

+Theme XIV.+--_Write a story suggested by the picture on page 59 or by one

of the following subjects:_--

1. A modern fable.

2. The willow whistle.

3. How I baked a cake.

4. The delayed picnic.

5. The missing slipper.

6. A misdirected letter.

7. A ride on a raft.

8. The rescue of Ezekiel.

9. A railway experience.

10. A soldier's soldier.

(Do you think the reader will form the images you wish him to form?

Consider what you have written with reference to climax. (See Section 7.)

Have you needed to use figures? If so, have you used them in accordance

with the suggestions on page 55? If you have used the word _only_, is it

placed so as to give the correct meaning?)

+31. Determination of Meaning Requires More than Image Making.+--The

emphasis laid upon image making should not lead to the belief that this is

all that is necessary in order to determine what is meant by the language

we hear or read. Image making is important, but much of our language is

concerned with presenting ideas of which no mental pictures can be formed.

[Illustration]

This very paragraph will serve as an illustration of such language. Our

understanding of language of this kind depends upon our knowledge of the

meanings of words, upon our understanding of the relations between word

groups, or parts of sentences, and especially upon our appreciation of the

relations in thought that sentences bear to one another. Each of these

will be discussed in the following pages. Later it will be necessary to

consider the relations in thought existing among paragraphs.

+32. Word Relations.+--In order to get the thought of a sentence, we must

understand the relations that exist between the words and word groups

(phrases and clauses) that compose it. If the thought is simple, and

expressed in straightforward terms, we grasp it readily and without any

conscious effort to determine these relations. If the thought is complex,

the relations become more complicated, and before we are sure that we know

what the writer intends to say it may be necessary to note with care which

is the main clause and which are the subordinate clauses. In either case

our acquiring the thought depends upon our understanding the relations

between words and word groups. We may understand them without any

knowledge of the names that have been applied to them in grammar, but a

knowledge of the names will assist somewhat. These relations are treated

in the grammar review in the Appendix and need not be repeated here.

+33. Incomplete Thoughts.+--We have learned (Section 27) that the

introduction of unfamiliar words may cause us to form incomplete images.

When the language is not designed to present images, we may, in a similar

way, fail to get its real meaning if we are unfamiliar with the words

used. If you do not know the meaning of _fluent_ and _viscous_, you will

fail to understand correctly the statement, "Fluids range from the

peculiarly fluent to the peculiarly viscous." If we wish to think

precisely what the writer intended us to think, we must know the meanings

of the words he uses. Many of us are inclined to substitute other ideas

than those properly conveyed by the words of the writer, and so get

confused or incomplete or inaccurate ideas. The ability to determine

exactly what images the writer suggests, and what ideas his language

expresses, is the first requisite of scholarship and an important element

of success in life.

EXERCISES

_A._ The first step in acquiring knowledge is to determine what it is that

we do not know. Just which word or words in each of the following

sentences keep you from understanding the full meaning of the sentence?

Notice that a dictionary definition will not always make the meaning

clear.

1. It is really more scientific to repeat a quotation from a political

speech correctly, or to pass on a story undistorted, than it is to know of

the rings of Saturn or the striation of diatoms.

2. The process of testing a hypothesis requires great caution in order to

prevent mistakes.

3. The aërial foliage stem is the most favorable for studying stem

structure.

4. Taken collectively, isotherms indicate the distribution of mean

temperature over the region embraced in the map.

5. Vibrations of the membrane of the tympanum are "damped" by the ossicles

of the middle ear, which also receive and pass on the auditory tremors to

the membrane closing the oval window.

6. In the battle which followed, the mobile Roman legion, arranged in open

order three ranks deep, proved its superiority over the massive Macedonian

phalanx.

7. The narrow and dissected forms have been attributed to the scarcity of

carbon dioxide and oxygen in the water.

_B._ Make a list of words in your lessons in other subjects for to-day

that you need to look up in order to understand the lessons. This should

be done daily, whether assigned or not.

34. +Choice of Words Adapted to the Reader.+--Words familiar to the reader

should be used. Since the reader's ability to understand the thought of a

paragraph depends to some extent upon his understanding of the words

employed, it is necessary for the writer to choose words that will be

understood by those whom he addresses. Of course we cannot tell whether a

particular word will be understood by our readers, but, in case there is

doubt, it is well to substitute one that is more likely to be understood.

When you have written anything, it is well to ask yourself the question,

Have I used words with which _the reader_ is probably familiar?

+Theme XV.+---_Write a theme about one of the following subjects, using

words that you think will be understood by your readers:_--

1. How we breathe.

2. How to make a kite.

3. The causes of the seasons.

4. Why wood floats on water.

5. The use of baking powder.

6. The difference between arithmetic and algebra.

(Have you said what you meant to say? Have you used words that your reader

will understand? Find your longest sentence. Is its meaning clear? Notice

the short sentences. Should some of them be united into a longer one?)

+35. Word Selection.+--There are many shades of meaning which differ but

little, and a careful writer will select just the word that best conveys

his thought. The reader needs to be no less careful in determining the

exact meaning that the writer intends to convey. Exercises in synonyms are

thus of double importance (Section 21).

Another source of error, both in acquiring and expressing thought, arises

from the confusion of similar words. Some similarity of spelling causes

one word to be substituted for another. There are many words and

expressions that are so often interchanged that some time may be spent

with profit upon exercises in determining their correct usage. These

usually consist of brief reports to the class that set forth the meanings

of the words, show their uses, and illustrate their differences.

In preparing such reports, determine the meaning of the words from as many

sources as are available. The usual meaning can be determined from the

dictionary. A fuller treatment is given in some dictionaries in a chapter

on faulty diction. Additional material may be found in many of the

text-books on rhetoric, and in special books treating of word usage. After

you are sure that you know the correct use, prepare a report for the class

that shall make that use clear to others. In the simplest form this will

consist of definitions and sentences in which the words are correctly

used. The following examples, handed in by pupils, will serve to

illustrate such reports:--

1. A _council_ is an assembly of persons convened for consultation or

deliberation. _Counsel_ is used to indicate either (1) an opinion as the

result of consultation or (2) a lawyer engaged to give advice or to act as

advocate in court. Lewis furnishes the following example of the use of

these two words: "The plaintiff's _counsel_ held a _council_ with his

partners in law, and finally gave him as his best _counsel_ the advice

that he should drop the suit; but, as Swift says, 'No man will take

_counsel_, but every man will take money,' and the plaintiff refused to

accept the advice unless the _counsel_ could persuade the defendant to

settle the case out of court by paying a large sum."

2. The correct meaning of _transpire_ may perhaps be best understood by

considering its derivations. It comes from _trans_, through, and _spiro_,

to breathe, from which it gets its meaning, to escape gradually from

secrecy. It is frequently used incorrectly in the sense of to happen, but

both Webster and the Standard dictionary condemn this use of the word. The

latter says that it is often so misused especially in carelessly edited

newspapers, as in "Comments on the heart-rending disaster which transpired

yesterday are unnecessary, but," etc. When _transpire_ is correctly used,

it is not a synonym of _happen_. A thing that happened a year ago may

transpire to-day, that is, it may "become known through unnoticed

channels, exhale, as it were, through invisible pores like a vapor or a

gas disengaging itself." Many things which happen in school, thus become

known by being passed along in a semi-secret manner until nearly all know

of them though few can tell just how the information was spread.

_Transpire_ may properly be applied to such a diffusion of knowledge.

+Theme XVI.+--_Report as suggested above on any one of the following

groups of words:_--

1. Allude, mention.

2. Beside, besides.

3. Character, reputation.

4. Degrade, demean, debase.

5. Last, latest, preceding.

6. Couple, pair.

7. Balance, rest, remainder.

(Have you made clear the correct use of the words under discussion? Can

you give examples which do not follow the dictionaries so closely as do

the illustrative reports above?)

NOTE.--Lists of words suitable for exercises similar to the above are

given in the Appendix. The teacher will assign them to such an extent and

at such times as seems desirable. One such lesson a week will be found

profitable.

+36. Sentence Relations.+--What we read or hear usually consists of

several sentences written or spoken together. The meaning of any

particular sentence may depend upon the sentence or sentences preceding.

In order to determine accurately the meaning of the whole, we must

understand the relation in thought that each sentence bears to the others.

Notice the two sentences: "Guns are dangerous. Boys should not use them."

Though the last sentence is independent, it gets its meaning from the

first.

In the following selection consider each sentence apart from the others.

Notice that the meaning of the whole becomes intelligible only when the

sentences are considered in their relations to each other.

Once upon a time, a notion was started, that if all the people in the

world would shout at once, it might be heard in the moon. So the

projectors agreed it should be done in just ten years. Some thousand

shiploads of chronometers were distributed to the selectmen and other

great folks of all the different nations. For a year beforehand, nothing

else was talked about but the awful noise that was to be made on the great

occasion. When the time came, everybody had his ears so wide open, to hear

the universal ejaculation of Boo,--the word agreed upon,--that nobody

spoke except a deaf man in one of the Fiji Islands, and a woman in Pekin,

so that the world was never so still since the creation.--Holmes.

Gutenberg did a great deal of his work in secret, for he thought it was

much better that his neighbors should know nothing of what he was doing.

So he looked for a workshop where no one would be likely to find him. He

was now living in Strasburg, and there was in that city a ruined old

building where, long before his time, a number of monks had lived. There

was one room in the building which needed only a little repairing to make

it fit to be used. So he got the right to repair the room and use it as

his workshop.

In all good writing we find a similar dependence in thought. Each sentence

takes a meaning because of its relation to some other. The personal

pronouns and pronominal adjectives, adverbial phrases indicating time or

place, conjunctions, and such expressions as _certainly, however, on the

other hand_, etc., are used to indicate more or less directly a relation

in thought between the phrase or sentence in which they occur and some

preceding one. If the reader cannot readily determine to what they refer,

the meaning becomes obscure or ambiguous. The pronominal adjectives and

the personal pronouns are especially likely to be used in such a way as to

cause ambiguity. Care must be taken to use them so as to keep the meaning

clear, and your own good sense will help you in this more than rules.

Notice in your reading how frequently expressions similar to those

mentioned above are used.

+Theme XVII.+--_Write a theme suggested by one of the following

subjects:_--

1. The last quarter.

2. An excursion with the physical geography class.

3. What I saw while riding to town.

4. The broken bicycle.

5. An hour in the study hall.

6. Seen from my study window.

(Are your sentences so arranged that the relation in thought is clear? Are

the personal pronouns and pronominal adjectives used so as to avoid

ambiguity? Does your story relate real events or imaginary ones? If

imaginary events are related, have you made them seem probable?)

+37. Getting the Main Thought.+--In many cases the relation in thought is

not directly indicated, and we are left to determine it from the context,

just as we decide upon the meaning of a word because of what precedes or

follows it. In this case the meaning of a particular sentence may be made

clear if we have in mind the main topic under discussion. Many pupils fail

in recitations because they do not distinguish that which is more

important from that which is less so. If a dozen pages of history are

assigned, they cannot master the lesson because it is too long to be

memorized, and they are not able to select the three or four things of

importance with which it is really concerned. Thirty or forty minor

details are jumbled together without any clear knowledge of the relations

that they bear either to one another or to the main thoughts of the

lesson.

In the following selection but three things are discussed. Determine what

they are, but not what is said about them.

In all the ages the extent and value of flood plains have been increased

by artificial means. Dikes or levees are built to regulate the spread and

flow of the water and to protect the land from destructive floods. Dams

and reservoirs are constructed for the storage of water, which is led by a

system of canals and ditches to irrigate large tracts of land which would

be otherwise worthless. By means of irrigation, the farmer has control of

his water supply and is able to get larger returns than are possible where

he depends upon the irregular and uncertain rainfall. It is estimated that

in the arid regions of western United States there are 150,000 square

miles of land which may be made available for agriculture by irrigation.

Perhaps in the future the valley of the lower Colorado may become as

productive as that of the Nile.

Streams are the easiest routes of travel and commerce. A river usually

furnishes from its mouth well up toward its source a smooth, graded

highway, upon which a cargo may be transported with much less effort than

overland. If obstructions occur in the form of rapids or falls, boat and

cargo are carried around them. It is often easy to pass by a short portage

or "carry" from one stream system across the divide to another. In regions

which are not very level the easiest grades in every direction are found

along the streams, and the main routes of land travel follow the stream

valleys. In traversing a mountainous region, a railroad follows the

windings of some river up to the crest of the divide, which it crosses

through a pass, or often by a tunnel, and descends the valley of some

stream on the other side.

Man is largely indebted to streams for the variety and beauty of scenery.

Running water itself is attractive to young and old. A landscape without

water lacks its chief charm. A child instinctively finds its way to the

brook, and the man seeks beside the river the pleasure and recreation

which no other place affords. Streams have carved the surface of the land

into an endless variety of beautiful forms, and a land where stream

valleys are few or shallow is monotonous and tiresome. The most common as

well as the most celebrated beauty of scenery in the world, from the tiny

meanders of a meadow brook to the unequaled grandeur of the Colorado

canyons, is largely due to the presence and action of streams.

--Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_.

In the above selection we find that each group of sentences is related to

some main topic. A more extended observation of good writing will give the

same result. Men naturally think in sentence groups. A group of sentences

related to each other and to the central idea is called a +paragraph.+

+38. Topic Statement.+--In the three paragraphs of the selection on page

67, notice that the first sentence in each tells what the paragraph is

about. In a well-written paragraph it is possible to select the phrase or

sentence that states the main thought. If such a sentence does not occur

in the paragraph itself, one can be framed that will express clearly and

concisely the chief idea of the paragraph. This brief, comprehensive

summary of the contents of a paragraph is called the topic statement.

In order to master the thought of what we read we must be able to select

or to make the successive topic statements, and in order to express our

own thoughts clearly we must write our paragraphs so that our readers may

easily grasp the topic statement of each.

When expressed in the paragraph, the topic statement may be a part of a

sentence, a whole sentence, or it may extend through two sentences. It is

usual to place the topic statement first, but it may be preceded by one or

more introductory sentences, or even withheld until the end of the

paragraph. For emphasis it may be repeated, though usually in a slightly

different form.

EXERCISES

Determine the topic statements of the following paragraphs. If one is not

expressed, make one.

1. No less valuable is the mental stimulus of play. The child is

trained by it to quick perception, rapid judgment, prompt decision. His

imagination cunningly suggests a thousand things to be done, and then

trains the will and every power of body and mind in the effort to do them.

The sports of childhood are admirably adapted to quicken the senses and

sharpen the wits. Nature has effective ways in her school of securing the

exercise which is needed to develop every mental and every bodily power.

She fills the activity brimful of enjoyment, and then gives her children

freedom, assured that they will be their own best teachers.

--Bradley

2. Our Common Law comes from England, and originated there in custom. It

is often called the unwritten law, because unwritten in origin, though

there are now many books describing it. Its principles originated as

habits of the people, five hundred, eight hundred, years ago, perhaps some

of them back in the time when the half-savage Saxons landed on the shores

of England. When the time came that the government, through its courts,

punished the breach of a custom, from that time the custom was a law. And

so the English people acquired these laws, one after another, just as they

were acquiring at the same time the habits of making roads, using forks at

table, manufacturing, meeting in Parliament, using firearms, and all the

other habits of civilization. When the colonists came to America, they

brought the English Common Law with them, not in a book, but in their

minds, a part of their life, like their religion.

--Clark: _The Government_.

3. Accuracy is always to be striven for but it can never be attained. This

fact is only fully realized by scientific workers. The banker can be

accurate because he only counts or weighs masses of metal which he assumes

to be exactly equal. The Master of the Mint knows that two coins are never

exactly equal in weight, although he strives by improving machinery and

processes to make the differences as small as possible. When the utmost

care is taken, the finest balances which have been constructed can weigh 1

lb. of a metal with an uncertainty less than the hundredth part of a

grain. In other words, the weight is not accurate, but the inaccuracy is

very small. No person is so stupid as not to feel sure that the height of

a man he sees is between 3 ft. and 9 ft.; some are able by the eye to

estimate the height as between 5 ft. 6 in. and 5 ft. 8 in.; measurement

may show it to be between 5 ft. 6 in. and 5 ft. 7 in., but to go closer

than that requires many precautions. Training in observation and the use

of delicate instruments thus narrow the limits of approximation. Similarly

with regard to space and time, there are instruments with which one

millionth of an inch, or of a second, can be measured, but even this

approximation, although far closer than is ever practically necessary, is

not accuracy. In the statement of measurements there is no meaning in more

than six significant figures, and only the most careful observations can

be trusted so far. The height of Mount Everest is given as 29,002 feet;

but here the fifth figure is meaningless, the height of that mountain not

being known so accurately that two feet more or less would be detected.

Similarly, the radius of the earth is sometimes given as 3963.295833

miles, whereas no observation can get nearer the truth than 3963.30 miles.

--Mill: _The Realm of Nature_. (Copyright, 1892, by Charles Scribner's

Sons.)

4. The chief cause which made the fusion of the different elements of

society so imperfect was the extreme difficulty which our ancestors found

in passing from place to place. Of all the inventions, the alphabet and

the printing press alone excepted, those inventions which abridge distance

have done most for the civilization of our species. Every improvement of

the means of locomotion benefits mankind morally and intellectually as

well as materially, and not only facilitates the interchange of the

various productions of nature and art, but tends to remove national and

provincial prejudices, and to bind together all the branches of the great

human family. In the seventeenth century the inhabitants of London were

for almost every practical purpose farther from Reading than they are now

from Edinburgh, and farther from Edinburgh than they are now from Vienna.

--Macaulay: _History of England_.

5. He touched New England at every point. He was born a frontiersman. He

was bred a farmer. He was a fisherman in the mountain brooks and off the

shore. He never forgot his origin, and he never was ashamed of it. Amid

all the care and honor of his great place here he was homesick for the

company of his old neighbors and friends. Whether he stood in Washington,

the unchallenged prince and chief in the Senate, or in foreign lands, the

kingliest man of his time in the presence of kings, his heart was in New

England. When the spring came, he heard far off the fife bird and the

bobolink calling him to his New Hampshire mountains, or of the

waves on the shore at Marshfield alluring him with a sweeter than siren's

voice to his home by the summer sea.

--George F. Hoar: _Daniel Webster_.

6. Nor must I forget the suddenly changing seasons of the northern clime.

There is no long and lingering spring, unfolding leaf and blossom one by

one; no long and lingering autumn, pompous with many-colored leaves and

the glow of Indian summer. But winter and summer are wonderful, and pass

into each other. The quail has hardly ceased piping in the corn when

winter, from the folds of trailing clouds, sows broadcast over the land

snow, icicles, and rattling hail. The days wane apace. Erelong the sun

hardly rises above the horizon, or does not rise at all. The moon and the

stars shine through the day; only at noon they are pale and wan, and in

the southern sky a red, fiery glow, as of a sunset, burns along the

horizon and then goes out. And pleasantly under the silver moon, and under

the silent, solemn stars, ring the steel shoes of the skaters on the

frozen sea, and voices, and the sound of bells.

--Longfellow: _Rural Life in Sweden_.

7. Extreme _busyness_, whether at school or college, kirk or market, is a

symptom of deficient vitality; and a faculty for idleness implies a

catholic appetite and a strong sense of personal identity. There is a sort

of dead-alive, hackneyed people about, who are scarcely conscious of

living except in the exercise of some conventional occupation. Bring these

fellows into the country, or set them aboard ship, and you will see how

they pine for their desk or their study. They have no curiosity; they

cannot give themselves over to random provocations; they do not take

pleasure in the exercise of their faculties for its own sake; and unless

Necessity lays about them with a stick, they will even stand still. It is

no good speaking to such folk: they _cannot_ be idle, their nature is not

generous enough; and they pass those hours in a sort of coma, which are

not dedicated to furious moiling in the gold mill. When they do not

require to go to the office, when they are not hungry and have no mind to

drink, the whole breathing world is a blank to them. If they have to wait

an hour or so for a train, they fall into a stupid trance, with their eyes

open. To see them, you would suppose there was nothing to look at and no

one to speak with; you would imagine they were paralyzed or alienated; and

yet very possibly they are hard workers in their own way, and have good

eyesight for a flaw in a deed or a turn of the market. They have been to

school and college, but all the time they had their eye on the medal; they

have gone about in the world and mixed with clever people, but all the

time they were thinking of their own affairs. As if a man's soul were not

too small to begin with, they have dwarfed and narrowed theirs by a life

of all work and no play; until here they are at forty, with a listless

attention, a mind vacant of all material amusement, and not one thought to

rub against another while they wait for the train. Before he was breeched,

he might have clambered on the boxes; when he was twenty, he would have

stared at the girls; but now the pipe is smoked out, the snuffbox is

empty, and my gentleman sits bolt upright on a bench, with lamentable

eyes. This does not appeal to me as being Success in Life.

--Robert Louis Stevenson. (Copyright, by Charles Scribner's Sons.)

_B._ Examine the themes which you have written. Does each paragraph have a

topic statement? Have you introduced sentences which do not bear upon this

topic statement? Are the paragraphs real ones treating of a single topic,

or are they merely groups of sentences written together without any close

connection in thought?

+Theme XVIII.+--_State two or three advantages of public high schools over

private boarding schools. Use each as a topic statement and develop it

into a short paragraph._

(Add to each topic statement such sentences as will prove to a pupil of

your own age that the topic statement states a real advantage. Include in

each paragraph only that which bears upon the topic statement. Consider

the definition of a paragraph on page 68. Does this definition apply to

your paragraphs?)

+39. Reproduction of the Thought of a Paragraph.+--Our ability to

reproduce the thought of what we read will depend largely upon our ability

to select the topic statements. In preparing a lesson for recitation it is

evident that we must first determine definitely the topic statement of

each paragraph. These may bear upon one general subject or upon different

subjects. The three paragraphs on page 67 are all concerned with one

subject, the uses of rivers. A pupil preparing to recite them would have

in mind, when he went to class, an outline about as follows:--

General subject: The uses of rivers.

First topic statement: The fertility of flood plains is improved by

irrigation.

Second topic statement: Streams are the easiest routes of travel and

commerce.

Third topic statement: Man is indebted to streams for beauty of scenery.

While such a clear statement is the first step toward a proper

understanding of the lesson, it is not enough. In order to understand

thoroughly a topic statement, we need explanation or illustration. The

idea is not really our own until we have thought about it in its relations

to other knowledge already in our possession. In order to know whether you

understand the topic statements, the teacher will ask you to discuss them.

This may be done by telling what the writer said about them, or by giving

thoughts and illustrations of your own, but best of all, by doing both. It

is necessary, then, to know in what way the writer develops each topic

statement.

Read the following paragraph:--

The most productive lands in the world are flood plains. At every period

of high water, a stream brings down mantle rock from the higher grounds,

and deposits it as a layer of fine sediment over its flood plain. A soil

thus frequently enriched and renewed is literally inexhaustible. In a

rough, hilly, or mountainous country the finest farms and the densest

population are found on the "bottom lands" along the streams. The flood

plain most famous in history is that of the river Nile in Egypt. For a

distance of 1500 miles above its mouth this river flows through a rainless

desert, and has no tributary. The heavy spring rains which fall upon the

highlands about its sources produce in summer a rise of the water, which

overflows the valley on either side. Thus the lower Nile valley became one

of the earliest centers of civilization, and has supported a dense

population for 7000 years. The conditions in Mesopotamia, along the Tigris

and Euphrates rivers, are similar to those along the lower Nile, and in

ancient times this region was the seat of a civilization perhaps older

than that of Egypt. The flood plains of the Ganges in India, and the Hoang

in China, are the most extensive in the world, and in modern times the

most populous. The alluvial valley of the Mississippi is extremely

productive of corn, cotton, and sugar cane.

--Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_.

Notice that the first sentence gives the topic statement, flood plains are

productive. The second and third sentences tell why this is so, and the

rest of the paragraph is given up to illustrations.

In preparing this paragraph for recitation the pupil should have in mind

an outline about as follows:--

Topic statement: Flood plains are the most productive lands in the world.

1. Reasons.

2. Examples: (_a_) Bottom lands.

(_b_) Nile.

(_c_) Tigris and Euphrates.

(_d_) Ganges.

(_e_) Hoang.

(_f_) Mississippi.

In order to make such an outline, the relative importance of the ideas in

the paragraph must be mastered. A recitation that omitted the topic

statement or the reasons would be defective, while one that omitted one or

more of the examples might be perfect, especially if the pupil could

furnish other examples from his own knowledge. The illustration about

bottom lands is a general one, and should suggest specific cases that

could be included in the recitation. The details in regard to the Nile

might be included if they happened to be recalled at the time of the

recitation, but even the omission of all mention of the Nile might not

materially detract from the value of the recitation. The effort to

remember minor details hinders real thought-getting power.

It is better not to write this outline. The use of notes or written

outlines at the time of the recitation soon establishes a habit of

dependence that renders real scholarship an impossibility. With such an

analysis of the thought clearly in mind, the pupil need not attempt to

remember the language of the writer.

EXERCISES

_A._ Complete the partial outline given for the paragraph below. Which of

the illustrations might be omitted from a recitation? For which can you

furnish different illustrations?

Mountain ranges have great influence upon climate, political geography,

and commerce. Many of them form climatic boundaries. The Cordilleras of

western America and the Scandinavian mountains arrest the warm, moist,

western winds which rise along those great rock barriers to cooler

altitudes, where their water vapor is condensed and falls as rain, so that

the country on the windward side of the mountains is wet and that on the

leeward side is dry. Mountain chains stretching east and west across

central Asia protect the southern part of the continent from frigid arctic

winds. The large winter tourist traffic of the Riviera is due to the

mountains that shield this favored French-Italian coast from the north and

northeast continental winds, giving it a considerably warmer winter's

temperature than that of Rome, two and a half degrees farther south. As

North America has no mountain barriers across the pathway of polar winds,

they sweep southward even to the Gulf of Mexico and have twice destroyed

Florida's orange groves within a decade. Mountain ranges are conspicuous

in political geography because they are the natural boundary between many

nations and languages, as the Pyrenees between France and Spain, the Alps

between Austria and Italy, and the Himalayas between Tibet and India.

Mountains sometimes guard nations from attack by the isolation they give,

and therefore promote national unity. Thus the Swiss are among the few

peoples in Europe who have maintained the integrity of their state.

Commercially, mountains are of great importance as a source of water,

which they store in snow, glaciers, and lakes. Snow and ice, melting

slowly on the mountains, are an unfailing source of supply for perennial

rivers, and thus promote navigation. Mountains are the largest source of

water-power, which is more valuable than ever now that electricity is

employed to transmit it to convenient centers for use in the industries. A

large part of the mining machinery in the United States is run by water

power. Switzerland, which has no coal, turns the wheels of its mills with

water. Mountains supply most of the metals and minerals, and are therefore

the scene of the largest mining industry. They are also among the greatest

sources of forest wealth. Though the slopes are not favorable for

agriculture they afford good pasturage, and the débris of the rocks washed

into the valleys and plains by mountain torrents supplies good soil. Thus

the Appalachians have been worn down to a comparatively low level, and the

soil formed from their rock particles is the basis of large husbandry.

The scenic attractions of many mountain regions is a source of large

revenue. The Alps attract crowds of tourists, who spend about twenty

million dollars a year in Switzerland and Austria, and give to many

thousands of persons.

--Adams: _Commercial Geography_.

OUTLINE (to be completed)

Mountain ranges have great influence upon--

I. Climate.

Why?

Where?

_a, b,_ etc.

II. Political geography.

Why?

Where?

_a, b,_ etc.

III. Commerce.

Why?

Where?

_a, b,_ etc.

_B._ Make an outline of the following paragraph:--

1. The armor of the different classes was also accurately ordered by the

law. The first class was ordered to wear for the defense of the body,

brazen helmets, shields, and coats of mail, and to bear spears and swords,

excepting the mechanics, who were to carry the necessary military engines

and to serve without arms. The members of the second class, excepting that

they had bucklers instead of shields and wore no coats of mail, were

permitted to bear the same armor and to carry the sword and spear. The

third class had the same armor as the second, excepting that they could

not wear greaves for the protection of their legs. The fourth had no arms

excepting a spear and a long javelin. The fifth merely carried slings and

stones for use in them. To this class belonged the trumpeters and horn

blowers.

--Gilman: _Story of Rome_.

_C._ In preparing your other lessons for to-day, make outlines of the

paragraphs.

+Theme XIX.+--_Reproduce the thought of some paragraph read to you by the

teacher._

(Do not attempt to remember the language. Try to get the main thought of

what is read and then write a paragraph which sets forth that same idea.

Use different illustrations if you can.)

NOTE.--This theme may be repeated as many times as seems desirable.

+40. Importance of the Paragraph.+--Emphasis needs to be laid upon the

importance of the paragraph. Our ability to express our thoughts clearly

depends, to a large extent, upon our skill in constructing paragraphs. The

writing of correct sentences is not sufficient. Though each of a series of

sentences may be correct, they may, as a whole, say but little, and that

very poorly; while another set of sentences, which cluster around some

central idea, may set it forth most effectively. It is only by giving our

sentence groups that unity of thought which combines them into paragraphs

that we make them most effective. A well-constructed paragraph will make

clear some idea, and a series of such paragraphs, related to each other

and properly arranged, will set forth the sum of our thoughts on any

subject.

+41. Paragraph Length.+--The proper length of a paragraph cannot be

determined by rule. Sometimes the thought to be presented will require

several sentences; sometimes two or three will be sufficient. A single

illustration may make a topic statement clear, or several illustrations

may be required. The writer must judge when he has included enough to make

his meaning understood, and must avoid including so much that the reader

will become weary. Usually a paragraph that exceeds three hundred words

will be found too long, or else it will contain more than one main idea,

each of which could have been presented more effectively in a separate

paragraph.

+42. Indentation.+--In written and printed matter the beginning of a

paragraph is indicated by an indentation. Indentation does not make a

paragraph, but we indent because we are beginning a new paragraph.

Indentation thus serves the same purpose as punctuation. It helps the

reader to determine when we have finished one main thought and are about

to begin another. Beginners are apt to use indentations too frequently.

There are some special uses of indentation in letter writing, printed

conversation, and other forms, but for ordinary paragraph division the

indentation is determined by the thought, and its correct use depends upon

clear thinking. Can the following selection be improved by reparagraphing?

Outside in the darkness, gray with whirling snowflakes, he saw the wet

lamps of cabs shining, and he darted along the line of hansoms and coupés

in frantic search for his own.

"Oh, there you are," he panted, flinging his suit case up to a

snow-covered driver. "Do your best now; we're late!" And he leaped into

the dark coupé, slammed the door, and sank back on the cushions,

turning up the collar of his heavy overcoat.

There was a young lady in the farther corner of the cab, buried to her

nose in a fur coat. At intervals she shivered and pressed a fluffy muff

against her face. A glimmer from the sleet-smeared lamps fell across her

knees.

Down town flew the cab, swaying around icy corners, bumping over car

tracks, lurching, rattling, jouncing, while its silent occupants, huddled

in separate corners, brooded moodily at their respective windows.

Snow blotted the glass, melting and running down; and over the watery

panes yellow light from shop windows played fantastically, distorting

vision.

Presently the young man pulled out his watch, fumbled for a match box,

struck a light, and groaned as he read the time.

At the sound of the match striking, the young lady turned her head. Then,

as the bright flame illuminated the young man's face, she sat bolt

upright, dropping the muff to her lap with a cry of dismay.

He looked up at her. The match burned his fingers; he dropped it and

hurriedly lighted another; and the flickering radiance brightened upon the

face of a girl whom he had never before laid eyes on.

"Good heavens!" he said, "where's my sister?"

The young lady was startled but resolute. "You have made a dreadful

mistake," she said; "you are in the wrong cab--"

+Theme XX.+--_Write a theme using one of the subjects below:_--

1. A personal incident.

2. The advantages and disadvantages of recesses.

3. Complete the story commenced in the selection just

preceding.

(Make a note of the different ideas you may discuss. Which are important

enough to become topic statements? Which may be grouped together in one

paragraph? In what order shall they occur? After your theme is written,

consider the paragraphs. Does the definition apply to them? Are any of

them too short or too long?)

+43. Reasons for Studying Paragraph Structure.+--A knowledge of the way in

which a paragraph is constructed will aid us in determining the thought it

contains. There are several methods of developing paragraphs, and usually

one of these is better suited than another to the expression of our

thought. Attention given to the methods used by others will enable us both

to understand better what we read, and to employ more effectively in our

own writing that kind of paragraph which best expresses our thought. Hence

we shall give attention to the more common forms of paragraph development.

+44. Development by Giving Specific Instances.+--If you hear a general

statement, such as, "Dogs are useful animals," you naturally think at once

of some of the ways in which they are useful, or of some particular

occasion on which a dog was of use. If a friend should say, "My dog, Fido,

knows many amusing tricks," you would expect the friend to tell you some

of them. A large part of our thinking consists of furnishing specific

instances to illustrate general ideas which arise. Since the language we

use is but the expression of the thoughts we have, it happens that many of

our paragraphs are made up of general statements and the specific

instances used to illustrate these statements. When the topic sentence is

a general statement, we naturally seek to supply specific instances, and

the writer will most readily make his meaning clear by furnishing such

illustrations. Either one or many instances may be used. The object is to

explain the topic statement or to prove its truth, and a good writer will

use that number of instances which best accomplishes his purpose.

In the following selection notice how the topic statement, set forth and

repeated in the first part of the paragraph, is illustrated in the last

part by means of several specific instances:--

Nine tenths of all that goes wrong in this world is because some one does

not mind his business. When a terrible accident occurs, the first cry is

that the means of prevention were not sufficient. Everybody declares we

must have a new patent fire escape, an automatic engine switch, or a

high-proof non-combustible sort of lamp oil. But a little investigation

will usually show that all the contrivances were on hand and in good

working order; the real trouble was that somebody didn't mind his

business; he didn't obey orders; he thought he knew a better way than the

way he was told; he said, "Just this once I'll take the risk," and in so

doing, he made other people take the risk too; and the risk was too great.

At Toronto, Canada, not long ago, a conductor, against orders, ran his

train on a certain siding, which resulted in the death of thirty or forty

people. The engineer of a mill, at Rochester, N.Y., thought the engine

would stand a higher pressure than the safety valve indicated, so he tied

a few bricks to the valve to hold it down; result--four workmen killed, a

number wounded, and a mill blown to pieces. The _City of Columbus_, an iron

vessel fitted out with all the means of preservation and escape in use on

shipboard, was wrecked on the best-known portion of the Atlantic coast, on

a moonlight night, at the cost of one hundred lives, because the officer

in command took it into his head to save a few ship-lengths in distance by

hugging the shore, in direct disobedience to the captain's parting orders.

The best-ventilated mine in Colorado was turned into a death trap for half

a hundred miners because one of the number entered with a lighted lamp the

gallery he had been warned against. Nobody survived to explain the

explosion of the dynamite-cartridge factory in Pennsylvania, but as that

type of disaster almost always is due to heedlessness, it is probable that

this instance is not an exception to the rule.

--Wolstan Dixey: _Mind Your Business_.

EXERCISES

_A._ Which sentences make the general statements, and which furnish

specific instances, in the following paragraphs?

My contemplations were often interrupted by strangers who came down

from Forsyth's to take their first view of the falls. A short, ruddy,

middle-aged gentleman, fresh from Old England, peeped over the rock, and

evinced his approbation by a broad grin. His spouse, a very robust lady,

afforded a sweet example of maternal solicitude, being so intent on the

safety of her little boy that she did not even glance at Niagara. As for

the child, he gave himself wholly to the enjoyment of a stick of candy.

Another traveler, a native American, and no rare character among us,

produced a volume of Captain Hall's tour, and labored earnestly to adjust

Niagara to the captain's description, departing, at last, without one new

idea or sensation of his own. The next comer was provided, not with a

printed book, but with a blank sheet of foolscap, from top to bottom of

which, by means of an ever pointed pencil, the cataract was made

to thunder. In a little talk which we had together, he awarded his

approbation to the general view, but censured the position of Goat Island,

observing that it should have been thrown farther to the right, so as to

widen the American falls, and contract those of the Horseshoe. Next

appeared two traders of Michigan, who declared that, upon the whole, the

sight was worth looking at; there certainly was an immense water power

here; but that, after all, they would go twice as far to see the noble

stone works of Lockport, where the Grand Canal is locked down a descent of

sixty feet. They were succeeded by a young fellow, in a homespun cotton

dress, with a staff in his hand, and a pack over his shoulders. He

advanced close to the edge of the rock, where his attention, at first

wavering among the different components of the scene, finally became fixed

in the angle of the Horseshoe falls, which is, indeed, the central point

of interest. His whole soul seemed to go forth and be transported thither,

till the staff slipped from his relaxed grasp, and falling down--down--

down--struck upon the fragment of the Table Rock.

--Hawthorne: _My Visit to Niagara_.

No wonder he learned English quickly, for he was ever on the alert--no

strange word escaped him, no unusual term. He would say it over and over

till he met a friend, and then demand its meaning. One day he came to me

with a very troubled face. "Madame," he said, "please tell me why shall a

man, like me, like any man, be a 'bluenose'?"

"A what?" I asked.

"A 'bluenose.' So he was called in the restaurant, but he seemed not

offended about it. I have looked in my books; I can't find any disease of

that name."

With ill-suppressed laughter I asked, "Do you know Nova Scotia and

Newfoundland?"

"I hear the laugh in your voice," he said; then added, "Yes, I know both

these places."

"They are very cold and foggy and wet," I explained.

But with brightening eyes he caught up the sentence and continued:

"And the people have blue noses, eh? Ha! ha! Excuse me, then, but is a

milksop a man from some state, or some country, too?"

At tea some one used the word "claptrap." "What's that?" quickly demanded

the student in our midst. "'Claptrap'--'clap' is so (he struck his hands

together); 'trap' is for rats--what is, then, 'claptrap'?"

"It is a vulgar or unworthy bid for applause," I explained.

"Bah!" he contemptuously exclaimed. "I know him,--that cheap actor who

plays at the gallery. He is, then, in English a 'clap-trapper,' is he not?"

It was hardly possible to meet him without having a word or a term offered

thus for explanation.

--Clara Morris: _Alessandro Salvini_ ("McClure's").

_B._ Write six sentences which might be developed into paragraphs by

giving specific instances.

+Theme XXI.+--_Write a paragraph by furnishing specific instances for one

of the following topic statements:_--

1. Nine tenths of all that goes wrong in this world is because some one

does not mind his business.

2. It requires a man of courage and perseverance to become a pioneer.

3. Even the wisest teacher does not always punish the boy who is most at

fault.

4. It is impossible to teach a dog many amusing tricks.

5. Even so stupid a creature as a chicken may sometimes exhibit much

intelligence.

6. Carelessness often leads into difficulty.

7. Our school clock must see many interesting things.

8. Our first impressions are not always our best ones.

9. I am a very busy lead pencil, for my duties are numerous.

10. Dickens's characters are taken from the lower classes of

people.

11. Some portions of the book I am reading are very interesting.

(Do your specific instances really illustrate the topic

statement? Have you said what you intended to say?

Can you omit any words or sentences? Have you used

_and_ or _got_ unnecessarily?).

+45. Development by Giving Details.+--Many general statements lead to a

desire to know the details, and the writer may make his idea clearer by

giving them. The statement, "The wedding ceremony was impressive," at once

arouses a desire to know the details. If a friend should say, "I enjoyed

my trip to the city," we wish him to relate that which pleased him. These

details assist us in understanding the topic statement, and increase our

interest in it. Notice in the paragraphs below how much is added to our

understanding of the topic statement by the sentences that give the

details:--

1. I left my garden for a week, just at the close of a dry spell. A season

of rain immediately set in, and when I returned the transformation was

wonderful. In one week every vegetable had fairly jumped forward. The

tomatoes, which I left slender plants, eaten of bugs and debating whether

they would go backward or forward, had become stout and lusty, with thick

stems and dark leaves, and some of them had blossomed. The corn waved like

that which grows so rank out of the French-English mixture at Waterloo.

The squashes--I will not speak of the squashes. The most remarkable growth

was the asparagus. There was not a spear above ground when I went away;

and now it had sprung up, and gone to seed, and there were stalks higher

than my head.

--Warner: _My Summer in a Garden_.

2. The wedding ceremony was solemn and beautiful, in the church on the

estate. At the door of the palace stood the mother of the bride, to greet

her return from the ceremony with the blessing, "May you always have bread

and salt," as she served her from a loaf of black bread, with a salt

cellar in the center, as is the Russian custom for prince and peasant.

Just at this dramatic moment a courier dashed up with a telegram from the

Czar and Czarina, and their gifts for the bride,--a magnificent tiara and

necklace of diamonds. The other presents were already displayed in a

magnificent room; but we saw their splendor through the glass of locked

cases,--a precaution surprising to an Englishwoman. The large swan of

forcemeat was the only reminder of boyar customs at the rather Parisian

feast. Wine was served between the courses, with a toast; while guests in

turn left their seats to express their sentiments to bride and groom, who

stood to receive them.

--Mary Louise Dunbar: _The Household of a Russian Prince_

("Atlantic Monthly ").

+Theme XXII.+--_Write a paragraph by giving details for one of the

following topic statements:_--

1. There were many interesting things on the farm where I spent my summer

vacation.

2. The sounds heard in the forest at night are somewhat alarming to one

who is not used to the language of the woods.

3. I am always much amused when the Sewing Circle meets at my mother's

house.

4. Good roads are of advantage to farmers in many ways.

5. A baseball game furnishes abundant opportunity to exercise good

judgment.

6. I remember well the first time that I visited a large city.

7. I shall never forget my first attempt at milking a cow.

8. The haunted house is a square, old-fashioned one of the colonial type.

9. A mouse suddenly entering the class room caused much disturbance.

10. A freshman's trials are numerous.

(Do the details bear upon the main idea? If the paragraph is long and

rambling, condense by omitting the least important parts. By changing the

order of the sentences, can you improve the paragraph?)

+46. Details Related in Time-Order.+--The experiences of daily life follow

each other in time, and when we read of a series of events we at once

think of them as having occurred in a certain time-order. To assist in

establishing the correct time-order, the writer should generally state the

details of his story in the order in which they occurred. The method of

showing time relations for simultaneous events has been discussed in

Section 11.

If the narrative is of considerable length, it may be divided into

paragraphs, each dealing with some particular stage of its progress. The

time relations among the sentences within the paragraph and among the

paragraphs themselves should be such that the reader may readily follow

the thread of the story to its main point. Narrative paragraphs often do

not have topic sentences.

In the following selection from _Black Beauty_ notice how the time

relations give unity of thought both to the paragraphs and to the whole

selection:--

He hung my rein on one of the iron spikes, and was soon hidden among the

trees. Lizzie was standing quietly by the side of the road, a few paces

off, with her back to me. My young mistress was sitting easily, with a

loose rein, humming a little song. I listened to my rider's footsteps

until he reached the house, and heard him knock at the door.

There was a meadow on the opposite side of the road, the gate of which

stood open. As I looked, some cart horses and several young colts came

trotting out in a very disorderly manner, while a boy behind was cracking

a great whip. The colts were wild and frolicsome. One of them bolted

across the road and blundered up against Lizzie. Whether it was the stupid

colt or the loud cracking of the whip, or both together, I cannot say, but

she gave a violent kick and dashed off into a headlong gallop. It was so

sudden that Lady Anne was nearly unseated, but she soon recovered herself.

I gave a long, shrill neigh for help. Again and again I neighed, pawing

the ground impatiently, and tossing my head to get the rein loose. I had

not long to wait. Blantyre came running to the gate. He looked anxiously

about, and just caught sight of the flying figure now far away on the

road. In an instant he sprang to the saddle. I needed no whip, no spur,

for I was as eager as my rider. He saw it; and giving me a free rein, and

leaning a little forward, we dashed after them.

For about a mile and a half the road ran straight, then bent to the right;

after this it divided into two roads. Long before we came to the bend my

mistress was out of sight. Which way had she turned? A woman was standing

at her garden gate, shading her eyes with her hand, and looking eagerly up

the road. Scarcely drawing rein, Lord Blantyre shouted, "Which way?" "To

the right!" cried the woman, pointing with her hand, and away we went up

the right-hand road. For a moment we caught sight of Lady Anne; another

bend, and she was hidden again. Several times we caught glimpses of the

flying rider, only to lose her again. We scarcely seemed to gain ground

upon her at all.

An old road mender was standing near a heap of stones, his shovel dropped

and his hands raised. As we came near he made a sign to speak. Lord

Blantyre drew the rein a little. "To the common, to the common, sir! She

has turned off there."

I knew this common very well. It was, for the most part, very uneven

ground, covered with heather and dark-green bushes, with here and there a

scrubby thorn tree. There were also open spaces of fine, short grass, with

ant-hills and mole turns everywhere--the worst place I ever knew for a

headlong gallop.

We had just turned on to the common, when we caught sight again of the

green habit flying on before us. My mistress's hat was gone, and her long

brown hair was streaming behind her. Her head and body were thrown back,

as if she were pulling with all her remaining strength, and as if that

strength were nearly exhausted. It was clear that the roughness of the

ground had very much lessened Lizzie's speed, and there seemed a chance

that we might overtake her.

While we were on the highroad, Lord Blantyre had given me my head; but

now, with a light hand and a practiced eye, he guided me over the ground

in such a masterly manner that my pace was scarcely slackened, and we

gained on them every moment.

About halfway across the common a wide dike had recently been cut and the

earth from the cutting cast up roughly on the other side. Surely this

would stop them! But no; scarcely pausing, Lizzie took the leap, stumbled

among the rough clods, and fell.

--Anne Sewell: _Black Beauty_.

+Theme XXIII.+--_Write a brief narrative giving unity to the paragraphs by

means of the time relations._

Suggested subjects:--

1. An adventure on horseback.

2. A trip with the engineer.

3. A day on the river.

4. Fido's mishaps.

5. An inquisitive crow.

6. The unfortunate letter carrier.

7. Teaching a calf to drink.

8. The story of a silver dollar.

9. A narrow escape.

10.An afternoon at the circus.

11.A story accounting for the situation shown in the

picture on page 90.

(Do you need more than one paragraph? If so, is each a group of sentences

treating of a single topic? Can the reader follow the thread of your

story? Leave out details not essential to the main point.)

+47. Order of Details Determined by Position in Space.+--The order of

presentation of details may be determined by the position that the details

themselves occupy in space. In description we wish both to give a correct

general impression of the thing described, and to make certain details

clear. The general impression should be given in the first sentence or two

and the details should follow. The effectiveness of the details will

depend upon their order of presentation. When one looks at a scene the eye

passes from one object to another near it; similarly when one is recalling

the scene the image of one thing naturally recalls that of an adjoining

one. A skillful writer takes advantage of this habit of thinking, and

states the details in his description in the order in which we would

naturally see them if we were actually looking at them. By so doing he

most easily presents to our minds the image he wishes to convey.

[Illustration]

In the following paragraphs notice that we get first an impression of the

general appearance, to which we are enabled to add new details as the

description proceeds.

The companion of the church dignitary was a man past forty, thin, strong,

tall, and muscular; an athletic figure, which long fatigue and constant

exercise seemed to have left none of the softer part of the human form,

having reduced the whole to brawn, bones, and sinews, which had sustained

a thousand toils, and were ready to dare a thousand more. His head was

covered with a scarlet cap, faced with fur, of that kind which the French

call _mortier_, from its resemblance to the shape of an inverted mortar.

His countenance was therefore fully displayed, and its expression was

calculated to impress a degree of awe, if not of fear, upon strangers.

High features, naturally strong and powerfully expressive, had been burnt

almost into negro blackness by constant exposure to the tropical sun, and

might, in their ordinary state, be said to slumber after the storm of

passion had passed away; but the projection of the veins of the forehead,

the readiness with which the upper lip and its thick black mustache

quivered upon the slightest emotion, plainly intimated that the tempest

might be again and easily awakened. His keen, piercing, dark eyes told in

every glance a history of difficulties subdued and dangers dared, and

seemed to challenge opposition to his wishes, for the pleasure of sweeping

it from his road by a determined exertion of courage and of will; a deep

scar on his brow gave additional sternness to his countenance and a

sinister expression to one of his eyes, which had been slightly injured on

the same occasion, and of which the vision, though perfect, was in a slight

and partial degree distorted.

The upper dress of this personage resembled that of his companion in

shape, being a long monastic mantle; but the color, being scarlet, showed

that he did not belong to any of the four regular orders of monks. On the

right shoulder of the mantle there was cut, in white cloth, a cross of a

peculiar form. This upper robe concealed what at first view seemed rather

inconsistent with its form, a shirt, namely, of linked mail, with sleeves

and gloves of the same, curiously plaited and interwoven, as flexible to

the body as those which are now wrought in the stocking loom out of less

obdurate materials. The fore part of his thighs, where the folds of his

mantle permitted them to be seen, were also covered with linked mail; the

knees and feet were defended by splints, or thin plates of steel,

ingeniously jointed upon each other; and mail hose, reaching from the

ankle to the knee, effectually protected the legs, and completed the

rider's defensive armor. In his girdle he wore a long and double-edged

dagger, which was the only offensive weapon about his person.

He rode, not a mule, like his companion, but a strong hackney for the

road, to save his gallant war horse, which a squire led behind, fully

accoutered for battle, with a chamfron or plaited headpiece upon his head,

having a short spike projecting from the front. On one side of the saddle

hung a short battle-ax, richly inlaid with Damascene carving; on the other

the rider's plumed headpiece and hood of mail, with a long two-handed

sword, used by the chivalry of the period. A second squire held aloft his

master's lance, from the extremity of which fluttered a small banderole,

or streamer, bearing a cross of the same form with that embroidered upon

his cloak. He also carried his small triangular shield, broad enough at

the top to protect the breast, and from thence diminishing to a point. It

was covered with a scarlet cloth, which prevented the device from being

seen.

--Scott: _Ivanhoe_.

Notice also how the description proceeds in an orderly way from one thing

to another, placing together in the description those which occur together

in the person described. Just as we turn our eyes naturally from one thing

to another near it in space, so in a paragraph should our attention be

called from one thing to that which naturally accompanies it. If the first

sentence describes a man's eyes, the second his feet, and a third his

forehead, our mental image is likely to become confused. If a description

covers several paragraphs, each may be given a unity by placing in it

those things which are associated in space.

EXERCISES

_A._ If you were to write three paragraphs describing a man, which of the

following details should be included in each paragraph?

(_a_) eyes, (_b_) shoes, (_c_) size, (_d_) complexion, (_e_) general

appearance, (_f_) hair, (_g_) carriage, (_h_) trousers,(_i_) mouth, (_j_)

coat, (_k_) nose.

_B._ Make a list of the details which might be mentioned in describing the

outside of a church. Arrange them in appropriate groups.

_C._ In the following paragraphs which sentences give the general outline

and which give details? Are the details arranged with reference to their

position in space? Can the paragraph be improved by rearranging them?

1. We came finally to a brook more wild and mysterious than the others.

There were a half dozen stepping-stones between the path we were on and

the place where it began again on the opposite side. After a few missteps

and much laughter we were landed at last, but several of the party had wet

feet to remember the experience by. We found ourselves in a space that had

once been a clearing. A tumbledown chimney overgrown with brambles and

vines told of an abandoned hearthstone. The blackened remnants of many a

picnic camp fire strewed the ground. A slight turn brought us to the spot

where the Indian Spring welled out of the hillside. The setting was all

that we could have hoped for,--great moss-grown rocks wet and slippery,

deep shade which almost made us doubt the existence of the hot August

sunshine at the edge of the forest, cool water dripping and tinkling. A

half-dozen great trees had been so undermined by the action of the water

long ago that they had tumbled headlong into the stream bed. There they

lay, heads down, crisscross--one completely spanning the brook just below

the spring--their tangled roots like great dragons twisting and thrusting

at the shadows. The water trickled slowly over the smooth rocky bottom as

if reluctant to leave a spot enchanted. A few yards below, the overflow

from Indian Spring joined the main stream, and their waters mingled in a

pretty little cataract. We went below and looked back at it. How it

wrinkled and paused over the level spaces, played with the bubbles in the

eddies, and ran laughing and turning somersaults wherever the ledges were

abrupt.

--Mary Rodgers Miller: _The Brook Book_. (Copyright, 1902, by Doubleday,

Page & Co.)

2. Rowena was tall in stature, yet not so much so as to attract

observation on account of superior height. Her complexion was exquisitely

fair, but the noble cast of her head and features prevented the insipidity

which sometimes attaches to fair beauties. Her clear blue eyes, which sat

enshrined beneath a graceful eyebrow of brown, sufficiently marked to give

expression to the forehead, seemed capable to kindle as well as to melt,

to command as well as to beseech. Her profuse hair, of a color betwixt

brown and flaxen, was arranged in a fanciful and graceful manner in

numerous ringlets, to form which art had probably been aided by nature.

These locks were braided with gems, and being worn at full length,

intimated the noble birth and free-born condition of the maiden. A golden

chain, to which was attached a small reliquary of the same metal, hung

around her neck. She wore bracelets on her arms, which were bare. Her

dress was an under gown and kirtle of pale sea-green silk, over which hung

a long loose robe, which reached to the ground, having very wide sleeves,

which came down, however, very little below the elbow. This robe was

crimson, and manufactured out of the very finest wool. A veil of silk,

interwoven with gold, was attached to the upper part of it, which could

be, at the wearer's pleasure, either drawn over the face and bosom after

the Spanish fashion, or disposed as a sort of drapery round the shoulders.

--Scott: _Ivanhoe_.

+Theme XXIV.+--_Write a paragraph and arrange the details with reference

to their association in space._

Suggested subjects:--

1. Ichabod Crane.

2. Rip Van Winkle.

3. The man who lives near us.

4. A minister I met yesterday.

5. Our family doctor.

6. The gymnasium.

7. A fire engine.

8. The old church.

9. The shoe factory.

10. Some character in the book you are reading.

(Which sentence gives the general impression and which sentences give the

details? Are the details arranged with reference to their real space

order? Should others be added? Can any be omitted? Will the reader form

the mental image you wish him to form?)

+48. Development by Comparison.+--In Section 29 we found that comparison,

whether literal or figurative, aided us in forming mental images of

objects. In a similar way events and general principles may be explained

by making suitable comparisons. We are continually comparing one thing

with another. Every idea tends to recall other ideas that are similar to

it or in contrast with it. When an unfamiliar idea is presented to us we

at once seek to associate it with similar ideas already known to us. A

writer, therefore, will make his meaning clear by furnishing, the desired

comparisons. If these are familiar to us, they enable us to understand

the new ideas presented. Even when both ideas in the comparison are

unfamiliar, each may gain in clearness by comparison with the other.

In comparing two objects, events, or principles we may point out that they

are _not_ alike in certain respects. A comparison that thus emphasizes

differences, rather than likenesses, becomes a contrast. The contrast may

be given in a single sentence or in a single paragraph, but often a

paragraph or more may be required for each of the two ideas contrasted.

EXERCISE

Notice how comparisons and contrasts are used in the following

paragraphs:--

1. Niagara is the largest cataract in the world, while Yosemite is the

highest; it is the volume that impresses you at Niagara, and it is the

height of Yosemite and the grand surroundings that make its beauty.

Niagara is as wide as Yosemite is high, and if it had no more water than

Yosemite has, it would not be of much consequence. The sound of the two

falls is quite different: Niagara makes a steady roar, deep and strong,

though not oppressive, while Yosemite is a crash and rattle, owing to the

force of the water as it strikes the solid rock after its immense leap.

2. It is not only in appearance that London and New York differ widely.

They also speak with different accents, for cities have distinctive

accents as well as people. Tennyson wrote about "streaming London's

central roar"; the roar is a gentle hum compared with the din which

tingles the ears of visitors to New York. The accent of New York is harsh,

grating, jarring. The rattle of the elevated railroad, the whir of the

cable cars, the ringing of electric-car bells, the rumble of vehicles over

the hard stones, the roar of the traffic as it reëchoes through the narrow

canyons of down-town streets, produce an appalling combination of

discords. The streets of New York are not more crowded than those of

London, but the noise in London is subdued. It is more regular, less

jarring and piercing. The muffled sounds in London are due partly to the

wooden and asphalt pavements, which deaden the sounds. London must be

soothing to the New Yorker, as the noise of New York is at first

disconcerting to the Londoner.--_Outlook._

3. Now their separate characters are briefly these. The man's power is

active, progressive, defensive. He is eminently the doer, the creator, the

discoverer, the defender. His intellect is for speculation and invention;

his energy for adventure, for war, and for conquest wherever war is just,

wherever conquest necessary. But the woman's power is for rule, not for

battle, and her intellect is not for invention or creation, but for sweet

ordering, arrangement, and decision. She sees the qualities of things,

their claims, and their places.

--Ruskin: _Sesame and Lilies_.

+Theme XXV.+--_Write a paragraph using comparison or contrast._

Suggested topics:--

1. The school, a beehive.

2. The body, a steam engine.

3. Two generals about whom you have read.

4. Girls, boys.

5. Two of your studies.

6. Graded school work, high school work.

7. Animal life, plant life.

8. Two of your classmates.

(Have you used comparison or contrast? Have you introduced any of the

other methods of development? Have you developed the paragraph so that the

reader will understand fully your topic statement? Omit sentences not

really needed.)

+49. Development by Stating Cause and Effect.+--We are better satisfied

with our understanding of a thing if we know the causes which have

produced it or the effects which follow it. Likewise we feel that another

has mastered the topic statement of a paragraph if he can answer the

question, Why is this so? or, What will result from this? When either is

stated, we naturally begin to think about the other. The idea of a topic

statement may, therefore, be satisfactorily developed by stating its

causes or its effects. A cause may be stated and the effects given or the

effects may be made the topic statement for which we account by giving its

causes.

The importance of the relation of cause and effect to scientific study is

discussed in the following paragraph from Mill:--

The relation of cause and effect is the fundamental law of nature. There

is no recorded instance of an effect appearing without a previous cause,

or of a cause acting without producing its full effect. Every change in

nature is the effect of some previous change and the cause of some change

to follow; just as the movement of each carriage near the middle of a long

train is a result of the movement of the one in front and a precursor

of the movement of the one behind. Facts or effects are to be seen

everywhere, but causes have usually to be sought for. It is the function

of science or organized knowledge to observe all effects, or phenomena,

and to seek for their causes. This twofold purpose gives richness and

dignity to science. The observation and classifying of facts soon become

wearisome to all but the specialist actually engaged in the work. But when

reasons are assigned, and classification explained, when the number of

causes is reduced and the effects begin to crystallize into essential and

clearly related parts of one whole, every intelligent student finds

interest, and many, more fortunate, even fascination in the study.

--Mill: _The Realm of Nature_. (Copyright, 1892, by Charles Scribner's

Sons.)

EXERCISES

_A._ In your reading, notice how often the effects are indicated by the

use of some one of the following expressions: _as a result, accordingly,

consequently, for, hence, so, so that, thus._

_B._ Which sentences state causes and which state effects in the following

paragraphs?

1. The power of water to dissolve most minerals increases with its

temperature and the amount of gases it contains. Percolating water at

great depths, therefore, generally dissolves more mineral matter than it

can hold in solution when it reaches the surface, where it cools, and,

being relieved of pressure, much of its carbonic acid gas escapes to the

atmosphere or is absorbed by aquatic plants or mosses. Hence, deep-seated

springs are usually surrounded by a deposit of the minerals with which the

water is impregnated. Sometimes this deposit may even form large hills;

sometimes it forms a mound around the spring, over the sides of which the

water falls, while the spray, evaporating from surrounding objects, leaves

them also incrusted with a mineral deposit. Percolating water evaporating

on the sides and roof of limestone caverns, leaves the walls incrusted

with carbonate of lime in beautiful masses of crystals. Water slowly

evaporating as it drips from the roof of caverns to the floor beneath

leaves a deposit on both places, which gradually grows downward from the

roof as a _stalactite_, and upward from the floor as a _stalagmite_, until

these meet and form one continuous column of stone.

--Hinman: _Eclectic Physical Geography_.

2. The frequent use of cigars or cigarettes by the young seriously affects

the quality of the blood. The red blood corpuscles are not fully developed

and charged with their normal supply of life-giving oxygen. This causes

paleness of the skin, often noticed in the face of the young smoker.

Palpitation of the heart is also a common result, followed by permanent

weakness, so that the whole system is enfeebled, and mental vigor is

impaired as well as physical strength. Observant teachers can usually tell

which of the boys under their care are addicted to smoking, simply by the

comparative inferiority of their appearance, and by their intellectual and

bodily indolence and feebleness. After full maturity is attained the evil

effects of commencing the use of tobacco are less apparent; but competent

physicians assert that it cannot be safely used by those under the age of

forty.

--Macy-Norris: _Physiology for High Schools_.

3. In many other ways, too, the Norman Conquest affected England. For

example, before long all the best places in the Church were filled with

foreigners. But most of the new bishops and abbots were far superior in

morals and education to the Englishmen whom they succeeded. They were also

devoted to the Pope of Rome, and soon made the English National Church a

part of the Roman Catholic Church. But William, while willing to bow to

the Pope as his chief in religious matters, refused to give way to him in

things which concerned only this world. No former English king had done

that, he knew, and no more would he. This union with the Roman Catholic

Church was of the greatest benefit to England, as it brought her once more

into connection with the educated men of Europe. Indeed, Lanfranc, the

Conqueror's Archbishop of Canterbury, was one of the best and wisest men

of his day.

--Higginson and Channing: _English History for American Readers_.

+Theme XXVI.+--_Develop one of the following topic statements into

paragraphs by stating causes or effects:_--

1. A government which had no soldiers to call upon in an emergency would

not last long.

2. One of the first needs of a new country is roads.

3. The number of people receiving public support is smaller in this

country than in Europe.

4. An efficient postal system is a great aid to civilization.

5. A straight stream is an impossibility in nature.

6. Mountain ranges have great influence upon climate.

7. The United States holds first place as a manufacturing nation.

8. There are many swift rivers in New England.

9. Towns or cities are located at the mouths of navigable rivers.

(Which sentences state causes and which state effects? Would the effects

which you have stated really follow the given causes?)

+50. Development by Repetition.+--The repetition of a thought in different

form will often make plain that which we do not at first understand. This

is especially true if the repetitions are accompanied by new comparisons.

In every school the teacher makes daily use of repetition in her efforts

to explain to the pupils that which they do not understand. In a similar

way a writer makes use of this tendency of ours, and develops the idea of

the topic sentence by repetition. Each sentence should, however, do more

than merely repeat. It should add something to the central idea, making

this idea clearer, more definite, or more emphatic. If repetition is

excessive and purposeless, it becomes a fault.

Repetition may extend through the whole paragraph, or it may be used to

explain any sentence or any part of a sentence. It may tell what the thing

is or what it is not, and in effect becomes a definition setting limits to

the original idea.

EXERCISE

Notice how the idea in the topic statement of each of the following

paragraphs is repeated in those which follow:--

1. No man ever made a complete new system of law and gave it to a people.

No monarch, however absolute or powerful, ever had the power to change the

habits of a people to that extent. Revolution generally means, not a

change of law, but merely a change of government officials; even when it

is a change from monarchy to democracy. Our Revolution made practically no

changes in the criminal and civil laws of the colonies.

--Clark: _The Government_.

2. People talk of liberty as if it meant the liberty to do just what a man

likes. I call that man free who fears doing wrong, but fears nothing else.

I call that man free who has learned the most blessed of all truths,--that

liberty consists in obedience to the power, and to the will, and to the

law that his higher soul reverences and approves. He is not free because

he does what he likes; but he is free because he does what he ought, and

there is no protest in his soul against the doing.

--Frederick William Robertson.

3. This dense forest was to the Indians a home in which they had lived

from childhood, and where they were as much at ease as a farmer on his own

acres. To their keen eyes, trained for generations to more than a wild

beast's watchfulness, the wilderness was an open book. Nothing at rest or

in motion escaped them. They had begun to track game as soon as they could

walk; a scrape on a tree trunk, a bruised leaf, a faint indentation of the

soil, which no white man could see, all told them a tale as plainly as if

it had been shouted in their ears.

--Theodore Roosevelt: _The Winning of the West_.

4. Public enterprises, whether conducted by the municipality or committed

to the public service corporation, exist to render public services.

Streets are public highways. They exist for the people's use. Nothing

should be placed in them unless required to facilitate their use by or for

the people. Only the general need of water, gas, electricity, and

transportation justifies the placing of pipes and wires and tracks in the

streets. The public need is the sole test and measure of such occupation.

To look upon the streets as a source of private gain, or even municipal

revenue, except as incidents of their public use, is to disregard their

public character. Adequate service at the lowest practicable rates, not

gain or revenue, is the test. The question is, not how much the public

service corporation may gain, but what can be saved to the people by its

employment.

--Edwin Burrett Smith: _The Next Step in Municipal Reform_

("Atlantic Monthly").

+Theme XXVII.+--_Develop one of the following topic statements into a

paragraph, using the method, of repetition as far as possible:_--

1. It is difficult to become angry with one who is always good-natured.

2. It is gloomy in the woods on a rainy day.

3. The government is always in need of honest men.

4. Rural free delivery of mail will have a great effect on country life.

5. Not every boy in school uses his time to the best advantage.

6. Haste is waste.

7. Regular exercise is one of the essentials of good health.

(Have the repetitions really made the idea of the topic sentence clearer

or more emphatic or more definite? What other methods of development have

you used?)

+51. Development by a Combination of Methods.+--A paragraph should have

unity of thought, and, so long as this unity of thought is kept, it does

not matter what methods of development are used. A dozen paragraphs taken

at random will show that combinations are very frequent. Often it will be

difficult to determine just how a paragraph has been developed. In

general, however, it may be said that an indiscriminate mixture of methods

is confusing and interferes with unity of thought. If more than one is

used, it requires skillful handling to maintain such a relation between

them that both contribute to the clear and emphatic statement of the main

thought.

The paragraph from Dryer, page 74, shows a combination of cause and effect

with specific illustrations; that from Wolstan Dixey, page 81, shows a

combination of repetition with specific instances.

EXERCISES

What methods of paragraph development, or what combinations of methods,

are used in the following selections?

1. I believe the first test of a truly great man is his humility. I do not

mean, by humility, doubt of his power, or hesitation in speaking of his

opinions; but a right understanding of the relation between what he can do

and say and the rest of the world's sayings and doings. All great men not

only know their business, but usually know that they know it; and are not

only right in their main opinions, but they usually know that they are

right in them; only they do not think much of themselves on that account.

Arnolfo knows he can build a good dome at Florence; Albert Dürer writes

calmly to one who had found fault with his work, "It cannot be better

done"; Sir Isaac Newton knows that he has worked out a problem or two

that would have puzzled anybody else; only they do not expect their

fellow-men therefore to fall down and worship them; they have a curious

undersense of powerlessness, feeling that the greatness is not _in_ them,

but _through_ them; that they could not do or be anything else than God

made them. And they see something divine and God-made in every other man

they meet, and are endlessly, foolishly, and incredibly merciful.

--Ruskin.

2. The first thing to be noted about the dress of the Romans is that its

prevalent material was always woolen. Sheep raising for wool was practiced

among them on an extensive scale, from the earliest historic times, and

the choice breeds of that animal, originally imported from Greece or Asia

Minor, took so kindly to the soil and climate of Italy that home-grown

wool came even to be preferred to the foreign for fineness and softness of

quality. Foreign wools were, however, always imported more or less, partly

because the supply of native wools seems never to have been quite

sufficient, partly because the natural colors of wools from different

parts varied so considerably as to render the art of the dyer to some

extent unnecessary. Thus, the wools of Canusium were brown or reddish,

those of Pollentia in Liguria were black, those from the Spanish Baetica,

which comprised Andalusia and a part of Granada, had either a golden brown

or a grayish hue; the wools of Asia were almost red; and there was a

Grecian fleece, called the crow colored, of which the natural tint was a

peculiarly deep and brilliant black.

--Preston and Dodge: _'The Private Life of the Romans_.

3. Art has done everything for Munich. It lies on a large flat plain

sixteen hundred feet above the sea and continually exposed to the cold

winds from the Alps. At the beginning of the present century it was but a

third-rate city, and was rarely visited by foreigners; since that time its

population and limits have been doubled, and magnificent edifices in every

style of architecture erected, rendering it scarcely secondary in this

respect to any capital in Europe. Every art that wealth or taste could

devise seems to have been spent in its decoration. Broad, spacious streets

and squares have been laid out; churches, halls, and colleges erected, and

schools of painting and sculpture established which drew artists from all

parts of the world.

--Taylor: _Views Afoot_.

4. In all excursions to the woods or to the shore the student of

ornithology has an advantage over his companions. He has one more, avenue

of delight. He, indeed, kills two birds with one stone and sometimes

three. If others wander, he can never get out of his way. His game is

everywhere. The cawing of a crow makes him feel at home, while a new note

or a new song drowns all care. Audubon, on the desolate coast of Labrador,

is happier than any king ever was; and on shipboard is nearly cured of his

seasickness when a new gull appears in sight.

--Burroughs: _Wake Robin_.

+Theme XXVIII.+--_Write a paragraph, using any method or combination of

methods which best suits your thought. Use any of the subjects hitherto

suggested that you have not already used._

(Is every sentence related to the topic statement so that your paragraph

possesses unity? What methods of development have you used?)

+52. The Topical Recitation.+--In conducting a recitation the teacher may

ask direct questions about each part of a paragraph or she may ask a pupil

to discuss some topic. Such a topical recitation should be an exercise in

clear thinking rather than in word memory, and in order to prepare for it,

the pupil should have made a careful analysis of the thought in each

paragraph similar to that discussed on page 74. When this analysis has

been made he will have clearly in mind the topic statement and the way it

has been developed, and will be able to distinguish the essential from the

non-essential elements.

A topical recitation demands that the pupil know the main idea and be able

to develop it in one of the following methods, or by a combination of

them: (1) by giving specific instances, (2) by giving details, (3) by

giving comparisons or contrasts, (4) by giving causes or effects, and (5)

by repetition.

Thoughts so mastered are our own. We understand them and believe them; and

consequently we can explain them, or describe them, or prove them to

others. We can furnish details or instances, originate comparisons, or

state causes and effects. _When ideas gained from language have thus

become our own, we do not need to remember the language in which they were

expressed, and not until then do they become proper material for

composition purposes._

+53. Outlining Paragraphs.+--Making an outline of a paragraph that we have

read brings the thought clearly before our mind. In a similar way we may

make our own thoughts clear and definite by attempting to prepare in

advance an outline of a paragraph that we are about to write. Arranging

the material that we have in mind and deciding upon the order in which we

shall present it, will both help us to understand the thought ourselves,

and enable us to present it more effectively to others.

EXERCISES

_A._ Prepare for recitation the following selection from Newcomer's

introduction to Macaulay's _Milton and Addison:_--

There were two faculties of Macaulay's mind that set his work far apart

from other work in the same field,--the faculties of organization and

illustration. He saw things in their right relation and he knew how to

make others see them thus. If he was describing, he never thrust minor

details into the foreground. If he was narrating, he never "got ahead of

his story." The importance of this is not sufficiently recognized. Many

writers do not know what organization means. They do not know that in all

great and successful literary work it is nine tenths of the labor. Yet

consider a moment. History is a very complex thing: divers events may be

simultaneous in their occurrence; or one crisis may be slowly evolving

from many causes in many places. It is no light task to tell these things

one after another and yet leave a unified impression, to take up a dozen

new threads in succession without tangling them and without losing the old

ones, and to lay them all down at the right moment and without confusion.

Such is the narrator's task, and it was at this task that Macaulay proved

himself a past master. He could dispose of a number of trivial events in a

single sentence. Thus, for example, runs his account of the dramatist

Wycherley's naval career: "He embarked, was present at a battle, and

celebrated it, on his return, in a copy of verses too bad for the

bellman." On the other hand, when it is a question of a great crisis, like

the impeachment of Warren Hastings, he knew how to prepare for it with

elaborate ceremony and to portray it in a scene of the highest dramatic

power.

This faculty of organization shows itself in what we technically name

structure; and logical and rhetorical structure may be studied at their

very best in his work. His essays are perfect units, made up of many

parts, systems within systems, that play together without clog or

friction. You can take them apart like a watch and put them together

again. But try to rearrange the parts and the mechanism is spoiled. Each

essay has its subdivisions, which in turn are groups of paragraphs. And

each paragraph is a unit. Take the first paragraph of the essay on Milton:

the word _manuscript_ appears in the first sentence, and it reappears in

the last; clearly the paragraph deals with a single very definite topic.

And so with all. Of course the unity manifests itself in a hundred ways,

but it is rarely wanting. Most frequently it takes the form of an

expansion of a topic given in the first sentence, or a preparation for a

topic to be announced only in the last. These initial and final sentences--

often in themselves both aphoristic and memorable--serve to mark with the

utmost clearness the different stages in the progress of the essay.

Illustration is of more incidental service, but as used by Macaulay

becomes highly organic. For his illustrations are not farfetched or

laboriously worked out. They seem to be of one piece with his story or his

argument. His mind was quick to detect resemblances and analogies. He was

ready with a comparison for everything, sometimes with half a dozen. For

example, Addison's essays, he has occasion to say, were different every

day of the week, and yet, to his mind, each day like something--like

Horace, like Lucian, like the "Tales of Scheherezade." He draws long

comparisons between Walpole and Townshend, between Congreve and Wycherley,

between Essex and Villiers, between the fall of the Carlovingians and the

fall of the Moguls. He follows up a general statement with swarms of

instances. Have historians been given to exaggerating the villainy of

Machiavelli? Macaulay can name you half a dozen who did so. Did the

writers of Charles's faction delight in making their opponents appear

contemptible? "They have told us that Pym broke down in a speech, that

Ireton had his nose pulled by Hollis, that the Earl of Northumberland

cudgeled Henry Marten, that St. John's manners were sullen, that Vane had

an ugly face, that Cromwell had a red nose." Do men fail when they quit

their own province for another? Newton failed thus; Bentley failed; Inigo

Jones failed; Wilkie failed. In the same way he was ready with quotations.

He writes in one of his letters: "It is a dangerous thing for a man with a

very strong memory to read very much. I could give you three or four

quotations this moment in support of that proposition; but I will bring

the vicious propensity under subjection, if I can." Thus we see his mind

doing instantly and involuntarily what other minds do with infinite pains,

bringing together all things that have a likeness or a common bearing.

It is precisely these talents that set Macaulay among the simplest and

clearest of writers, and that accounts for much of his popularity. People

found that in taking up one of his articles they simply read on and on,

never puzzling over the meaning of a sentence, getting the exact force of

every statement, and following the trend of thought with scarcely a mental

effort. And his natural gift of making things plain he took pains to

support by various devices. He constructed his sentences after the

simplest normal fashion, subject and verb and object, sometimes inverting

for emphasis, but rarely complicating, and always reducing expression to

the barest terms. He could write, for example, "One advantage the chaplain

had," but it is impossible to conceive of his writing, "Now, amid all the

discomforts and disadvantages with which the unfortunate chaplain was

surrounded, there was one thing which served to offset them, and which, if

he chose to take the opportunity of enjoying it, might well be regarded as

a positive advantage." One will search his pages in vain for loose,

trailing clauses and involved constructions. His vocabulary was of the

same simple nature. He had a complete command of ordinary English and

contented himself with that. He rarely ventured beyond the most abridged

dictionary. An occasional technical term might be required, but he was shy

of the unfamiliar. He would coin no words and he would use no archaisms.

Foreign words, when fairly naturalized, he employed sparingly. "We shall

have no disputes about diction," he wrote to Napier, Jeffrey's successor;

"the English language is not so poor but that I may very well find in it

the means of contenting both you and myself."

_B._ Recite upon some topic taken from your other lessons for the day. Let

the class tell what method of development you have used.

_C._ Make a collection of well-written paragraphs illustrating each of the

methods of development.

+Theme XXIX.+--_Write two paragraphs using the same topic statement, but

developing each by a different method._

Suggested topic statements:--

1. The principal tools of government are buildings, guns, and money.

2. The civilized world was never so orderly as now.

3. Law suits take time, especially in cities; sometimes they take years.

4. There is a difference between law and justice.

5. We cry for a multitude of reasons of surprising variety.

6. In the growth of a child nothing is more surprising than his ceaseless

activity.

7. Education for the children of a nation is a benefit to the whole

nation.

(Have you said what you intended to say? What methods of development have

you used? Is the main thought of the two paragraphs the same even though

they begin with the same sentence?)

SUMMARY

1. Language is (1) a means of expressing ideas, and (2) a medium through

which ideas are acquired.

2. The acquisition of ideas by means of language requires:--

_a._ That we know the meanings of words, and so avoid forming

incomplete images (Section 27) and incomplete thoughts (Section

33).

_b._ That we understand the relations in thought existing among words,

phrases, clauses, sentences, and paragraphs (Section 32).

3. Ideas acquired through language may be used for composition purposes--

_a._ Provided we form complete and accurate images and do not confuse

the image with the language that suggested it (Section 28).

_b._ Provided we make the main thoughts so thoroughly our own that we

can furnish details and instances, originate comparisons, or

state causes and effects, and thus become able to describe them

or explain them, or prove them to others (Section 52).

Until both _a_ and _b_ as stated above are done, ideas acquired

through language are undesirable for composition purposes.

4. Comparisons aid in the forming of correct images. They may be literal

or imaginative. If imaginative, they become figures of speech.

5. Figures of speech. (Complete list in the Appendix.)

_a._ A simile is a direct comparison.

_b._ A metaphor is an implied comparison.

_c._ Personification is a modified metaphor, assigning human

attributes to objects, abstract ideas, or the lower animals.

6. Suggestions as to the use of figures of speech.

_a._ Never write for the purpose of using them.

_b._ They should be appropriate to the subject.

_c._ One of the two things compared must be familiar to the reader.

_d._ Avoid hackneyed figures.

_e._ Avoid long figures.

_f._ Avoid mixed metaphors.

7. Choice of words.

_a._ Use words presumably familiar to the reader.

_b._ Use words that express your exact meaning. Do not confuse similar

words.

_e._ Avoid the frequent use of the same word (Section 17).

8. Ambiguity of thought must be avoided. Care must be exercised in the

use of the forms which show relations in thought between sentences,

especially with pronouns and pronominal adjectives (Section 36).

9. A paragraph is a group of sentences related to each other and to one

central idea.

10. The topic statement of a paragraph is a brief comprehensive summary of

the contents of the paragraph.

11. Methods of paragraph development. A paragraph may be developed--

_a._ By giving specific instances (Section 44).

_b._ By giving details (Section 45). The order in which the details

are told may be determined by--

(1) The order of their occurrence in time (Section 46).

(2) Their position in space (Section 47).

_c._ By comparison or contrast (Section 48).

_d._ By stating cause and effect (Section 49).

_e._ By repetition (Section 50).

_f._ By any suitable combination of the methods stated above.

12. The topical recitation demands--

_a._ That the pupil get the central idea of the paragraph and be able

to make the topic statement.

_b._ That he be able to determine the relative importance of the

remaining ideas in the paragraph.

_c._ That he know by which of the five methods named above the

paragraph has been developed.

_d._ That he be able to furnish details, instances, and comparisons of

his own. (See Sections 37, 38, 39, 52, 53.)

IV. THE PURPOSE OF EXPRESSION

+54. Kinds of Composition.+--When considered with reference to the

purpose in the mind of the writer, there are two general classes of

writing,--that which informs, and that which entertains. The language that

we use should make our meaning clear, arouse interest, and give vividness.

Writing that informs will lay greatest emphasis on clearness, though it

may at the same time be interesting and vivid. We do not add to the value

of an explanation by making it dull. On the other hand, writing that

entertains, though it must be clear, will lay greater emphasis on interest

and vividness. That language is best which combines all three of these

characteristics. The writer's purpose will determine to which the emphasis

shall be given.

Composition is also divided into description, narration, exposition, and

argument (including persuasion). These are called forms of discourse. It

will be found that this division is also based upon the purpose for which

the composition is written. You have occasion to use each of these forms

of discourse daily; you describe, you narrate, you explain, you argue, you

persuade. You have used language for these purposes from your infancy, and

you are now studying composition in order to acquire facility and

effectiveness in that use. When this chapter is completed, you will have

considered each of the four forms of discourse in an elementary way. A

more extended treatment is given in later chapters.

EXERCISES

_A._ To which of the two general classes of composition would each of the

following belong?

1. A business letter.

2. The story of a runaway.

3. A description of a lake written by a geologist.

4. A description of a lake written by a boy who was camping near it.

5. A letter to a friend describing a trip.

6. A text-book on algebra.

7. An application for a position as stenographer.

8. A recipe for making cake.

9. How I made a cake.

10. How to make a kite.

11. A political speech.

12. A debate.

_B._ Could a description be written for the purpose of entertaining? Could

the same object be described for the purpose of giving information?

_C._ To which general class do narratives belong? Explanations? Arguments?

+55. Discourse Presupposes an Audience.+--The object of composition is

communication, and communication is not concerned with one's self alone.

It always involves two,--the one who gives and the one who receives. If

its purpose is to inform, it must inform _somebody_; if to entertain, it

must entertain _somebody_. To be sure, discourse may be a pleasure to us,

because it is a means of self-expression, but it is _useful_ to us because

it conveys ideas to that other somebody who hears or reads it. We describe

in order that another may picture that which we have experienced; we

narrate, events for the entertainment of others; we explain to others that

which we understand; and we argue in order to prove to some one the truth

of a proposition or to persuade him to action. Thus all discourse, to be

useful, demands an audience. Its effective use requires that the writer

shall give quite as much attention to the way in which that reader will

receive his ideas as he gives to the ideas themselves. "Speaking or

writing is, therefore, a double-ended process. It springs from me, it

penetrates him; and both of these ends need watching. Is what I say

precisely what I mean? That is an important question. Is what I say so

shaped that it can readily be assimilated by him who hears? This is a

question of quite as great consequence and much more likely to be

forgotten.... As I write I must unceasingly study what is the line of

least intellectual resistance along which my thought may enter the

differently constituted mind; and to that line I must subtly adjust,

without enfeebling my meaning. Will this combination of words or that make

the meaning clear? Will this order of presentation facilitate swiftness of

apprehension or will it clog the movement?"[Footnote: Professor George

Herbert Palmer: _Self-cultivation in English_.]

In the preceding chapters emphasis has been laid upon the care that a

writer must give to saying exactly what he means. This must never be

neglected, but we need to add to it a consideration of how best to adapt

what we say to the interest and intelligence of our readers. It will

become clear in writing the following theme that the discussion of

paragraph development in Chapter III was in reality a discussion of

methods of adapting our discourse to the mental habits of our readers.

+Theme XXX.+--_Write a theme showing which one of the five methods of

paragraph development proceeds most nearly in accordance with the way the

mind usually acts._

(This theme will furnish a review of the methods of paragraph development

treated in Chapter III. If possible, write your theme without consulting

the chapter. "Think it out" for yourself. After the theme has been

written, review paragraph development treated in Chapter III. Can you

improve your theme? What methods of development have you used?)

+56. Selecting a Subject.+--Sometimes our theme subjects are chosen for

us, but usually we shall need to choose our own subjects. What we should

choose depends both upon ourselves and upon those for whom we write. The

elements which make a subject suitable for the reader will be considered

later. In so far as the writer is concerned, two things determine the

suitableness of a subject:--

First, the writer's knowledge of the subject. We cannot make ideas clear

to others unless they are clear to us. Our information must be clearly and

definitely our own before we can hope to present it effectively. This is

one of the advantages possessed by subjects arising from experience. Any

subject about which we know little or nothing, should be rejected. We must

not, however, reject a subject too soon. When it is first thought of we

may find that we have but few ideas about it, but by thinking we may

discover that our information is greater than it at first seemed. We may

be able to assign reasons or to give instances or to originate comparisons

or to add details, and by these processes to amplify our knowledge. Even

if we find that we know but little about the subject from our own

experience, we may still be able to use it for a composition subject by

getting our information from others. We may from conversation or from

reading gain ideas that we can make our own and consequently be able to

write intelligently. Care must be taken that this "reading up" on a

subject does not fill our minds with smatterings of ideas that we think we

understand because we can remember the language in which they were

expressed; but reading, _supplemented by thinking_, may enable us to write

well about a subject concerning which on first thought we seem to know but

little.

Second, the writer's interest in the subject. It will be found difficult

for the writer to present vividly a subject in which he himself has no

special interest. Enthusiasm is contagious, and if the writer has a real

interest in his subject, he is likely to present his material in such a

manner as to arouse interest in others. In our earlier years we are more

interested in the material presented by experience and imagination than in

that presented by reading, but as we grow older our interest in thoughts

conveyed to us by language increases. As we enlarge our knowledge of a

subject by reading and by conversation, so we are likely to increase our

interest in that subject. A boy may know but little about Napoleon, but

the effort to inform himself may cause him to become greatly interested.

This interest will lead him to a further search for information about

Napoleon, and will at the same time aid in making what he writes

entertaining to others.

EXERCISES

_A._ About which of the following subjects do you now possess a sufficient

knowledge to enable you to write a paragraph? In which of them are you

interested? Which would you need to "read up" about?

1. Golf.

2. Examinations.

3. Warships.

4. Wireless telegraphy.

5. Radium.

6. Tennis.

7. Automobiles.

8. Picnics.

9. Printing.

10. Bees.

11. Birds.

12. Pyrography.

13. Photography.

14. Beavers.

15. Making calls.

16. Stamp collecting.

17. The manufacture of tacks.

18. The manufacture of cotton.

19. The smelting of zinc.

20. The silver-plating process.

_B._ Make a list of thirty things about which you know something.

_C._ Bring to class a list of five subjects in which you are interested.

_D._ Make a list of five subjects about which you now possess a sufficient

knowledge to enable you to write a paragraph.

+Theme XXXI.+--_Write a short theme: Select a suitable subject from the

lists in the preceding exercise._

(What method or methods of paragraph development have you used? Have your

paragraphs unity of thought?)

+57. Subject Adapted to Reader.+--We may be interested in a subject and

possess sufficient knowledge to enable us to treat it successfully, but it

may still be unsuitable because it is not adapted to the reader. Some

knowledge of a subject and some interest in it are quite as necessary on

the part of the reader as on that of the writer, though in the beginning

this knowledge and interest may be meager. The possibility of developing

both knowledge and interest must exist, however, or the writing will be a

failure. It would be difficult to make "Imperialism" interesting to third

grade pupils, or "Kant's Philosophy" to high school pupils. Even if you

know enough to write a valuable "Criticism" of _Silas Marner_, or a real

"Review" of the _Vicar of Wakefield_, the work is time wasted if your

readers do not have a breadth of knowledge sufficient to insure a vital

and appreciative interest in the subject. You must take care to select a

subject that is of present, vital interest to your readers.

+58. Sources of Subjects.+--Thought goes everywhere, and human interest

touches everything. The sources of subjects are therefore unlimited; for

anything about which we think and in which we are interested may become a

suitable subject for a paragraph, an essay, or a book. Such subjects are

everywhere--in what we see and do, in what we think and feel, in what we

hear and read. We relate to our parents what a neighbor said; we discuss

for the teacher an event in history, or a character in literature; we show

a companion how to make a kite or work a problem in algebra; we consider

the advantages of a commercial course or relate the pleasures of a day's

outing,--in each case we are interested, we think, we express our

thoughts, and so are practicing oral composition with _subjects that may

be used for written exercises_.

+59. Subjects should be Definite.+--Both the writer and the reader are

more interested in definite and concrete subjects than in the general and

abstract ones, and we shall make our writing more interesting by

recognizing this fact. One might write about "Birds," or "The Intelligence

of Birds," or "How Birds Protect their Young," or "A Family of Robins."

The last is a specific subject, while the other three are general

subjects. Of these, the first includes more than the second; and the

second, more than the third. A person with sufficient knowledge might

write about any one of these general subjects, but it would be difficult

to give such a subject adequate treatment in a short theme. Though a

general subject may suggest more lines of thought, our knowledge about a

specific subject is less vague, and consequently more usable. We really

know more about the specific subject, and we have a greater interest in

it. The subject, "A Family of Robins," indicates that the writer knows

something interesting that he intends to tell. Such a subject compels

expectant attention from the reader and aids in arousing an appreciative

interest on his part.

On first thought, it would seem easier to write about a general subject

than about a specific one, but this is not the case. A general subject

presents so many lines of thought that the writer is confused, rather than

aided, by the abundance of material. A skilled and experienced writer

possessing a large fund of information may treat general subjects

successfully, but for the beginner safety lies only in selecting definite

subjects and in keeping within the limits prescribed. The "Women of

Shakespeare" might be an interesting subject for a book by a Shakespearean

scholar, but it is scarcely suitable for a high school pupil's theme.

+60. Narrowing the Subject.+--It is often necessary to narrow a subject in

order to bring it within the range of the knowledge and interest of

ourselves and of our readers. A description of the transportation

of milk on the electric roads around Toledo would probably be more

interesting than an essay on "Freight Transportation by Electricity," or

on "Transportation." The purpose that the writer has in mind, and the

length of the article he intends to write, will affect the selection of a

subject. "Transportation" might be the subject of a book in which a

chapter was given to each important subdivision of it; but it would be

quite as difficult to treat such a subject in three hundred words as it

would be to make use of three hundred pages for "The Transportation of

Milk at Toledo."

A general subject may suggest many lines of thought. It is the task of the

writer to select one about which he knows something or can learn

something, in which both he and his readers are interested, or can become

interested, and for which the time and space at his disposal are adequate.

EXERCISES

_A._ Arrange the subjects in each of the following groups so that the most

general ones shall come first:--

1. The intelligence of wild animals.

How a fox escaped from the hounds.

How animals escape destruction by their enemies.

Animals.

2. The benefits that arise from war.

The defeat of the Cimbri and Teutons by Marius.

War.

The value of military strength to the Romans.

3. Pleasure.

A summer outing in the Adirondacks.

Value of vacations.

Catching bass.

_B._ Narrow ten of the following subjects until the resulting subject may

be treated in a single paragraph:--

1. Fishing.

2. Engines.

3. Literature.

4. Heroes of fiction.

5. Cooking.

6. Houses.

7. Games.

8. Basketball.

9. Cats.

10. Canaries.

11. Sympathy.

12. Sailboats.

13. Baseball.

14. Rivers.

15. Trees.

C. A general subject may suggest several narrower subjects, each of which

would be of interest to a different class of persons; for example--

General subject,--Education.

Specific subjects,--

1. Methods of conducting recitations. (Teachers.)

2. School taxes. (Farmers.)

3. Ventilation of school buildings. (Architects.)

In a similar way, narrow each of the following subjects

so that the resulting subjects will be of interest to two or

more classes of persons:--

Subjects Classes

1. Vacations. 1. Farmers.

2. Mathematics. 2. High School Pupils.

3. Picnics. 3. Ministers.

4. Civil service. 4. Merchants.

5. Elections. 5. Sailors.

6. Botany. 6. Girls.

7. Fish. 7. Boys.

+Theme XXXII.+--_Write a paragraph about one of narrowed subjects._

(Does your paragraph have unity of thought? What methods of development

have you used? Have you selected a subject which will be of interest to

your readers?)

+61. Selecting a Title.+--The subject and the title may be the same, but

not necessarily so. The statement of the subject may require a sentence of

considerable length, while a title is best if short. In selecting this

brief title, it is well to get one which will attract the attention and

arouse the curiosity of a reader without appearing obviously to do so. A

peculiar or unusual title is not at all necessary, though if properly

selected such a title may be of value. Care must be taken not to have the

title make a promise that the theme cannot fulfill. If it does, the effect

is unsatisfactory.

EXERCISES

_A._ Discuss the appropriateness of the titles for the subjects in the

following:--

1. Title: "My Kingdom for a Horse."

Subject: An account of a breakdown of an automobile at an inconvenient

time.

2. Title: A Blaze of Brilliance.

Subject: Description of a coaching parade.

3. Title: A Brave Defense.

Subject: An account of how a pair of birds drove a snake away from

their nest.

4. Title: The Banquet Book.

Subject: Quotations designed for general reference, and also as an

aid in the preparation of the toast list, the after-dinner

speech, and the occasional address.

5. Title: Dragons of the Air.

Subject: An account of extinct flying reptiles.

6. Title: Rugs and Rags.

Subject: A comparison of the rich and the poor, from a socialistic

point of view.

7. Title: Lives of the Hunted.

Subject: A true account of the doings of five quadrupeds and three

birds.

8. Title: The Children of the Nations.

Subject: A discussion of colonies and the problems of colonization.

_B._ Supply an appropriate title for a story read by the teacher.

_C._ Suggest a title, other than the one given it, for each magazine

article you have read this month.

+62. Language Adapted to the Reader.+--A writer may select a subject with

reference to the knowledge and interest of his readers; he may develop his

paragraphs in accordance with the methods studied in Chapter III, and yet

he may fail to make his meaning clear, because he has not used language

suited to the reader. Fortunately, the language that we understand and use

is that which is most easily understood by those of equal attainments with

ourselves. It therefore happens that when writing for those of our own age

and attainments, or for those of higher attainments, we usually best

express for them that which we make most clear and pleasing to ourselves.

But if we write for younger people, or for those of different interests in

life, we must give much attention to adapting what we write to our

readers. Before writing it is well to ask, For whom am I writing? Then, if

necessary, you should modify your language so that it will be adapted to

your readers. Can you tell for what kind of an audience each of the

following is intended?

In the field both teams played faultless ball, not the semblance of an

error being made. Besides backing up their pitchers in this fashion, both

local and visiting athletes turned sensational plays.

The element of luck figured largely in the result. In the first inning

Dougherty walked and Collins singled. Dougherty had third base sure on the

drive, but stumbled and fell down between second and third, and he was an

easy out.

Boston got its only run in the second. Parent sent the ball to extreme

left for two bases. He stole third nattily when catcher Sugden tried to

catch him napping at the middle station. Ferris scored him with a drive to

left. St. Louis promptly tied the score in its half. Wallace opened with a

screeching triple to the bulletin board. At that he would not have scored

if J. Stahl had not contributed a passed ball, Heidrick, Friel, and

Sugden, the next three batters, expiring on weak infield taps. The Browns

got the winning run in the sixth on Martin's triple and Hill's swift cut

back of first. Lachance knocked the ball down and got his man at the

initial sack, but could not prevent the tally.

--_Boston Herald._

His name was Riley, and although his parents had called him Thomas, to the

boys he had always been "Dennis," and by the time he had reached his

senior year in college he was quite ready to admit that his "name was

Dennis," with all that slang implied. He had tried for several things,

athletics particularly, and had been substitute on the ball nine, one of

the immortal second eleven backs of the football squad, and at one time

had been looked upon as promising material for a mile runner on the track

team.

But it was always his luck not quite to make anything. He couldn't bat up

to 'varsity standard, he wasn't quite heavy enough for a Varsity back, and

in the mile run he always came in fresh enough but could not seem to get

his speed up so as to run himself out, and the result was that, although

he finished strong and with lots of running in him, the other fellows

always reached the tape first, even though just barely getting over and

thoroughly exhausted.

Now "Dennis" had made up his mind at Christmas time that he actually would

have one more trial on the track, and that his family, consisting of his

mother and a younger brother, both of them great believers in and very

proud of Thomas, should yet see him possessed of a long-coveted "Y."

So he went out with the first candidates in the spring, and the addition

of the two-mile event to the programme of track contests gave him a

distance better suited to his endurance. There were a half-dozen other men

running in his squad, and Dennis, from his former failures, was not looked

upon with much favor, or as a very likely man. But he kept at it. When the

first reduction of the squad was made, some one said, "Denny's kept on

just to pound the track." With the middle of March came some class games,

and Dennis was among the "also rans," getting no better than fourth place

in the two-mile. The worst of it was that he knew he could have run it

faster, for he felt strong at the finish, but had no burst of speed when

the others went up on the last lap. But in April he did better, and it

soon developed that he was improving. The week before the Yale-Harvard

games he was notified that he was to run in the two-mile as pace maker to

Lang and Early, the two best distance men on the squad. Nobody believed

that Yale would win this event, although it was understood that Lang stood

a fair chance if Dennis and Early could carry the Harvard crack, Richards,

along at a fast gait for the first mile.

So it was all arranged that Early should set the pace for the first half

mile, and Dennis should then go up and carry the field along for a fast

second half. Then, after the first mile was over, Early and Dennis should

go out as fast as they could, and stay as long as they could in the

attempt to force the Harvard man and exhaust him so that Lang could come

up, and, having run the race more to his liking, be strong enough to

finish first.

The day of the games came, and with it a drenching rain, making the track

heavy and everybody uncomfortable. But as the inter-collegiates were

the next week, it was almost impossible to postpone the games, and

consequently it was decided to run them off. As the contest progressed, it

developed that the issue would hang on the two-mile event, and interest

grew intense. When the call for starters came, Dennis felt the usual

trepidation of a man who is before the public for the first time in a

really important position. But the feeling did not last long, and by the

time he went to his mark he had made up his mind that that Harvard runner

should go the mile and a half fast at any rate, or else be a long way

behind.

At the crack of the pistol the six men went off, and, according to orders,

during the first mile Early and Dennis set the pace well up. Richards, the

Harvard man, let them open up a gap on him in the first half-mile, and,

being more or less bothered by the conditions of the wet track, he seemed

uncertain whether the Yale runners were setting the pace too high or not,

and in the second half commenced to move up. In doing this his team mates

gradually fell back until they were out of it, and the order was Dennis,

Early, Richards, and Lang. At the beginning of the second mile, Early,

whose duty it was to have gone up and helped Dennis make the pace at the

third half-mile, had manifestly had enough of it, and, after two or three

desperate struggles to keep up, was passed by Richards. When, therefore,

they came to the mile and a half, Dennis was leading Richards by some

fifteen yards, and those who knew the game expected to see the Harvard man

try to overtake Dennis, and in so doing exhaust himself, so that Lang, who

was running easily in the rear, could come up and in the last quarter

finish out strong. Dennis, too, was expecting to hear the Harvard man come

up with him pretty soon, and knew that this would be the signal for him to

make his dying effort in behalf of his comrade, Lang. As they straightened

out into the back stretch Richards did quicken up somewhat, and Dennis let

himself out. In fact, he did this so well that as they entered upon the

last quarter Richards had not decreased the distance, and indeed it had

opened up a little wider. But where was Lang? Dennis was beginning to

expect one or the other of these two men to come up, and, as he turned

into the back stretch for the last time, it began to dawn upon him, as it

was dawning upon the crowd, that the pace had been too hot for Lang, and,

moreover, that Yale's chance depended on the despised Dennis, and that the

Harvard runner was finding it a big contract to overhaul the sturdy

pounder on the wet track. But Richards was game, and commenced to cut the

gap down. As they turned into the straight, he was within eight yards of

Dennis. But Dennis knew it, and he ran as he had never run before. He

could fairly feel the springing tread of Richards behind him, and knew it

was coming nearer every second. But into the straight they came, and the

crowd sprang to its feet with wild yells for Dennis. Twenty yards from

home Richards, who had picked up all but two yards of the lead, began to

stagger and waver, while Dennis hung to it true and steady, and breasted

the tape three yards in advance, winning his "Y" at last!

--Walter Camp: _Winning a "Y"_ ("Outlook")

In which of the preceding accounts were you more interested? Which made

the more vivid impression? Which would be better suited for a school class

composed of boys and girls? Which for a newspaper report?

In attempting to relate a contest it is essential that the writer know

what really happened, and in what order it happened, but his successful

presentation will depend to some extent upon the consideration given to

adapting the story to the audience. A person thoroughly conversant with

the game will understand the technical terms, and may prefer the first

account to the second, but those to whom the game is not familiar would

need to have so much explanation of the terms used that the narration

would become tedious to those already familiar with the terms. In order

to make an account of a game interesting to persons unfamiliar with that

game, we must introduce enough of explanation to make clear the meaning

of the terms we use.

+Theme XXXIII.+--_Write a theme telling some one who does not understand

the game about some contest which you have seen_.

Suggested subjects:--

1. A basket ball game.

2. A football game.

3. A tennis match.

4. A baseball game.

5. A croquet match.

6. A golf tournament.

7. A yacht race.

8. A relay race.

(Have you introduced technical terms without making the necessary

explanations? Have you explained so many terms that your narrative is

rendered tedious? Have you related what really happened, and in the proper

time order? Have your paragraphs unity? Can you shorten the theme without

affecting the clearness or interest? Does _then_ occur too frequently?)

+Theme XXXIV.+--_Write a theme, using the same subject that you used for

Theme XXXIII. Assume that the reader understands the game._

(Will the reader get the whole contest clearly in mind? Can you shorten

the account? Compare this theme with Theme XXXIII.)

+63. Explanation of Terms.+--Any word that alone or with its modifiers

calls to mind a single idea, is a term. When applied to a particular

object, quality, or action, it is a specific term; but when applied to any

one of a class of objects, qualities, or actions, it is a general term.

For example: _The Lake_, referring to a lake near at hand, is a specific

term; but _a lake_, referring to any lake, is a general term. In Theme

XXXIII you had occasion to explain some of the terms used. If, in telling

about a baseball game, you mentioned a particular "fly," your statement

was description or narration; but if some one should ask what you meant by

"a fly," your answer would be general in character; that is, it would

apply to all "flies," and would belong to that division of composition

called exposition. Exposition is but another name for explanation. It is

always concerned with that which is general, while description and

narration deal with particular cases. We may describe a particular lake;

but if we answer the question, What is a lake? the answer would apply to

any lake, and would be exposition. Explanation of the meaning of general

terms is one form of exposition.

+64. Definition by Synonyms.+--If we are asked to explain the meaning of a

general term, our reply in many cases will be a brief definition. Often it

is sufficient to give a synonym. For example, in answer to the question,

What is exposition? we make its meaning clearer by saying, Exposition is

explanation.

Definition by synonym is frequently used because of its brevity. In the

smaller dictionaries the definitions are largely of this kind. For

example: to desert, _to abandon_; despot, _tyrant_; contemptible, _mean or

vile_; to fuse, _to blend_; inviolable, _sacred_. Synonyms are, however,

seldom exact, but a fair understanding of a term may be gained by

comparing it with its synonyms and discussing the different shades of

meaning. Such a discussion, especially if supplemented by examples showing

the correct use of each term, is a profitable exercise in exposition. For

example:--

Both _discovery_ and _invention_ denote generally something new that is

found out in the arts and sciences. But the term _discovery_ involves in

the thing discovered not merely novelty, but curiosity, utility,

difficulty, and consequently some degree of importance. All this is less

strongly involved in invention. But there are yet wider differences. One

can only discover what has in its integrity existed before the discovery,

while invention brings a thing into existence. America was discovered.

Printing was invented. Fresh discoveries in science often lead to new

inventions in the industrial arts. Indeed, discovery belongs more to

science; invention, to art. Invention increases the store of our practical

resources, and is the fruit of search. Discovery extends the sphere of our

knowledge, and has often been made by accident.

--Smith: _Synonyms Discriminated_.

If exactness is desired, this is obtained by means of the logical

definition, which will be discussed in a later chapter.

+Theme XXXV.+--Explain the meaning of the words in one of the following

groups:_--

1. Caustic, satirical, biting.

2. Imply, signify, involve.

3. Martial, warlike, military, soldierlike.

4. Wander, deviate, err, stray, swerve, diverge.

5. Abate, decrease, diminish, lessen, moderate.

6. Emancipation, freedom, independence, liberty.

7. Old, ancient, antique, antiquated, obsolete.

8. Adorn, beautify, bedeck, decorate, ornament,

9. Active, alert, brisk, lively, spry.

+65. Use of Simpler Words.+--In defining terms by giving a synonym we must

be careful to choose a synonym which will be most likely to be understood

by our listeners, or our explanation will be of no avail. For instance, in

explaining the term _abate_ to a child, if we say it means _to diminish_,

and he is unfamiliar with that word, he is made none the wiser by our

explanation. If we tell him that it means _to grow less_, he will, in all

probability, understand our explanation. Very many words in our language

have equivalents that may be substituted, the one for the other. Much of

our explanation to children and to those whose attainments are less than

our own consists in substituting common, everyday words for less familiar

ones.

EXERCISE

Give familiar equivalents for the following words:--

1. emancipate.

2. procure.

3. opportunity.

4. peruse.

5. elapsed.

6. approximately.

7. abbreviate.

8. constitute.

9. simultaneous.

10. familiar.

11. deceased.

12. oral.

13. adhere.

14. edifice.

15. collide.

16. suburban.

17. repugnance.

18. grotesque.

19. equipage.

20. exaggerate.

21. ascend.

22. financial.

23. nocturnal.

24. maternal.

25. vision.

26. affinity.

27. cohere.

28. athwart.

29. clavicle.

30. omnipotent.

31. enumerate.

32. eradicate.

33. application.

34. constitute.

35. employer.

36. rendezvous.

37. obscure.

38. indicate.

39. prevaricate.

+66. Definitions Need to be Supplemented.+--The purpose of exposition is

to make clear to others that which we understand ourselves. If the mere

statement of a definition does not accomplish this result, we may often

make our meaning clear by supplementing the definition with suitable

comparisons and examples. In making use of comparisons and examples we

must choose those with which our readers are familiar, and we must be sure

that they fairly represent the term that we wish to illustrate.

+Theme XXXVI.+--_Explain any one of the following terms. Begin with as

exact a definition as you can frame._

1. A "fly" in baseball.

2. A "foul" in basket ball.

3. A "sneak."

4. A hero.

5. A "spitfire."

6. A laborer.

7. A capitalist.

8. A coward.

9. A freshman.

10. A "header."

(Is your definition exact, or only approximately so? How have you made its

meaning clear? Can you think of a better comparison or a better example?

Can your meaning be made clearer, or be more effectively presented, by

arranging your material in a different order?)

+67. General Description.+--We may often make clear the meaning of a term

by giving details. In describing a New England village we might enumerate

the streets, the houses, the town pump, the church, and other features.

This would be specific description if the purpose was to have the reader

picture some particular village; but if the purpose was to give the reader

a clear conception of the general characteristics of all New England

villages, the paragraph would become a general description.

Such a general description would include all the characteristics common

to all the members of the class under discussion, but would omit

any characteristic peculiar to some of them. For example, a general

description of a windmill includes the things common to all windmills. If

an object is described more for the purpose of giving a clear conception

of the class of which it is a type than for the purpose of picturing the

object described, we have a general description. Such a description is in

effect an enlarged definition, and is exposition rather than description.

It is sometimes called scientific description because it is so commonly

employed by writers of scientific books.

Notice the following examples of general description:--

1. Around every house in Broeck are buckets, benches, rakes, hoes, and

stakes, all colored red, blue, white, or yellow. The brilliancy and

variety of colors and the cleanliness, brightness, and miniature pomp of

the place are wonderful. At the windows there are embroidered curtains

with rose-colored ribbons. The blades, bands, and nails of the gayly

painted windmills shine like silver. The houses are brightly varnished and

surrounded with red and white railings and fences.

The panes of glass in the windows are bordered by many lines of different

hues. The trunks of all the trees are painted gray from root to branch.

Across the streams are many little wooden bridges, each painted as white

as snow. The gutters are ornamented with a sort of wooden festoon

perforated like lace. The pointed façades are surmounted with a small

weathercock, a little lance, or something resembling a bunch of flowers.

Nearly every house has two doors, one in front and one behind, the last

for everyday entrance and exit, the former opened only on great occasions,

such as births, deaths, and marriages. The gardens are as peculiar as the

houses. The paths are hardly wide enough to walk in. One could put his

arms around the flower beds. The dainty arbors would barely hold two

persons sitting close together. The little myrtle hedges would scarcely

reach to the knees of a four-year-old child.

2. Ginseng has a thick, soft, whitish, bulbous root, from one to three

inches long,--generally two or three roots to a stalk,--with wrinkles

running around it, and a few small fibers attached. It has a peculiar,

pleasant, sweetish, slightly bitter, and aromatic taste. The stem or stalk

grows about a foot high, is smooth, round, of a reddish green color,

divided at the top into three short branches, with three to five leaves to

each branch, and a flower stem in the center of the branches. The flower

is small and white, followed by a large, red berry. It is found growing in

most of the states in rich, shady soils.

3. As a general proposition, the Scottish hotel is kept by a

benevolent-looking old lady, who knows absolutely nothing about the

trains, nothing about the town, nothing about anything outside of

the hotel, and is non-committal regarding matters even within her

jurisdiction. Upon arrival you do not register, but stand up at the desk

and submit to a cross-examination, much as if you were being sentenced in

an American police court.

Your hostess always wants twelve hours' notice of your departure, so that

she can make out your bill--a very arduous, formidable undertaking. The

bill is of prodigious dimensions, about the size of a sheet of foolscap

paper, lined and cross-lined for a multitude of entries. When the account

finally reaches you, it closely resembles a design for a cobweb factory.

Any attempt to decipher the various hieroglyphics is useless--it can't be

done. The only thing that can be done is to read the total at the foot of

the page and pay it.

--_Hotels in Scotland_ ("Kansas City Star").

+Theme XXXVII.+--_Write a general description of one of the following:_--

1. A bicycle.

2. A country hay barn.

3. A dog.

4. A summer cottage.

5. An Indian wigwam.

6. A Dutch windmill.

7. A muskrat's house.

8. A robin's nest.

9. A blacksmith's shop.

10. A chipmunk.

11. A threshing machine.

12. A sewing circle.

(The purpose is not to picture a particular object, but to give a general

notion of a class of objects. Cross out everything in your theme that

applies only to some particular object. Have you included enough to make

your meaning clear?)

+Theme XXXVIII.+--_Using the same title as for Theme XXXVII, write a

specific description of some particular object._

(How does it differ from the general description? What elements have you

introduced which you did not have in the other? Which sentence gives the

general outline? Are your details arranged with regard to their proper

position in space? Will the reader form a vivid picture--just the one you

mean him to have?)

+68. General Narration.+--Explanations of a process of manufacture,

methods of playing a game, and the like, often take the form of

generalized narration. Just as we gain a notion of the appearance of a sod

house from a general description, so may we gain a notion of a series of

events from a general narration. Such a narration will not tell what some

one actually did, but will relate the things that are characteristic of

the process or action under discussion whenever it happens. Such general

narration is really exposition.

EXERCISES

_A._ Notice that the selection below is a generalized narration, showing

what a hare does when hunted. In it no incident peculiar to some special

occasion is introduced.

She [the hare] generally returns to the beat from which she was put up,

running, as all the worlds knows, in a circle, or sometimes something

like it, we had better say, that we may keep on good terms with the

mathematical. At starting, she tears away at her utmost speed for a mile

or more, and distances the dogs halfway; she then turns, diverging a

little to the right or left, that she may not run into the mouths of her

enemies--a necessity which accounts for what we call the circularity of

her course. Her flight from home is direct and precipitate; but on her way

back, when she has gained a little time for consideration and stratagem,

she describes a curious labyrinth of short turnings and windings as if to

perplex the dogs by the intricacy of her track.

--Richard Atton.

_B_. The selection below narrates an actual hunt. Notice in what respects

it differs from the preceding selection.

Sir Roger is so keen at this sport that he has been out almost every day

since I came down; and upon the chaplain's offering to lend me his easy

pad, I was prevailed on yesterday morning to make one of the company. I

was extremely pleased, as we rid along, to observe the general benevolence

of all the neighborhood towards my friend. The farmers' sons thought

themselves happy if they could open a gate for the good old knight as he

passed by; which he generally requited with a nod or a smile, and a kind

inquiry after their fathers and uncles.

After we had rid about a mile from home, we came upon a large heath, and

the sportsmen began to beat. They had done so for some time, when, as I

was at a little distance from the rest of the company, I saw a hare pop

out from a small furze brake almost under my horse's feet. I marked the

way she took, which I endeavored to make the company sensible of by

extending my arm; but to no purpose, till Sir Roger, who knows that none

of my extraordinary motions are insignificant, rode up to me and asked me

if puss was gone that way? Upon my answering "Yes," he immediately called

in the dogs, and put them upon the scent. As they were going off, I heard

one of the country fellows muttering to his companion, that 'twas a wonder

they had not lost all their sport, for want of the silent gentleman's

crying, "Stole away."

This, with my aversion to leaping hedges, made me withdraw to a rising

ground, from whence I could have the pleasure of the whole chase, without

the fatigue of keeping in with the hounds. The hare immediately threw them

above a mile behind her; but I was pleased to find, that instead of

running straight forwards, or, in hunter's language, "flying the country,"

as I was afraid she might have done, she wheeled about, and described a

sort of circle round the hill, where I had taken my station, in such

manner as gave me a very distinct view of the sport. I could see her first

pass by, and the dogs some time afterwards, unraveling the whole track she

had made, and following her through all her doubles. I was at the same

time delighted in observing that deference which the rest of the pack paid

to each particular hound, according to the character he had acquired among

them: if they were at a fault, and an old hound of reputation opened but

once, he was immediately followed by the whole cry; while a raw dog, or

one who was a noted liar, might have yelped his heart out without being

taken notice of.

The hare now, after having squatted two or three times, and been put up

again as often, came still nearer to the place where she was at first

started. The dogs pursued her, and these were followed by the jolly

knight, who rode upon a white gelding, encompassed by his tenants and

servants, and cheering his hounds with all the gayety of five and twenty.

One of the sportsmen rode up to me, and told me that he was sure the chase

was almost at an end, because the old dogs, which had hitherto lain

behind, now headed the pack. The fellow was in the right. Our hare took a

large field just under us, followed by the full cry in view. I must

confess the brightness of the weather, the cheerfulness of everything

around me, the chiding of the hounds, which was returned upon us in a

double echo from two neighboring hills, with the hallooing of the

sportsmen, and the sounding of the horn, lifted my spirits into a most

lively pleasure, which I freely indulged because I was sure it was

innocent. If I was under any concern, it was on account of the poor hare,

that was now quite spent, and almost within the reach of her enemies; when

the huntsman getting forward, threw down his pole before the dogs. They

were now within eight yards of that game which they had been pursuing for

almost as many hours; yet on the signal before mentioned they all made a

sudden stand, and though they continued opening as much as before, durst

not once attempt to pass beyond the pole. At the same time Sir Roger rode

forward, and alighting, took up the hare in his arms; which he soon after

delivered up to one of his servants with an order, if she could be kept

alive, to let her go in his great orchard; where it seems he has several

of these prisoners of war, who live together in a very comfortable

captivity. I was highly pleased to see the discipline of the pack, and the

good nature of the knight, who could not find in his heart to murder a

creature that had given him so much diversion.

--Budgell: _Sir Roger de Coverley Papers_.

+Theme XXXIX.+--_Explain one of the following by the use of general

narration:_--

1. Baking bread.

2. How paper is made.

3. How to play tennis (or some other game).

4. Catching trout.

5. Life at school.

6. How to pitch curves.

(Have you arranged your details with reference to their proper time-order?

Have you introduced unnecessary details? Have your paragraphs unity?

Underscore _then_ each time you have used it.)

+69. Argument.+--Especially in argument is it evident that language

presupposes an audience. The fact that we argue implies that some one does

not agree with us. The purpose of our argument is to convince some one

else of the truth of a proposition which we ourselves believe, and he who

wishes to succeed in this must give careful attention to his audience. The

question which must always be in the mind of the writer is, What facts

shall I select and in what order shall I present them in order to convince

my reader? The various ways of arguing are more fully treated in a later

chapter, but a few of them are given here.

+70. The Use of Explanation in Argument.+--In preparing an argument we

must consider first the amount of explanation that it will be necessary to

make. We cannot expect one to believe a proposition the meaning of which

he does not understand. Often the explanation alone is sufficient to

convince the hearer. Suppose you are trying to gain your parents' consent

to take some course of study. They ask for an explanation of the different

courses, and when they know what each contains they are already convinced

as to which is best for you.

If you are trying to convince a member of your school board that it would

be well to introduce domestic science into the high school, and he already

understands what is meant by the term "domestic science," you not only

waste time in explaining it, but you make him appear ignorant of what he

already understands. With him you should proceed at once to give your

reasons for the advisability of the introduction of this branch into your

school. On the other hand, if you are talking with a member who does not

understand the term, an explanation will be the first thing necessary. It

is evident, therefore, that the amount of explanation that we shall make

depends upon the previous knowledge of the audience addressed. If we

explain too much, we prejudice our case; and if we explain too little, the

reader may fail to appreciate the arguments that follow.

The point of the whole matter, then, is that explanation is the first step

in argument, and that in order to determine the amount necessary we must

consider carefully the audience for which our argument is intended.

+71. Statement of Advantages and Disadvantages.+ An argument is often

concerned with determining whether it is expedient to do one thing or

another. Such an argument frequently takes the form of a statement of the

advantages that will follow the adoption of the course we recommend, or of

the disadvantages that the following of the opposite course will cause.

If a corporation should ask for a franchise for a street railway, the city

officials might hold the opinion that a double track should be laid. In

support of this opinion they would name the advantageous results that

would follow from the use of a double track, such as the avoidance of

delays on turnouts, the lessening of the liability of accidents, the

greater rapidity in transportation, etc. On the other hand, the persons

seeking the franchise might reply that a double track would occupy too

much of the street and become a hindrance to teams, or that the advantages

were not sufficient to warrant the extra expense.

Concerning such a question there can be no absolute decision. We are not

discussing what is right, but what is expedient, and the determination of

what is expedient is based upon a consideration of advantages or

disadvantages. In deciding, we must balance the advantages against the

disadvantages and determine which has the greater weight. If called upon

to take one side or the other, we must consider carefully the value of the

facts counting both for and against the proposition before we can make up

our mind which side we favor.

You must bear in mind that a thing may not be an advantage because you

believe it to be. That which seems to you to be the reason why you should

take some high school subject, may seem to your father or your teacher to

be the very reason why you should not. In writing arguments of this kind

you must take care to select facts that will appeal to your readers as

advantages.

Notice the following editorial which appeared in the _Boston Latin School

Register_ shortly after a change was made whereby the pupils instead of

the teachers moved from room to room for their various recitations:--

The new system of having the classes move about from room to room to their

recitations has been in use for nearly a month, and there has been

sufficient opportunity for testing its practicability and its advantages.

There is no doubt that the new system alters the old form of recesses,

shortening the two regular ones, but giving three minutes between

recitations as a compensation for this loss. Although theoretically we

have more recess time than formerly, in the practical working out of the

system we find that the three minutes between recitations is occupied in

gathering up one's books, and reaching the next recitation room; besides

this, that there is often some confusion in reaching the various

classrooms, and that there are many little inconveniences which would not

occur were we sitting at our own desks. On the other hand, as an offset to

these disadvantages, there is the advantage of a change of position, and a

respite from close attention, with a breathing spell in which to get the

mind as well as the books ready for another lesson. The masters have in

every recitation their own maps and reference books, with which they can

often make their instruction much more forceful and interesting. Besides

that, they have entire control of their own blackboards, and can leave

work there without fear of its being erased to make room for that of some

other master. The confusion will doubtless be lessened as time goes on and

we become more used to the system. Even the first disadvantage is more or

less offset by the fact that the short three-minute periods, although they

cannot be used like ordinary recesses, yet serve to give us breathing

space between recitations and to lessen the strain of continuous

application; so that, on the whole, the advantages seem to counterbalance

the disadvantages.

EXERCISES

What advantages and disadvantages can you think of for each of the

following propositions? State them orally.

1. All telephone and telegraph wires in cities should be put under ground.

2. The speed of bicycles and automobiles should be limited to eight miles

per hour.

3. High school football teams should not play match games on regular

school days.

4. High school pupils should not attend evening parties excepting on

Fridays and Saturdays.

5. Monday would be a better day than Saturday for a school holiday.

6. The school session should be lengthened.

+Theme XL.+--_Write two paragraphs, one of which shall give the advantages

and the other the disadvantages that would arise from the adoption of any

one of the following:_

1. This school should have a longer recess.

2. This school should have two hours for the noon recess.

3. This school should be in session from eight o'clock until one o'clock.

4. All the pupils in this school should be seated in one room.

5. The public library should be in the high school building.

6. The football team should be excused early in order to practice.

7. This school should have a greater number of public entertainments.

+72. Explanation and Argument by Specific Instances.+--Often we may make

the meaning of a general proposition clear by citing specific instances.

If these instances are given for the purpose of explanation merely, the

paragraph is exposition. If, however, the aim is not merely to cause the

reader to understand the proposition, but also to believe that it is true,

we have argument. In either case we have a paragraph developed by specific

instances as discussed in Section 44. Notice how in the following

paragraph the author brings forward specific cases in order to prove the

proposition:--

Nearly everything that an animal does is the result of an inborn instinct

acted upon by an outward stimulus. The margin wherein intelligent choice

plays a part is very small.... Instinct is undoubtedly often modified by

intelligence, and intelligence is as often guided or prompted by instinct,

but one need not hesitate long as to which side of the line any given act

of man or beast belongs. When the fox resorts to various tricks to outwit

and delay the hound (if he ever consciously does so), he exercises a kind

of intelligence--the lower form of which we call cunning--and he is

prompted to this by an instinct of self-preservation. When the birds set

up a hue and cry about a hawk, or an owl, or boldly attack him, they show

intelligence in its simpler form, the intelligence that recognizes its

enemies, prompted again by the instinct of self-preservation. When a hawk

does not know a man on horseback from a horse, it shows a want of

intelligence. When a crow is kept away from a corn-field by a string

stretched around it, the fact shows how masterful is its fear and how

shallow its wit. When a cat or a dog or a horse or a cow learns to open a

gate or a door, it shows a degree of intelligence--power to imitate, to

profit by experience. A machine could not learn to do it. If the animal

were to close the door or gate behind it, that would be another step in

intelligence. But its direct wants have no relation to the closing of

the door, only to the opening of it. To close the door involves an

afterthought that an animal is not capable of. A horse will hesitate to go

upon thin ice or frail bridges. This, no doubt, is an inherited instinct

which has arisen in its ancestors from their fund of general experience

with the world. How much with them has depended upon a secure footing! A

pair of house-wrens had a nest in my well-curb; when the young were partly

grown and heard any one enter the curb, they would set up a clamorous

calling for food. When I scratched against the sides of the curb beneath

them like some animal trying to climb up, their voices instantly hushed;

the instinct of fear promptly overcame the instinct of hunger! Instinct is

intelligence, but it is not the same as acquired individual intelligence;

it is untaught.

John Burroughs: _Some Natural History Doubts_ ("Harper's").

EXERCISES

What facts or instances do you know which would lead you to believe either

the following propositions or their opposites?

1. Dogs are intelligent.

2. Only excellent pupils can pass the seventh grade examination.

3. Some teachers do not ask fair questions on examination.

4. Oak trees grow to be larger than maples.

5. Strikes increase the cost to the consumer.

6. A college education pays.

7. Department stores injure the trade of smaller stores.

8. Advertising pays.

+Theme XLI.+--_Write a paragraph, proving by one or more examples one of

the propositions in the preceding exercise:_

(Do your examples really illustrate what you are trying to prove? Do they

show that the proposition is always true or merely that it is true

for certain cases? Would your argument cause another to believe the

proposition?)

+73. The Value of Debate.+--Participation in oral debate furnishes

excellent practice in accurate and rapid thinking. We may choose one side

of a question and may write out an argument which, considered alone, and

from our point of view, seems convincing, but when this is submitted to

the criticism of some one of opposite views, or when the arguments in

favor of the other side of the question are brought forward, we are not so

sure that we have chosen the side which represents the truth. The ability

to think "on one's feet," to present arguments concisely and effectively,

and to reply to opposing arguments, giving due weight to those that are

true, and detecting and pointing out those that are false, is an

accomplishment of great practical value. Such ability comes only from

practice, and the best preparation for it is the careful writing out of

arguments.

+74. Statement of the Question.+--The subject of debate may be stated in

the form of a resolution, a declarative sentence, or a question; as,

"Resolved that the recess should be lengthened," or "The recess should be

lengthened," or, "Should the recess be lengthened?" In any case, the

affirmative must show why the recess should be lengthened, and the

negative why it should not be lengthened.

In a formal debate the statement of the question and its meaning should be

definitely determined in advance. Care must be taken to state it so that

no mere quibbling over the meanings of terms can take the place of real

arguments. Even if the subject of debate is so stated that this is

possible, any self-respecting debater will meet the question at issue

fairly and squarely, preferring defeat to a victory won by juggling with

the meanings of terms.

+75. Is Belief Necessary in Debate?+--If we are really arguing for a

purpose, we should believe in the truth of the proposition which

we support. If the members of the school board were discussing the

desirability of building a new schoolhouse, each would speak in accordance

with his belief. But if a class in school should debate such a question,

having in mind not the determination of the question, but merely the

selection and arrangement of the arguments for and against the proposition

in the most effective way, each pupil might present the side in which he

did not really believe.

EXERCISES

Consider each of the following propositions. Do you believe the

affirmative or the negative?

1. This city needs a new high school building.

2. All the pupils in the high school should be members of the athletic

association.

3. The school board should purchase an inclosed athletic field.

4. The street railway should carry pupils to and from school for half

fare.

5. There should be a lunch room in this school.

6. Fairy stories should not be told to children.

+Theme XLII.+--_Write a paragraph telling why you believe one of the

propositions in the preceding exercise:_

(What questions should you ask yourself while correcting your theme?)

+76. Order of Presentation.+--If you were preparing to debate one of the

propositions in the preceding exercise, you would need to have in mind

both the reasons for and against it. Next you would consider the order in

which these reasons should be discussed. This will be determined by the

circumstances of each debate, but generally the emphatic positions, that

is, the first and the last, will be given to those arguments that seem to

you to have the greatest weight, while those of less importance will

occupy the central portion of your theme.

+77. The Brief.+--If, after making a note of the various advantages,

examples, and other arguments that you wish to use in support of one of

the propositions in Section 75, you arrange these in the order in which

you think they can be most effectively presented, the outline so formed is

called a brief. Its preparation requires clear thinking, but when it is

made, the task of writing out the argument is not difficult. When the

debate is to be spoken, not read, the brief, if kept in mind, will serve

to suggest the arguments we wish to make in the order in which we wish to

present them. The brief differs from the ordinary outline in that it is

composed of complete sentences. Notice the following brief:--

Manual Training should be substituted for school athletics.

_Affirmative_

1. The exercise furnished by manual training is better adapted to the

developing of the whole being both physical and mental; for--

_a._ It requires the mind to act in order to determine what to do

and how to do it.

_b._ It trains the muscles to carry out the ideal of the mind.

2. The effect of manual training on health is better; for--

_a._ Excessive exercise, harmful to growing children, is avoided.

_b._ Dangerous contests are avoided.

3. The final results of manual training are more valuable; for--

_a._ The objects made are valuable.

_b._ The skill of hand and eye may become of great practical value

in after life.

4. The moral effect of manual training is better; for--

_a._ Athletics develops the "anything to win" spirit, while manual

training creates a wholesome desire to excel in the creation

of something useful or beautiful.

_b._ Dishonesty in games may escape notice, but dishonesty in

workmanship cannot be concealed.

_c._ Athletics fosters slovenliness of dress and manners, while

manual training cultivates the love of the beautiful.

5. The beneficial results of manual training have a wider effect upon the

school; for--

_a._ But comparatively few pupils "make the team" and receive the

maximum athletic drill, while all pupils can take manual

training.

+78. Refutation or Indirect Argument.+--In debate we need to consider not

only the arguments in favor of our own side, but also those presented by

our opponents. That part of our theme which states our own arguments is

called direct argument, and that part in which we reply to our opponents

is called indirect argument or refutation. It is often very important to

show that the opposing argument is false or, if true, has been given an

exaggerated importance that it does not really possess. If, however, the

argument is true and of weight, the fact should be frankly acknowledged.

Our desire for victory should not cause us to disregard the truth. If the

argument of our opponent has been so strong that it seems to have taken

possession of the audience, we must reply to it in the beginning. If it is

of less weight, each separate point may be discussed as we take up related

points in our own argument. Often it will be found best to give the

refutation a place just preceding our own last and strongest argument.

From the foregoing it will be seen that each case cannot be determined by

rule, but must be determined for itself, and it is because of the exercise

of judgment required, that practice in debating is so valuable. A dozen

boys or girls may, with much pleasure and profit, spend an evening a week

as a debating club.

+Theme XLIII.+--_Prepare a written argument for or against one of the

propositions in Section 75._

(Make a brief. Re-arrange the arguments that you intend to use until they

have what seems to you the best order. Consider the probable arguments on

the other side and what reply can be made. Answer one or two of the

strongest ones. If you have any trivial arguments for your own side,

either omit them or make their discussion very brief.)

+79. Cautions in Debating.+--When we have made a further study of argument

we shall need to consider again the subject of debating. In the meantime a

few cautions will be helpful.

1. Be fair. A debate is in the nature of a contest, and is quite as

interesting as any other contest. The desire to win should never lead you

to take any unfair advantage or to descend to mere quibbling over the

statement of the proposition or the meanings of the terms. Win fairly or

not at all.

2. Be honest with yourself. Do not present arguments which you know to be

false, in the hope that your opponent cannot prove their falsity. This

does not mean that you cannot present arguments in favor of a proposition

unless you believe it to be true, but that those you do present should be

real arguments for the side that you uphold, even though you believe that

there are weightier ones on the other side. Do not use an example that

seems to apply if you know that it does not. You are to "tell the truth

and nothing but the truth," but in debate you may tell only that part of

the "whole truth" which favors your side of the proposition.

3. Do not allow your desire for victory to overcome your desire for truth.

Do not argue for the sake of winning, nor develop the habit of arguing in

season and out. In the school and outside there are persons who, like Will

Carleton's Uncle Sammy, "were born for arguing." They use their own time

in an unprofitable way, and what is worse, they waste the time of others.

They are not seeking for truth, but for controversy. It is quite as bad to

doubt everything you hear as it is to believe everything.

4. Remember that mere statement is not argument. The fact that you believe

a proposition does not make it true. In order to carry weight, a statement

must be based on principles and theories that _the audience_ believes.

5. Remember that exhortation is not argument. Entreaty may persuade one to

action, but in debate you should aim to convince the intellect. Clear,

accurate thinking on your own part, so that you may present sound, logical

arguments, is the first essential.

+Theme XLIV.+--_Prepare a written argument for or against one of the

following propositions:_--

1. Boys who cannot go to college should take a commercial course in the

high school.

2. Novel reading is a waste of time.

3. Asphalt paving is more satisfactory than brick.

4. Foreign skilled labor should be kept out of the United States.

5. Our own town should be lighted by electricity.

6. Athletic contests between high schools should be prohibited.

(Consider your argument with reference to the cautions given in Section

79.)

SUMMARY

1. The purpose of discourse may be to inform or to entertain.

2. The forms of discourse are--

_a._ Description.

_b._ Narration.

_c._ Exposition.

_d._ Argument (Persuasion).

3. Discourse presupposes an audience, and we must select a subject and use

language adapted to that audience.

4. The suitableness of a subject is determined--

_a._ By the writer's knowledge of the subject.

(1) This may be based on experience, or

(2) It may be gained from others through conversation and

reading.

_b._ By the writer's interest in the subject.

(1) This may exist from the first, or

(2) It may be aroused by our search for information.

_c._ By adaptability of the subject to the reader. It should be of

present, vital interest to him.

5. Subjects.

_a._ The sources of subjects are unlimited.

_b._ Subjects should be definite. They often need to be narrowed in

order to be made definite.

_c._ The title should be brief and should be worded so as to arouse

a desire to hear the theme.

6. Exposition is explanation.

7. We may make clear the meaning of a term--

_a._ By using synonyms.

_b._ By using simpler words.

_c._ By supplementing our definitions with examples or comparisons.

8. General description includes the characteristics common to all members

of a class of objects.

9. General narration is one form of exposition. It relates the things that

characterize a process or action whenever it occurs.

10. Argument.

_a._ Explanation is the first step in argument.

_b._ A statement of advantages and disadvantages may assist us to

determine which side of a question we believe.

_c._ Specific instances may be used either for explanation or

argument.

11. Debate.

_a._ The subject of the debate may be stated in the form of a

resolution, a declarative sentence, or a question.

_b._ The most important arguments should be given the first and last

positions.

_c._ A brief will assist us in arranging our arguments in the most

effective order.

_d._ The refutation of opposing arguments should usually be placed

just before our own last and strongest argument.

_e._ Cautions in debating.

(1) Be fair.

(2) Be honest with yourself.

(3) Do not allow your desire for victory to overcome your

desire for truth.

(4) Remember that mere statement is not argument.

(5) Remember that exhortation is not argument.

V. THE WHOLE COMPOSITION

+80. General Principles of Composition.+--There are three important

principles to be considered in every composition: unity, coherence, and

emphasis. Though not always named, each of these has been considered and

used in our writing of paragraphs. The consideration of methods of

securing unity, coherence, and emphasis in the composition as a whole is

the purpose of this chapter. It will serve also as a review and especially

as an enlarged view of paragraph development as treated in Chapter III,

for the methods discussed with regard to the whole composition are the

same that are used in applying the three principles to single paragraphs.

+81. Unity.+--A composition possesses unity if all that it contains bears

directly upon the subject. It is evident that the title of the theme

determines in a large degree the matter that should be included. Much that

is appropriate to a theme on "Bass Fishing" will be found unnecessary in a

theme entitled "How I caught a Bass." It is easier to secure unity in a

theme treating of a narrow, limited subject than in one treating of a

broad, general subject. The first step toward unity is, therefore, the

selection of a limited subject and a suitable title (see Sections 58-61);

the second is the collection of all facts, illustrations, and other

material which may appropriately be used in a theme having the chosen

title.

+82. Coherence.+--A composition is given coherence by placing the ideas in

such an order that each naturally suggests the one which follows. If the

last paragraph is more closely related in thought to the first paragraph

than it is to the intervening ones, the composition lacks coherence.

Similarly, that paragraph is coherent in which the thought moves forward

in an orderly way with each sentence growing out of the preceding one.

In describing the capture of a large trout a boy might state that he broke

his pole. Then he might tell what kind of pole he had, why he did not have

a better one, what poles are best adapted to trout fishing, etc. Though

each of these ideas is suggested by the preceding, the story still lacks

coherence because the boy will need later to go back and tell us what

happened to him or to the trout when the pole broke. If a description of

the kind of pole is necessary in order to make the point of the story

clear, it should have been introduced earlier. Stopping at the moment of

vital interest to discuss fishing poles, spoils the effect of the story.

Good writers are very skillful in the early introducing of details that

will enable the reader to appreciate the events as they happen, and they

are equally skillful in omitting unnecessary details. The proper selection

of these details gives unity, and their introduction at the proper place

gives coherence to a narrative. By saying, "I am getting ahead of my

story," the narrator confesses that coherence is lacking. Read again the

selection on page 106.

+83. Emphasis.+--If we desire to make one part of a theme more emphatic

than another, we may do so by giving a prominent position to that part. In

debating we give the first place and the last to the strongest arguments.

In simple narration the order in which incidents must be related is fixed

by the time-order of their occurrence, but even in a story the point gains

in force if it is near the close. Because these two positions are the ones

of greatest emphasis, a poor beginning or a bad ending will ruin an

otherwise good story.

Emphasis may also be affected by the proportional amount of attention and

space given to the different parts of a theme. The extent to which any

division of a theme should be developed depends upon the purpose and the

total length of the theme. A biography of Grant might appropriately devote

two or three chapters to his boyhood, while a short sketch of his life

would treat his boyhood in a single paragraph. In determining the amount

of space to be given to the different parts of a composition, care must be

taken that the space assigned to each shall be proportional to its

importance, the largest amount of space being devoted to the part which is

of greatest worth.

Emphasis is sometimes given by making a single sentence into a paragraph.

This method should be used with care, for such a paragraph may be too

short for unity because it does not include all that should be said about

the topic statement, and though it makes that statement emphatic, fails to

make its meaning clear.

Clearness, unity, and coherence are of more importance

than emphasis, and usually, if a theme possesses the first

three qualities, it will possess the fourth in sufficient

measure.

+84. The Outline.+--An outline will assist us in securing unity,

coherence, and emphasis.

1. The first step in making an outline has relation to unity. Unity

requires that a theme include only that which pertains to the subject.

There are always many more ideas that seem to bear upon a subject than can

be included in the theme. We may therefore jot down brief notes that will

suggest our ideas on the subject, and then we should reject from this list

all that seem irrelevant or trivial. We should also reject the less

important ideas which pertain directly to the subject if without them we

have all that are needed in order to fulfill the purpose of the theme.

Which items in the following should be omitted as not necessary to the

complete treatment of the subject indicated by the title? Should anything

be added?

_My First Partridge_

Where I lived ten years ago.

Kinds of game: partridge, quail, squirrels.

Partridge drumming.

My father went hunting often.

How he was injured.

Birch brush near hemlock; partridge often found in such localities.

Loading the gun.

Going to the woods.

Why partridge live near birch brush.

Fall season.

Hunting for partridge allowed from September to December.

Tramping through the woods.

Something moving.

Creeping up.

How I felt; excited; hand shook.

Partridge on log.

Gun failed to go off; cocking it properly.

The shot; the recoil.

The flurry of the bird.

How partridges fly.

How they taste when cooked.

Getting the bird.

Going home.

Partridges are found in the woods; quail in the fields.

What my sister said.

My brother's interest.

My father's story about shooting three partridges with one shot.

What mother did.

2. The second step in outline making has relation to coherence. After we

have rejected from our notes all items which would interfere with the

unity of our theme, we next arrange the remaining items in a coherent

order. One method of securing coherence is illustrated by a simple

narrative which follows the time-order. We naturally group together in our

memory those events which occurred at a given time, and in recalling a

series of events we pass in order from one such group to another. These

groups form natural paragraph units, and the placing of them in their

actual time-order gives coherence to the composition.

After rejecting the unnecessary items in the preceding list, re-arrange

the remaining ones in a coherent order. How many paragraphs would you make

and what would you include in each?

3. The third step in making an outline has relation to emphasis. In some

outlines emphasis is secured by placing the more important points first,

in others by placing them last. In this particular outline we have a

natural time-order to follow, and emphasis will be determined mainly by

the relative proportion to be given to different paragraphs. Do not give

unimportant paragraphs too much space. Be sure that the introduction and

the conclusion are short.

+Theme XLV.+--_Write a personal narrative at least three paragraphs in

length._

Suggested subjects:--

1. How I was saved from drowning.

2. The largest string of fish I ever caught.

3. An incident of the skating season.

4. What I did on Christmas day.

5. A Saturday with my grandmother.

6. To the city and back.

(Make an outline. Keep in mind unity, coherence, and

emphasis. Consider each paragraph with reference to

unity, coherence, and emphasis.)

+85. Development of a Composition with Reference to the Time-Order.+--

Of the several methods of developing a composition let us consider first

that of giving details in the natural time-order. (See Section 46.) If a

composition composed of a series of paragraphs possesses coherence, each

paragraph is so related to the preceding ones that the thought goes

steadily forward from one to another. Often the connection in thought is

so evident that no special indication needs to be made, but if the

paragraphs are arranged with reference to a time-order, this time-order

is usually indicated.

Notice how the relation in time of each paragraph to the preceding is

shown by the following sentences of parts of sentences taken in order from

a magazine article entitled "Yachting at Kiel," by James B. Connolly:--

1. It was slow waiting in Travemunde. The long-enduring twilight of a

summer's day at fifty-four north began to settle down...

2. The dusk comes on, and on the ships of war they seem to be getting

nervous...

3. The dusk deepens...

4. It is getting chilly in the night air, with the rations running low,

and the charterers of some of the fishing boats decide to go home...

5. It is eleven o'clock--dark night--and the breeze is freshening, when

the first of the fleet heaves in sight...

6. After that they arrive rapidly...

7. At midnight there is still no _Meteor_...

8. Through the entire night they keep coming...

9. Next morning...

+Theme XLVI.+--_Write a narrative, four or more paragraphs in length,

showing the time-order._

Suggested subjects:--

1. The race up the river.

2. The life of some well-known man.

3. The cake that fell.

4. Retell some incident that you have recently read.

5. Relate some personal experience.

6. A story suggested by the picture on page 160.

(Make an outline. Consider the unity, coherence, and emphasis of each

paragraph separately. Then consider the unity, coherence, and emphasis of

the whole composition. Notice what expressions you have used to indicate

the relations in time. Have you used the same expression too often?)

+86. Development of a Composition with Reference to Position in Space.+--

A second method of development is to relate details with reference to

their position in space.

[Illustration]

Just as we may give either a paragraph or a whole theme coherence by

following a given time-order, so may we make a paragraph or a whole theme

coherent by arranging the parts in an order determined by their position

in space. In developing a theme by this method we simply apply to the

whole theme the principles discussed for the development of a paragraph

(Section 47).

In a description composed of several paragraphs, each paragraph should

contain a group of details closely related to one another in space. The

paragraphs should be constructed so that each shall possess unity and

coherence within itself, and they should be so arranged that we may pass

most easily from the group of images presented by one paragraph to the

images presented by the next. In narration, the space arrangement may

supplement time-order in giving coherence.

If the most attractive features of an art room are its

wall decorations, five paragraphs describing the room may

be as follows:--

1. Point of view: general impression.

2. The north wall: general impression; details.

3. The east wall: general impression; details.

4. The south wall: general impression; details.

5. The west wall: general impression; details.

It is easy to imagine a room in the description of which the following

paragraphs would be appropriate:--

1. Point of view.

2. The fireplace.

3. The easy-chair.

4. The table.

5. The bookcase.

6. The cozy nook.

Such an arrangement of paragraphs would give coherence. Unity would be

secured by including in each only that which properly belonged to it.

There are many words and expressions which indicate the relative position

of objects. The paragraph below is an illustration of the method of

development described in Section 47. Notice the words which indicate the

location of the different details in the scene. If each of these details

should be developed into a paragraph the italicized expressions would

serve to introduce these paragraphs and would show the relative positions

of the objects described.

The beauty of the sea and shore was almost indescribable: _on one side_

rose Point Loma, grim, gloomy as a fortress wall; _before_ me stretched

away to the horizon the ocean with its miles of breakers curling into

foam; _between_ the surf and the city, wrapped in its dark blue mantle,

lay the sleeping bay; _eastward_ the mingled yellow, red, and white of San

Diego's buildings glistened in the sunlight like a bed of coleus; _beyond_

the city heaved the rolling plains rich in their garb of golden brown,

_from which_ rose the distant mountains, tier on tier, wearing the purple

veil which Nature here loves oftenest to weave for them; while _in the

foreground_, like a jewel in a brilliant setting, stood the Coronado.

--Stoddard: _California_.

+Theme XLVII.+--_Write a description three or more paragraphs in length._

Suggested subjects:--

1. Some well-known building (exterior).

2. A prominent person.

3. An attractive room.

4. The interior of a church.

(Consider your outline with reference to unity, coherence, and proportion

of parts. When the theme is completed, consider the unity, coherence, and

emphasis of each paragraph and of the composition as a whole.)

+87. Paragraph Relations.+--Relations in thought other than those of time

and space may be indicated by the use of certain words and phrases. Such

expressions as, _however, nevertheless, consequently, indeed, moreover, at

all events_, etc., are often used to indicate a relation in thought

between paragraphs. Notice how _nevertheless_, at the beginning of the

selection below, serves to connect it in thought with a preceding

paragraph not printed here. Notice also the relations in thought shown by

the italicized words. These and similar words are used to make the

transition from one paragraph to the next.

_Nevertheless_, Howe was at last in possession of Philadelphia, the object

of his campaign, and with his communications by water open. He had

consumed four months in this business since he left New York, three months

since he landed near the Elk River. His prize, now that he had got it, was

worth less than nothing in a military point of view, and he had been made

to pay a high price for it, not merely in men, but in precious time, for

while he was struggling sluggishly for Philadelphia, Burgoyne, who really

meant something very serious, had gone to wreck and sunk out of sight in

the northern forests. _Indeed_, Howe did not even hold his dearly bought

town in peace. After the fall of the forts, Greene, aided by Lafayette,

who had joined the army on its way to the Brandywine, made a sharp

dash and broke up an outlying party of Hessians. _Such things_ were

intolerable, they interfered with personal comfort, and they emanated from

the American army which Washington had now established in strong lines at

Whitemarsh. _So_ Howe announced that in order to have a quiet winter, he

would drive Washington beyond the mountains. Howe did not often display

military intelligence, but that he was profoundly right in this particular

intention must be admitted. In pursuit of his plan, _therefore_, he

marched out of Philadelphia on December 4th, drove off some Pennsylvania

militia on the 5th, considered the American position for four days, did

not dare to attack, could not draw his opponent out, returned to the city,

and left Washington to go into winter quarters at Valley Forge, whence he

could easily strike if any move was made by the British army.

--Henry Cabot Lodge.

+88. The Transition Paragraph.+--Just as a word or phrase may serve to

denote the relation in thought between paragraphs, so may a whole

paragraph be used to carry over the thought from one group of paragraphs

to another in the same theme. Such a paragraph makes a transition from one

general topic or method of treating the subject of the theme to some other

general topic or to the consideration of the subject from a different

point of view. This transitional paragraph may summarize the thought of

the preceding paragraph in addition to announcing a change of topic; or it

may mark the transition to the new topic and set it forth in general

terms.

+89. The Summarizing Paragraph.+--Frequently we give emphasis to our

thought by a final paragraph summarizing the main points of the theme.

Such a summary is in effect a restatement of the topic sentences of our

paragraphs. If our theme has been coherent, these sentences stated in

order will need but little changing to make a coherent paragraph. In a

similar way, it is of advantage to close a long paragraph with a sentence

which repeats the topic statement or summarizes the thought of the

paragraph. See the last sentence in Section 57.

+90. Development of a Composition by Comparison or Contrast.+--The third

method of development is that of comparison or contrast. Nearly every idea

which we have suggests one that is similar to it or in contrast with it.

We are thus led to make comparisons or to state contrasts. When these are

few and brief, they may make a single paragraph (Section 48). If our

comparisons or contrasts are extended, they may make several paragraphs,

and thus a whole theme may be developed by this method.

In such a theme no fixed order of presentation is determined by the actual

occurrence in time or space of that which we present. Consequently, in

outlining a theme of this kind, we must devote special attention to

arranging our paragraphs in an order that shall give coherence and

emphasis.

+Theme XLVIII.+--_Write a theme of three or more paragraphs developed by

comparison._

Suggested subjects:--

1. Compare men with verbs (active, passive, transitive, intransitive,

defective, redundant, auxiliary, copulative, etc.).

2. Show that the body resembles a machine.

3. In what way is the school like a factory?

4. How do two books that you have read differ?

5. Compare Lincoln and McKinley. How alike? How different?

6. How can you tell an oak tree from an elm tree?

7. Without naming them, compare two of your friends with each other.

8. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of public high schools

with those of private academies.

+91. Development of a Composition by Use of Generalization and Facts.+--

Using the fourth method of development, we may give an entire composition

to the explanation of the meaning of a general proposition or to the

demonstration of the truth of such a proposition. To accomplish this

purpose we state facts or instances that illustrate the meaning of the

proposition or that show it to be true. In such a composition each

important fact or instance may be given a separate paragraph, while

several minor facts or illustrations may be properly combined in the same

paragraph. (See Section 44.) Greater emphasis may also be given the more

important facts by assigning them to the emphatic positions.

Notice how by specific instances the following selection illustrates the

truth of the generalization set forth in the second sentence and restated

in the last sentence.

DEGENERATION THROUGH QUIESCENCE

While parasitism is the principal cause of degeneration among animals, yet

it is not the sole cause. It is evident that if for any other reason

animals should become fixed, and live inactive lives, they would

degenerate. There are not a few instances of degeneration due simply to a

quiescent life, unaccompanied by parasitism.

The Tunicata, or sea squirts, are animals which have become simple through

degeneration, due to the adoption of a sedentary life, the withdrawal from

the crowd of animals and from the struggle which it necessitates. The

young tunicate is a free-swimming, active, tadpolelike, or fishlike

creature, which possesses organs very like those of the adult of the

simplest fishes or fishlike forms. That is, the sea squirt begins life as

a primitively simple vertebrate. It possesses in its larval stage a

notochord, the delicate structure which precedes the formation of a

backbone, extending along the upper part of the body below the spinal

cord. The other organs of the young tunicate are all of vertebral type.

But the young sea squirt passes a period of active and free life as a

little fish, after which it settles down and attaches itself to a shell or

wooden pier by means of suckers, and remains for the rest of its life

fixed. Instead of going on and developing into a fishlike creature, it

loses its notochord, its special sense organs, and other organs; it loses

its complexity and high organization, and becomes a "mere rooted bag with

a double neck," a thoroughly degenerate animal.

A barnacle is another example of degeneration through quiescence. The

barnacles are crustaceans related most nearly to the crabs and shrimps.

The young barnacle just from the egg is a six-legged, free-swimming

nauplius, very like a young prawn or crab, with a single eye. In its next

larval stage it has six pairs of swimming feet, two compound eyes, and two

antennae or feelers, and still lives an independent free-swimming life.

When it makes its final change to the adult condition, it attaches itself

to some stone, or shell, or pile, or ship's bottom, loses its compound

eyes and feelers, develops a protecting shell, and gives up all power of

locomotion. Its swimming feet become changed into grasping organs, and it

loses most of its outward resemblance to the other members of its class.

Certain insects live sedentary or fixed lives. All the members of the

family of scale insects (Coccidae), in one sex at least, show degeneration

that has been caused by quiescence. One of these coccids, called the red

orange scale, is very abundant in Florida and California and in other

fruit-growing regions. The male is a beautiful, tiny, two-winged midge,

but the female is a wingless, footless, little sack, without eyes or other

organs of special sense, which lies motionless under a flat, thin,

circular, reddish scale composed of wax and two or three cast skins of the

insect itself. The insect has a long, slender, flexible, sucking beak,

which is thrust into the leaf or stem or fruit of the orange on which the

"scale bug" lives, and through which the insect sucks the orange sap,

which is its only food. It lays eggs under its body, and thus also under

the protecting wax scale, and dies. From the eggs hatch active little

larval "scale bugs," with eyes and feelers, and six legs. They crawl from

under the wax scale and roam about over the orange tree. Finally, they

settle down, thrusting their sucking beak into the plant tissue, and cast

their skin. The females lose at this molt their legs and eyes and feelers.

Each becomes a mere motionless sack capable only of sucking up sap and

laying eggs. The young males, however, lose their sucking beak and can no

longer take food, but they gain a pair of wings and an additional pair of

eyes. They fly about and fertilize the sacklike females, which then molt

again and secrete the thin wax scale over them.

Throughout the animal kingdom loss of the need of movement is followed by

the loss of the power to move and of all structures related

to it.

--Jordon and Kellogg: _Animal Life_.

Has the principle of unity been observed in the above selection; that is,

of the many things that might be told about a sea squirt, a barnacle, or a

scale bug, have the authors selected only those which serve to illustrate

degeneration through quiescence?

Instead of one generalization supported by a series of facts to

each of which a paragraph is given, we may have several subordinate

generalizations relating to the subject of the theme. Each of these

subordinate generalizations may become the topic statement of a paragraph

which is further developed by giving specific instances or by some other

method of paragraph development. Such an order, that is, generalization

followed by the facts which illustrate it, is coherent; but care must be

taken to give each fact under the generalization to which it is most

closely related. On the other hand, our theme may be made coherent by

giving the facts first, and then the generalization that they establish.

+Theme XLIX.+--_Write a theme of three or more paragraphs illustrating or

proving some general statement by means of facts or specific instances._

Suggested subjects:--

1. Young persons should not drink coffee.

2. Reasons for the curfew bell.

3. Girls wear their hair in a variety of ways.

4. There are several kinds of boys in this school.

5. Civilization increases as the facilities for transportation

increase.

6. Trolley roads are of great benefit to the country.

7. Presence of mind often averts danger.

+92. Development of a Composition by Stating Cause and Effect.+--The

statement of the causes of an event or condition may be used as a fifth

method of development. The principle, however, is not different from that

applied to the development of a paragraph by stating cause and effect

(Section 49). If several causes contribute to the same effect, each may be

given a separate paragraph, or several minor ones may be combined in one

paragraph. For the sake of unity we must include each fact, principle, or

statement in the paragraph to which it really belongs. The coherent order

is usually that which proceeds from causes to effects rather than that

which traces events backward from effects to causes.

+Theme L.+--_Write a theme of three or more paragraphs, stating causes and

effects._

Suggested subjects:--

1. Why hospitals are necessary.

2. Why cigarette smoking is dangerous.

3. Why girls should take music lessons.

4. The effect of climate upon health.

5. The effect of rainfall upon the productivity and industries of a

country.

6. The effect of mountains, lakes, or rivers upon exploration and

travel.

7. What connection is there between occupation and height above the

sea level, and why?

8. Why our city is located where it is.

9. Why I came late to school.

+93. Combination of Methods of Development.+--Frequently the presentation

of our thought is made most effective by using some combination of the

methods of development discussed in this chapter. Time and place are often

interwoven, comparisons and contrasts flash into mind, general statements

need specific illustration, or results demand immediate explanation--all

in the same theme. Sometimes the order of coherence will be in doubt, for

cause and effect demand a different order of statement from that which

would be given were we to follow either time-order or position in space.

In such cases we must choose whether it is most important to tell first

_why_ or _when_ or _where_. The only rule that can be suggested is to do

that which will make our meaning most clear, because it is for the sake of

the clear presentation of our thought that we seek unity, coherence, and

emphasis.

+Theme LI.+--_Write a theme of several paragraphs. Use any method of

development or any combination of methods._

(Choose your own subject. After the theme is written make a list of all

the questions you should ask yourself about it. Correct the theme with

reference to each point in your list of questions.)

SUMMARY

1. General principles of composition.

_a._ Unity.

_b._ Coherence.

_c._ Emphasis.

(1) By position.

(2) By proportion of parts.

2. An outline assists in securing unity, coherence, and emphasis.

3. Methods of composition development: A composition may be developed--

_a._ With reference to time-order.

_b._ With reference to position in space.

_c._ By use of comparison and contrast.

_d._ By stating generalization and facts.

_e._ By stating cause and effect.

_f._ By any suitable combination of the above methods.

4. Transition and summary paragraphs may occur in compositions.

VI. LETTER WRITING

+94. Importance of Good Letter Writing.+--Letter writing is the form of

written language used by most of us more frequently than any other form.

The importance of good letter writing is therefore obvious. Business,

personal, and social relations necessitate the writing of letters. We

are judged by those letters; and in order that we may be considered

businesslike, educated, and cultured, it is necessary that we should be

able to write good letters, not only as regards the form but also as

regards the subject-matter. The writing of good letters is often the means

of securing desirable positions and of keeping up pleasant and helpful

friendships. Since this form of composition plays so important a part in

our lives and the lives of those about us, it is worthy of careful study.

The subject-matter is the most important part of the letter, but adherence

to usages generally adopted is essential to successful letter writing.

Some of these usages may seem trivial in themselves, but a lack of

attention to them shows either ignorance or carelessness on the part of

the writer, and the consequences resulting from this inattention are often

anything but trivial. Applicants for good positions have been rejected

either because they did not know the correct usages of letter writing, or

because they did not heed them. In no other form of composition are

the rules concerning form so rigid; hence the need of knowledge and

carefulness concerning them.

+95. Paper.+--The nature of the letter determines to some extent our

choice of paper. Business letters are usually written on large paper,

about ten by eight inches in size, while letters of friendship and notes

of various kinds are written on paper of smaller size. White or delicately

tinted paper is always in good taste for all kinds of letters. The use of

highly tinted paper is occasionally in vogue with some people, but failure

to use it is never an offense against the laws of good taste. It is

customary now to use unruled paper for all kinds of letters as well as for

other forms of compositions. For letters of friendship four-page paper is

preferred to that in tablet form. The order in which the pages are used

may vary; but whatever the order is, it should not be confusing to the

reader.

Black ink should always be used. The writing should be neat and legible.

Attention should be paid to margin, paragraphs, and indentation. In fact,

all the rules of theme writing apply to letter writing, and to these are

added several others.

+96. The Beginning of a Letter.+--Certain forms for the

beginning of letters have been agreed upon, and these

forms should be followed. The beginning of a letter

usually includes the heading, the address of the person or

persons to whom the letter is sent, and the salutation.

Notice the following examples:--

(1)

______________________________________________________

| |

| 171 Miles Ave., |

| Cleveland, Ohio. |

| Oct. 21, 1905. |

| Marshall Field & Co., |

| State St., Chicago, Ill. |

| |

| Gentlemen: |

| |

(2)

______________________________________________________

| |

| Ottawa, Ill. |

| Nov. 9, 1905. |

| Dear Harold, |

| |

(3)

______________________________________________________

| |

| 1028 Jackson Boulevard, |

| Chicago Ill. |

| Nov. 10, 1905. |

| Messrs. Johnson & Foote, |

| 120 Main St., |

| Pittsfield, Mass. |

| |

| Dear Sirs, |

| |

(4)

______________________________________________________

| |

| 120 P Street, |

| Lincoln, Neb. |

| Oct. 17, 1905. |

| My dear Mrs. Scott, |

| |

(5)

______________________________________________________

| |

| Boston, Mass., Nov. 23, 1905. |

| |

| Dear Mother, |

| |

(6)

______________________________________________________

| |

| 33 Front St., |

| Adrian, Mich. |

| Nov. 30, 1905. |

| Miss Gertrude Brown, |

| 228 Warren Ave., Chicago, Ill. |

| |

| Dear Madam: |

| |

(7)

______________________________________________________

| |

| New Hartford, Conn. |

| Nov. 3, 1905. |

| My dear Henry, |

| |

The heading of a letter includes the address of the writer and the date of

the writing. When numerous letters are sent from one place to another, the

street and number may after a time be omitted from the heading. Example

(5) illustrates this. A son living in Boston has written to his mother

frequently and no longer considers it necessary to write the street and

number in every letter. If there is any doubt in the writer's mind as to

whether his address will be remembered or not, he should include it in the

letter. If the writer lives in a small place where the street and number

will not be needed in a reply sent to him, it is unnecessary for him to

make use of it in his letter. When the street and number are omitted, the

heading may be written on one line, as in example (5), but the use of two

lines is preferable.

Custom has decreed that the proper place for the heading is in the

right-hand upper corner of the first page. Sometimes, especially in

business letters, we find the writer's address at the close of the letter,

but for the sake of convenience it is preferably placed at the beginning.

The first line should be about one inch and a half from the top of the

page. The second line should begin a little to the right of the first

line, and the third line, a little to the right of the second line.

Attention should be paid to proper punctuation in each line.

In a comparatively few cases we may find that the omission of the date of

the letter will make no difference to the recipient, but in most cases it

will cause annoyance at least, and in many cases result in serious trouble

both to ourselves and to those who receive our letters. We should not

allow ourselves to neglect the date even in letters of apparently no great

importance. If we allow the careless habit of omitting dates to develop,

we may some day omit a date when the omission will affect affairs of great

importance. This date should include the day, month, and year. It is

better to write out the entire year, as 1905, not '05.

In business letters it is customary to write the address of the person or

persons addressed at the left side of the page. Either two or three lines

may be used. The first line of this address should be one line lower than

the last line of the heading. Notice examples (1), (3), and (6). When the

address is thus written, the salutation is commonly written one line below

it. Sometimes the salutation is commenced at the margin, and sometimes a

little to the right of the address. Where there is no address, the

salutation is written a line below the date and begins with the margin, as

in examples (2), (4), (5), and (7).

The form of salutation naturally depends upon the relations existing

between the correspondents. The forms _Dear Sir, My dear Sir, Madam, My

dear Madam, Dear Sirs, Gentlemen_, are used in formal business letters.

The forms _Dear Miss Robinson, My dear Mrs. Hobart, Dear Mr. Fraser, My

dear Mr. Scott_, are used in business letters when the correspondents are

acquainted with each other. The same forms are also used in letters of

friendship when the correspondents are not well enough acquainted with

each other to warrant the use of the more familiar forms, _My dear Mary,

Dear Edmund, My dear Friend, Dear Cousin, My dear little Niece_.

There is no set rule concerning the punctuation of the salutation. The

comma, the colon, or the semicolon may be used either alone or in

connection with the dash. The comma alone seems to be the least formal of

all, and the colon the most so. Hence the former is used more frequently

in letters of friendship, and the latter more frequently in business

letters.

+97. Body of the Letter.+--The body of the letter is the important part;

in fact, it is the letter itself, since it contains the subject-matter. It

will be discussed under another head later, and is only mentioned here in

order to show its place in connection with the beginning of a letter. As a

rule, it is best to begin the body of our letters one line below, and

either directly underneath or to the right of the salutation. It is not

improper, however, especially in business letters, to begin it on the same

line with the salutation. A few examples will be sufficient to show the

variations of the place for beginning the main part of the letter.

(1)

______________________________________________________

| |

| 1694 Cedar Ave., |

| Cleveland, Ohio. |

| June 23, 1905. |

| Messrs. Hanna, Scott & Co., |

| Aurora, Ill. |

| |

| Gentlemen:--I inclose a money order for $10.00, |

| etc. |

| |

(2)

______________________________________________________

| |

| Everett, Washington. |

| Oct. 20, 1905. |

| My dear Robert, |

| We are very glad that you have decided to make |

| us a visit, etc. |

| |

(3)

______________________________________________________

| |

| Greenwich, N.Y. |

| Sept. 19, 1905. |

| My dear Miss Russ, |

| Since I have been Miss Clark's assistant, etc. |

| |

(4)

______________________________________________________

| |

| 2 University Ave., |

| Nashville, Tenn. |

| April 19, 1905. |

| The American Book Company, |

| 300 Pike St., |

| Cinncinnati, O. |

| |

| Dear Sirs:--Please send me by express two copies |

| of Halleck's English Literature, etc. |

| |

+98. Conclusion of a Letter.+--The conclusion of a letter includes what is

termed the complimentary close and the signature. Certain forms have been

agreed upon, which should be closely followed.

Our choice of a complimentary close, like that of a salutation, depends

upon the relations existing between us and those to whom we are writing.

Such forms as _Your loving daughter, With love, Ever your friend, Your

affectionate mother_, should be used only when intimate relations exist

between correspondents. In letters where existing relations are not so

intimate and in some kinds of business letters the forms _Sincerely yours,

Yours very sincerely,_ may be used appropriately. The most common forms in

business letters are _Yours truly_ and _Very truly yours_. The forms

_Respectfully yours,_ or _Yours very respectfully,_ should be used only

when there is occasion for some special respect, as in writing to a person

of high rank or position.

The complimentary close should be written one line below the last line of

the main part of the letter, and toward the right-hand side of the page.

Its first word should commence with a capital, and a comma should be

placed at its close.

The signature properly belongs below and a little to the right of the

complimentary close. Except in cases of familiar relationship, the name

should be signed in full. It is difficult to determine the spelling of

unfamiliar proper names if they are carelessly written. It is therefore

important in writing to strangers that the signature should be made

plainly legible in order that they may know how to address the writer in

their reply. A lady should make it plain whether she is to be addressed as

_Miss_ or _Mrs._ This can be done either by placing the title _Miss_ or

_Mrs._ in parentheses before the name, or by writing the whole address

below and to the left of the signature. Boys and men may often avoid

confusion by signing their first name instead of using only initials.

Notice the following examples of the complimentary close and signature:--

(1)

______________________________________________________

| |

| Appleton, Wisconsin. |

| Sept. 3, 1905. |

| |

| My dear Cousin, |

| |

| |

| (Body of letter.) |

| |

| |

| Yours with love, |

| Gertrude Edmonds. |

| |

(2)

______________________________________________________

| |

| 192 Lincoln Ave., |

| Worcester, Mass. |

| Nov. 25, 1905. |

| |

| L.B. Bliss & Co., |

| 109 Summer St., |

| Boston, Mass. |

| |

| |

| Dear Sirs; |

| |

| (Body of letter.) |

| |

| |

| |

| Very truly yours, |

| Walter A. Cutler. |

| |

(3)

______________________________________________________

| |

| Paxton, Ill. |

| July 3, 1905. |

| |

| American Typewriter Co., |

| 263 Broadway, New York. |

| |

| |

| Gentlemen: |

| |

| |

| (Body of letter.) |

| |

| |

| |

| Very truly yours, |

| (Miss) Jennie R. McAllister. |

| |

(4)

______________________________________________________

| |

| May 5, 1905. |

| |

| Daniel Low & Co., |

| 232 Essex St., Salem, Mass. |

| |

| |

| Dear Sirs; |

| |

| |

| (Body of letter.) |

| |

| |

| |

| Mary E. Ball |

| |

| Mrs. George W. Ball, |

| 415 Fourth St., |

| La Salle, Ill. |

| |

(5)

______________________________________________________

| |

| Marshalltown, Iowa. |

| Oct. 3, 1905. |

| |

| My dear Miss Meyer, |

| |

| |

| (Body of letter.) |

| |

| |

| Sincerely yours, |

| Dorothy Doddridge. |

| |

EXERCISE

Write suitable headings, salutations, complimentary endings, and

signatures for the following letters:--

1. To Spaulding & Co., Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill., ordering their rules

for basket ball.

2. To your older brother.

3. To the school board, asking for a gymnasium.

4. To some business house, making application for a position.

5. To the governor of your state.

6. From one stranger to another.

7. From an older brother to his little sister.

8. From a boy living in New Orleans to the father of his most intimate

friend.

+99. The Envelope.+--The direction on the envelope, commonly called the

superscription, consists of the name and address of the person or persons

to whom the letter is sent. This direction should be written in a careful

and _courteous manner_, and should include all that is necessary to insure

the prompt delivery of the letter to the proper destination.

The superscription may be arranged in three or four lines, each line

beginning a little to the right of the preceding line. The name should be

written about midway between the upper and lower edges of the envelope,

and there should be nearly an equal amount of space left at each side. If

there is any difference, there should be less space at the right than at

the left. The street and number may be written below the name, and the

city or town and state below. The street and number may be properly

written in the lower left-hand corner. This is also the place for any

special direction that may be necessary for the speedy transmission of the

letter; for example, "In care of Mr. Charles R. Brown."

Women should be addressed as _Miss_ or _Mrs._ In case the woman is

married, her husband's first name and middle initial are commonly used,

unless it is known that she prefers to have her own first name used. Men

should be addressed as _Mr._, and a firm may in many cases be addressed as

_Messrs._ It is considered proper to use the titles _Dr._, _Rev._, etc.,

in directing an envelope to a man bearing such a title, but it would be

entirely out of place to address the wife of a physician or clergyman as

_Mrs. Dr._ or _Mrs. Rev._

The names of states may be abbreviated, but care should be taken that

these abbreviations be plainly written, especially when there are other

similar abbreviations. In compound names, as North Dakota and West

Virginia, do not abbreviate one part of the compound and write out the

other. Either abbreviate both or write out both. If any punctuation

besides the period after abbreviations is used, it consists of a comma

after each line. It is the custom now to omit such punctuation. Either

form is in good taste, but whichever form is adopted, it should be

employed throughout the entire superscription. The comma should not be

used in one line and omitted in another.

Notice the following forms of correct superscriptions:--

(1)

______________________________________________________

|

|

|

|

| Mr. Milo R. Maltbie

| 85 West 118th St.

| New York.

|______________________________________________________

(2)

______________________________________________________

|

|

|

|

| Mr. John D. Clark

| New York

| N.Y.

|

| Teachers College

| Columbia University.

|______________________________________________________

(3)

______________________________________________________

|

|

|

|

| Mrs. Edgar N. Foster

| South Haven

| Mich.

|

| Avery Beach Hotel.

| ______________________________________________________

(4)

______________________________________________________

|

|

|

|

| Miss Louise M. Baker

| Nottingham

| Ohio.

|

| Box 129.

|______________________________________________________

(5)

______________________________________________________

|

|

|

|

| Dr. James M. Postle

| De Kalb

| Ill.

|

|______________________________________________________

(6)

______________________________________________________

|

|

|

|

| Miss Ida Morrison

| Chicago

| Ill.

|

|

| 1048 Warren Ave.

|______________________________________________________

EXERCISE

Write proper superscriptions to letters written to the following:--

1. Thaddeus Bolton, living at 524 Q Street, Lincoln, Nebraska.

2. The wife of a physician of your acquaintance.

3. James B. Angell, President of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,

Michigan.

4. Your mother, visiting some relative or friend.

5. The publishers Allyn and Bacon, 878 Wabash Avenue, Chicago, Ill.

6. Edward Harrington, living at 1962 Seventh Avenue, New York.

7. To a friend at a seaside resort.

8. To a friend visiting your uncle in Oakland, California.

+100. The Great Rule of Letter Writing.+--The great rule of letter writing

is, Never write a letter which you would not be willing to see in print

over your own signature. That which you _say_ in anger may be discourteous

and of little credit to you, but it may in time be forgotten; that which

you _write_, however, may be in existence an untold number of years.

Thousands of letters are now on exhibition whose authors never had such a

use of them in mind. If you ever feel like writing at the end of a letter,

"Burn this as soon as you read it," do not send it, but burn the letter

yourself. Before you sign your name to any letter read it over and ask

yourself, "Is this letter in form and contents one which would do me

credit if it should be published?"

+101. Business Letters.+--Since the purpose of business letters is to

inform, they should, first of all, be characterized by clearness. In

asking for information, be sure that you state your questions so that

there shall be no doubt in the mind of the recipient concerning the

information that you desire. In giving information, be equally sure to

state facts so clearly that there can be no possibility of a mistake.

Brevity is the soul of business letters as well as of wit. Business men

are busy men. They have no time to waste in reading long letters, but wish

to gain their information quickly. Hence we should aim to state the

desired facts in as concise a manner as possible, and we should give only

pertinent facts. Short explanations may sometimes be necessary, but

nothing foreign to the subject-matter should ever be introduced. While we

should aim to make our letters short, they should not be so brief as to

appear abrupt and discourteous. It shows lack of courtesy to omit

important words or to make too frequent use of abbreviations.

We should answer a business letter as soon as possible. This answer,

besides giving the desired information, should include a reference to the

letter received and an acknowledgment of inclosures, if there were any.

All questions should receive courteous replies. The facts should be

arranged in a form that will be convenient for the recipient. As a rule it

is best to follow the order which the writer has used in his letter, but

in some cases we may be able to state our facts more definitely and

concisely if we follow some other order.

What has been said in general about attention to forms in letter writing

might well be emphasized here, for business men are keen critics

concerning letters received. Be careful to use the correct forms already

suggested. Also pay attention to punctuation, spelling, and grammar. Write

only on one side of the paper and fold the letter correctly. In fact, be

businesslike in everything connected with the writing of business letters.

A few examples are here given for your notice:--

(1)

______________________________________________________

| |

| Ypsilanti, Mich. |

| April 4, 1905. |

| |

| Mr. William Wylie, |

| 807 Linn St., Peoria, Ill. |

| |

| Dear Mr. Wylie; |

| Inclosed is a letter from Superintendent Rogers |

| of Rockford, Ill. The position of teacher of |

| mathematics is vacant. The salary may not be so |

| much as you now receive, but in many respects the |

| position is a desirable one. I advise you to apply |

| for it. |

| Sincerely yours, |

| Charles M. Gates. |

| |

(2)

______________________________________________________

| |

| 586 State St., |

| Chicago, Ill. |

| July 20,1905. |

| |

| Mrs. Charles H. McNett, |

| 2345 Franklin St., |

| Denver, Colorado. |

| |

| Dear Madam:--Your card of July 9th is at hand. We |

| beg to say that we sent you the books by express, |

| prepaid, July 9th, and they have probably reached |

| you by this time. If you have not received them, |

| please notify us, and we will send a tracer after |

| them. |

| Very truly yours, |

| Brown and Sherman. |

| |

| |

(3)

______________________________________________________

| |

| Elgin High School, |

| Elgin, Ill. |

| Sept. 4, 1905. |

| |

| |

| Miss Ella B. Walker, |

| Herkimer, New York. |

| |

| My dear Miss Walker: |

| I am very sorry to have to trouble you, |

| but I am desirous of obtaining some information |

| concerning the High School Library. Will you kindly |

| let me know whether the card catalogue was kept up |

| to date prior to your departure and also whether the |

| accession book was in use up to that time? |

| I shall be greatly indebted to you if you will |

| give me this information. |

| Very sincerely yours, |

| Edward J. Taylor. |

| |

EXERCISE

Write at least three of the following suggested letters, paying attention

to the rules for writing business letters:--

1. Write to a dry goods firm, asking them to send you one of their

catalogues.

2. Write to the manager of a football team of some town near yours,

proposing a game.

3. Write the reply.

4. In reply to an advertisement, write an application for the position of

clerk or bookkeeper.

5. Write to the publishers of some magazine, asking them to change your

address from 27 K Street, Toledo, Ohio, to 2011 Prospect Avenue,

Beatrice, Nebraska.

6. Suppose yourself doing postgraduate work in your high school. Write to

the president of some college, asking him concerning advanced credit.

+102. Letters of Friendship.+--While a great deal of information may be

obtained from some letters of friendship, the real purpose of such letters

is, usually, not to give information, but to entertain. You will notice

that the information derived from letters of friendship differs from that

found in business letters. Its nature is such that of itself it gives

pleasure. Our letters to our relatives, friends, and acquaintances are but

visits on paper, and it should be our purpose to make these visits as

enjoyable as possible.

So much depends upon the circumstances attendant upon the writing of

letters of friendship, that it is impossible to make any definite

statement as to what they should contain. We may say in general that they

should contain matter interesting to the recipient, and that they should

be characterized by vividness and naturalness. Interesting material is a

requisite, but that of itself is not sufficient to make an entertaining

letter. Interesting material may be presented in so unattractive and

lifeless a manner that much of its power to please is lost. Let your

letters be full of life and spirit. In your descriptions, narrations, and

explanations, express yourself so clearly and so vividly that those who

read your letters will be able to understand exactly what you mean.

EXERCISES

1. Write a letter to a classmate who has moved to another town, telling

him of the school of which he was once a member.

2. Write to a friend, describing your visit to the World's Fair at St.

Louis.

3. Suppose yourself away from home. Write a letter to your little brother

or sister at home.

4. If you have ever been abroad, describe in a letter some place of

interest that you have visited.

5. Write to a friend who is fond of camping, about your camping

experience.

6. Suppose your mother is away from home on a visit. Write her about the

home life.

7. Write to a friend, describing a party that you recently attended.

8. Suppose you have moved from one town to another. In a letter compare

the two towns.

+103. Adaptation to the Reader.+--The golden rule of letter writing is,

Adapt the letter to the reader. Although the letter is an expression of

yourself, yet it should be that kind of expression which shall most

interest and please your correspondent. In business letters the necessity

of brevity and clearness forces attention to the selection and arrangement

of details. In letters to members of the family or to intimate friends

we must include many very minor things, because we know that our

correspondent will be interested in them, but a rambling, disjointed

jumble of poorly selected and ill-arranged details becomes tedious. What

we should mention is determined by the interests of the readers, and the

successful letter writer will endeavor to know what they wish to have

mentioned. In writing letters to our friends we ought to show that

sympathetic interest in them and their affairs which we should have if we

were visiting with them. On occasion, our congratulations should be prompt

and sincere.

In reading letters we must not be hasty to take offense. Many good

friendships have been broken because some statement in a letter was

misconstrued. The written words convey a meaning very different from that

which would have been given by the spoken word, the tone of voice, the

smile, and the personal presence. So in our writing we must avoid

all that which even borders on complaint, or which may seem critical or

fault-finding to the most sensitive.

+104. Notes.+--Notes may be divided in a general way into two classes,

formal and informal. Formal notes include formal invitations, replies,

requests, and announcements. Informal notes include informal invitations

and replies, and also other short communications of a personal nature on

almost every possible subject.

+105. Formal Notes.+--A formal invitation is always written in the third

person. The lines may be of the same length, or they may be so arranged

that the lines shall be of different lengths, thus giving the page a

somewhat more pleasing appearance. The heading, salutation, complimentary

close, and signature are all omitted. The address of the sender may be

written below the body of the letter. Many prefer it a little to the left,

and the date is sometimes written below it. Others, however, prefer it

directly below or a little to the right.

Replies to formal invitations should always be written in the third

person, and should in general follow the style of the invitation. The date

and the hour of the invitation should be repeated in the reply, and this

reply should be sent immediately after receiving the invitation.

A few examples are here given to show the correct forms of both

invitations and replies:--

(1)

______________________________________________________

| |

| Mr. and Mrs. Frederick William Thompson |

| request the pleasure of your company |

| on Monday evening, December thirtieth, |

| at half-past eight o'clock. |

| |

(2)

______________________________________________________

| |

| Miss Barrows accepts with pleasure Mr. and |

| Mrs. Thompson's invitation for Monday evening, |

| December thirtieth, at half-past eight o'clock. |

| |

(3)

______________________________________________________

| |

| Mr. Morris regrets that a previous engagement |

| prevents his accepting Mr. and Mrs. Thompson's |

| kind invitation for Monday evening, December |

| the thirtieth. |

| |

(4)

______________________________________________________

| |

| Mr. and Mrs. Albert W. Elliott request the |

| pleasure of Mr. John Barker's company at dinner |

| on Wednesday, December sixth, at seven o'clock. |

| |

| 1068 Euclid Ave. |

| |

(5)

______________________________________________________

| |

| Mr. Barker regrets his inability to accept |

| Mr. and Mrs. Albert W. Elliott's invitation to |

| dinner at seven o'clock, Wednesday, December |

| sixth. |

| |

EXERCISE

1. Write an invitation to a golden wedding.

2. Mrs. Homer A. Payne invites Miss Eva Milton to dine with her next week

Thursday at eight o'clock. Write out a formal invitation.

3. Write regrets to Mrs. Payne's invitation.

4. Write an acceptance of the same invitation.

5. Write a formal invitation to a party to be given in honor of your

guest, Miss Grace Mason.

+106. Informal Notes.+--Informal invitations and replies may contain the

same subject-matter as formal invitations and replies. The only difference

is in the form in which they are written. The informal invitation is in

form similar to a letter except that the same exactness about the heading

is not required. Sometimes the heading is written and sometimes it is

omitted entirely. The address of the one sending the invitation and the

date may be written below the body of the note to the left of the

signature. The reply to an informal invitation should always be informal,

but the date and hour should be repeated as in replies to formal

invitations.

A great many informal notes not included in invitations and replies are

constantly written. These are simply brief letters of friendship, and the

purposes for which they are written are exceedingly varied. When we write

congratulations or words of condolence, when we introduce one friend to

another, when we thank some one for a gift, and when we give words of

advice, and in many other instances, we make use of informal notes. They

should be simple, personal, and as a rule confined to but one subject.

Notice the following examples of informal notes:--

(1)

_________________________________________________________________

| |

| My dear Mrs. Lathrop, |

| |

| Will you not give us the pleasure of your company |

| at dinner, on next Friday evening at seven o'clock? Miss Todd |

| of Philadelphia is visiting us, and we wish our friends to meet |

| her. |

| |

| Very sincerely yours, |

| Ethel M. Trainor. |

| 840 Forest Avenue, |

| Dec. 5, 1905. |

| |

(2)

_________________________________________________________________

| |

| Dec. 6, 1905. |

| |

| My dear Mrs. Trainor, |

| |

| I sincerely regret that I cannot accept your invitation |

| to dinner next Friday evening, for I have made a previous |

| engagement which it will be impossible for me to break. |

| |

| Yours most sincerely, |

| Emma Lathrop. |

| |

(3)

_________________________________________________________________

| |

| My dear Blanche, |

| |

| Mr. Gilmore and I are planning for a little party |

| Thursday evening of this week. I hope you have no other |

| engagement for that evening, as we shall be pleased to have |

| you with us. |

| Very cordially yours, |

| Margaret Gilmore. |

| |

(4)

______________________________________________________________

| |

| My dear Margaret, |

| |

| Fortunately I have no other engagement for this |

| week Thursday evening, and I shall be delighted to spend an |

| evening with you and your friends. |

| |

| Very sincerely yours, |

| Blanche A. Church. |

| |

EXERCISE

Write the following informal notes:--

1. Write to a friend, asking him or her to lend you a book.

2. Write an invitation to an informal trolley, tennis, or golf party.

3. Write the reply.

4. Invite one of your friends to spend his or her vacation with you.

5. Write a note to your sister, asking her to send you your theme that you

left at home this morning.

6. Mrs. Edgar A. Snow invites Miss Mabel Minard to dine with her. Write

out the invitation.

7. Write the acceptance.

VII. POETRY

[Footnote: _To the Teacher._--Since the expression of ideas in metrical

form is seldom the one best suited to the conditions of modern life, it

has not seemed desirable to continue the themes throughout this chapter.

The study of this chapter, with suitable illustrations from the poems to

which the pupils have access, may serve to aid them in their appreciation

of poetry. This appreciation of poetry will be increased if the pupils

attempt some constructive work. It is recommended, therefore, that one or

more of the simpler kinds of metrical composition be tried. For example,

one or two good ballads may be read and the pupils asked to write similar

ones. Some pupils may be able to write blank verse.]

+107. Purpose of Poetry.+--All writing aims to give information or to

furnish entertainment (Section 54). Often the same theme may both inform

and entertain, though one of these purposes may be more prominent than the

other. Prose may merely entertain, or it may so distinctly attempt to set

forth ideas clearly that the giving of pleasure is entirely neglected. In

poetry the entertainment side is never thus subordinated. Poetry always

aims to please by the presentation of that which is beautiful. All real

poetry produces an aesthetic effect by appealing to our aesthetic sense;

that is, to our love of the beautiful.

In making this appeal to our love of the beautiful, poetry depends both

upon the ideas it contains and upon the forms it uses. Like prose, it

may increase its aesthetic effect by appropriate phrasing, effective

arrangement, and subtle suggestiveness, but it also makes use of certain

devices of language such as rhythm, rhyme, etc., which, though they may

occur in writings that would be classed as prose, are characteristic of

poetry. Much depends upon the ideas that poetry contains; for mere

nonsense, though in perfect rhyme and rhythm, is not poetry. But it is not

the idea alone which makes a poem beautiful; it is the form as well. The

merely trivial cannot be made beautiful by giving it poetical form, but

there are many poems containing ideas of small importance which please us

because of the perfection of form. We enjoy them as we do the singing of

the birds or the murmuring of the brooks. In fact, poetry is inseparable

from its characteristic forms. To sort out, re-arrange, and paraphrase

into second-class prose the ideas which a poem contains is a profitless

and harmful exercise, because it emphasizes the intellectual side of a

work which was created for the purpose of appealing to our aesthetic

sense.

+108. Rhythm.+--There are several forms characteristic of poetry, by the

use of which its beauty and effectiveness are enhanced. Of these, rhythm

is the most prominent one, without which no poetry is possible. In its

widest sense, rhythm indicates a regular succession of motions, impulses,

sounds, accents, etc., producing an agreeable effect. Rhythm in poetry

consists of the recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables in regular

succession. In poetry, care must be taken to make the accented syllable of

a word come at the place where the rhythm demands an accent. The regular

recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables produces a harmony which

appeals to our aesthetic sense and thus enhances for us the beauty of

poetry. Read the following selections so as to show the rhythm:--

1.

We were crowded in the cabin;

Not a soul would dare to speak;

It was midnight on the waters

And a storm was on the deep.

--James T. Fields.

2.

Break, break, break,

At the foot of thy crags, O sea!

But the tender grace of a day that is dead

Will never come back to me.

--Tennyson.

3.

Ah, distinctly I remember, it was in the bleak December,

And each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the floor

--Poe.

4.

Sweet and low, sweet and low,

Wind of the western sea,

Low, low, breathe and blow,

Wind of the western sea!

Over the rolling waters go,

Come from the dying moon and blow,

Blow him again to me;

While my little one, while my pretty one sleeps.

--Tennyson.

5.

Stone walls do not a prison make,

Nor iron bars a cage;

Minds innocent and quiet take

That for a hermitage.

--Lovelace.

6.

Merrily swinging on brier and weed,

Near to the nest of his little dame,

Over the mountain side or mead,

Robert of Lincoln is telling his name:

Bob-o'-link, bob-o'-link,

Spink, spank, spink,

Snug and safe is this nest of ours,

Hidden among the summer flowers.

Chee, chee, chee.

--Bryant.

7.

Grow old along with me!

The best is yet to be,

The last of life, for which the first was made:

Our times are in His hand

Who saith, "A whole I planned,

Youth shows but half; trust God: see all, nor be afraid!"

--Browning.

+109. Feet.+--The metrical effect of the preceding selections is produced

by the regular recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables. A group of

accented and unaccented syllables is called a foot. There are four regular

feet in English verse, the iambus, the anapest, the trochee, and the

dactyl. Three irregular feet, the pyrrhic, the spondee, the amphibrach,

are occasionally found in lines, but not in entire poems, and are often

considered merely as substitutes for regular feet. For the sake of

convenience the accented syllables are indicated thus: _, and the

unaccented syllables thus: U.

_An iambus_ is a foot consisting of two syllables with the accent on the

last.

U _| U _| U _| U _| U _|

Let not ambition mock their useful toil.

--Gray.

U _|U _| U _|U _|

He prayeth best who loveth best

U _| U _| U _|

All things both great and small;

_ U | U _| U _|U _|

For the dear God who loveth us,

U _| U _|U _|

He made and loveth all.

--Coleridge.

_An anapest_ is a foot consisting of three syllables with the accent on

the last.

U U _| U U _|U U _|

I am monarch of all I survey.

U U _ | U U _ | U U _ |

I would hide with the beasts of the chase.

_A trochee_ is a foot consisting of two syllables with the accent on the

first.

_ U | _ U | _ U | _ U|

Double, double, toil and trouble.

--Shakespeare.

_ U | _ U |_ U |_ U |

Let us then be up and doing,

_ U| _ U | _U | _ |

With a heart for any fate,

_ U |_ U | _ U|_ U |

Still achieving, still pursuing,

_ U | _ U |_ U | _ |

Learn to labor and to wait.

--Longfellow.

_A dactyl_ is a foot consisting of three syllables with the accent on the

first.

_ U U | _ U U |

Cannon to right of them,

_ U U | _ U U |

Cannon to left of them,

_ U U | _ U U |

Cannon in front of them,

_ U U |_ U |

Volleyed and thundered.

--Tennyson.

It will be convenient to remember that two of these, the iambus and the

anapest, have the accent on the last syllable, and that two, the trochee

and the dactyl, have the accent on the first syllable.

_A spondee_ is a foot consisting of two syllables, both of which are

accented about equally. It is an unusual foot in English poetry.

U _ | _ _ | U _| U _ |

Come now, blow, Wind, and waft us o'er.

_A pyrrhic_ is a foot consisting of two syllables both of which are

unaccented. It is frequently found at the end of a line.

U _ | U _ | U _|U U

Life is so full of misery.

_An amphibrach_ is a foot consisting of three syllables, with

the accent on the second.

U _ U U _ U| U _ U| U _ |

Creator, Preserver, Redeemer and friend.

+110. Names of Verse.+--A single line of poetry is called a verse. A

stanza is composed of several verses. When a verse consists of one foot,

it is called a monometer; of two feet, a dimeter; of three feet, a

trimeter; of four feet, a tetrameter; of five feet, a pentameter; and of

six feet, a hexameter.

_ U

Monometer. Slowly.

_ U U| _ U U |

Dimeter. Emblem of happiness.

_ U| _U| _ U |

Trimeter. Like a poet hidden.

_ U| _ U| _ U | _ U |

Tetrameter. Tell me not in mournful numbers.

U _ |U _ |U _| U _ | U _ |

Pentameter. O, what a goodly outside falsehood hath.

_ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U

Hexameter. This is the forest primeval; the murmuring pines and

U | _ U |

the hemlocks.

When we say that a verse is of any particular kind, we do not mean that

every foot in that line is necessarily of the same kind. Verse is named by

stating first the prevailing foot which composes it, and second the number

of feet in a line. A verse having four iambic feet is called iambic

tetrameter. So we have dactylic hexameter, trochaic pentameter, iambic

trimeter, anapestic dimeter, etc.

EXERCISES

_A._ Mark the accented and unaccented syllables in the following

selections, and name the kind of verse:--

1.

Build me straight, O worthy Master!

Stanch and strong, a goodly vessel

That shall laugh at all disaster

And with wave and whirlwind wrestle.

--Longfellow.

2.

I know not where His islands lift

Their fronded palms in air,

I only know I cannot drift

Beyond His love and care.

--Whittier.

3.

For tho' from out our bourne of Time and Place

The flood may bear me far,

I hope to see my Pilot face to face

When I have crossed the bar.

--Tennyson.

4.

Chanting of labor and craft, and of Wealth in the pot and the

garner;

Chanting of valor and fame, and the man who can, fall with the

foremost,

Fighting for children and wife, and the field which his father

bequeathed him,

Sweetly and solemnly sang she, and planned new lessons for

mortals.

--Kingsley.

5.

Have you read in the Talmud of old,

In the Legends the Rabbins have told,

Of the limitless realms of the air,

Have you read it,--the marvelous story

Of Sandalphon, the Angel of Glory,

Of Sandalphon, the Angel of Prayer?

--Longfellow.

_B._ 1. Find three poems written in iambic verse, and three written in

trochaic verse.

2. Write at least one stanza, using iambic verse.

3. Write at least one stanza, using the same kind of verse that you find

in Tennyson's "Charge of the Light Brigade."

4. Write two anapestic lines.

+111. Variation in Rhythm.+--The name given to a verse is determined by

the foot which prevails, but not every foot in the line needs to be of the

same kind. Just as in music we may substitute a quarter for two eighth

notes, so may we in poetry substitute one foot for another, provided it is

given the same amount of time.

Notice in the following that the rhythm is perfect and the beat regular,

although a three-syllable anapest has been substituted in the second line

for a two-syllable iambus:--

U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ |

Beneath those rugged elms, that yew tree's shade,

U _ | U _ | U _| U U _ | U _ |

Where heaves the turf in many a moldring heap,

_ U | U _ | U _ | U _ |U _ |

Each in his narrow cell for ever laid,

U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ |

The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep.

The following from _Evangeline_ illustrates the substitution of trochees

for dactyls:--

_ U U | _ U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U |

Waste are those pleasant farms, and the farmers forever departed.

_ U U | _ U | _ U U | _ U | _ U U|_ U

Scattered like dust and leaves, when the mighty blasts of October

_ U U | _ U U |_ U | _ U U | _ U U |_ U |

Seize them and whirl them aloft, and sprinkle them far o'er the ocean.

_ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U

Naught but tradition remains of the beautiful village of Grand-Pre.

It is evident that one foot can be substituted for another if the accent

is not changed. Since both the iambus and the anapest are accented on the

last syllable, they may be interchanged. The trochee and the dactyl are

both accented on the first syllable and may, therefore, be interchanged.

There are some exceptions to the general rule that in substituting one

foot for another the accented syllable must be kept in the same part of

the foot. Occasionally a poem in which the prevailing foot is iambic has a

trochee for the first foot of a line in order that it may begin with an

accented syllable. At the beginning of a line the change of accent is

scarcely noticeable.

_ U | U _ | U _ |U _ |

Over the rail my hand I trail.

_ U | U _ | U _ | U _ |

Silent the crumbling bridge we cross!

But if the reader has once fallen into the swing of iambic verse, the

substitution of a trochee will bring the accent at an unexpected place,

interrupt the smooth flow of the rhythm, and produce a harsh and jarring

effect. Such a change of accent is justified only when the sense of the

verse leads the reader to expect the changed accent, or when the emphasis

thus given to the sense of the poem more than compensates for the break in

the rhythm produced by the change of accent.

Another form of metrical variation is that in which there are too few or

too many syllables in a foot. This generally occurs at the end of a line,

but may occur at the beginning. If a syllable is added or omitted

skillfully, the rhythm will be unbroken.

When the feet are accented on the last syllable,--that is, when the verse

is iambic or anapestic,--an extra syllable may be added at the end of a

line.

U _ |U U _ |U _ | U

I stood on the bridge at midnight,

U U _ | U _ |U U _ |

As the clocks were striking the hour;

U U _ | U _ | U _|U

And the Moon rose o'er the city,

U _ | U _ | U _ |

Behind the dark church tower.

--Longfellow.

U _ | U _ |U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ |

Girt round with rugged moun[tains], the fair Lake Constance lies,

U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ |U _ |

In her blue heart reflect[ed] shine back the starry skies;

U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ |U _ | U _ |

And watching each white cloud[let] float silently and slow,

U _ | U _ | U _ | U _| U _ | U _|

You think a piece of heav[en] lies on our earth below.

--Adelaide A. Procter.

In the second illustration the extra syllables have the same relative

position in the metrical scheme as in the first, though they appear to be

in the middle of the line. The pauses fill in the time and preserve the

rhythm unbroken.

When the feet are accented on the first syllable--as in trochaic or

dactylic verse--a syllable may be omitted from the end of a line as in the

second and fourth below.

_ U U | _ U U | _ U U| _ U |

Up with the lark in the first flush of morning,

_ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ |

Ere the world wakes to its work or its play;

_ U U| _ U U | _ U U | _ U |

Off for a spin to the wide-stretching country,

_ U U | _ U U | _ U U|_ |

Far from the close, stifling city away.

Sometimes we find it necessary to suppress a syllable in order to make the

rhythm more nearly perfect. Syllables may be suppressed in two ways: by

suppressing a vowel at the end of a word when the next word commences with

a vowel; by suppressing a vowel within a word. The former method is termed

elision, and the latter, slurring.

U _ | U _ |U _ | U _ | U _ |

Thou glorious mirror where the Almighty's form

U U

_ U |U _| U _ | U

Glasses itself in tempests.

--Byron.

An accented syllable often takes the place of an entire foot. This occurs

most frequently at the end of a line, but it is sometimes found at the

beginning. Occasionally whole lines are formed in this way. If a pause or

rest is made, the rhythm will be unbroken.

u _ | u _ | u _ |

Break, break, break,

U U _ | U _ | U _ |

On thy cold gray stones, O sea!

U U _ | U U _ | U _|U

And I would that my tongue could utter

U _ | U U _ |U _|

The thoughts that arise in me.

--Tennyson.

We frequently find verses in which a syllable is lacking at the close of

the line; we also find many verses in which an extra syllable is added.

Verse that contains the number of syllables required by its meter is said

to be acatalectic; if it contains more than the required number of

syllables, it is said to be hypercatalectic; and if it lacks a syllable,

it is termed catalectic. It is difficult to tell whether a line has the

required number of syllables or not when it is taken by itself; but by

comparing it with the line prevailing in the rest of the stanza we are

enabled to tell whether it is complete or not. Shakespeare's _Julius

Caesar_ is written in iambic pentameter verse. Knowing this, we can detect

the hypercatalectic and catalectic lines.

U _| U _ | U _| U _| U _ |

You all did see that on the Lupercal

U _ | U _| U _ |U _| U _|

I thrice presented him a kingly crown

U _| U _ |U _ | U _ | U _| U

Which he did thrice refuse. Was this ambition?

U _| U _ | U _ | U _ | U

Yet Brutus says he was ambitious.

--Shakespeare.

+112. Cesura.+--Besides the pauses caused by rests or silences there is

the cesural pause which needs to be considered in reading verse. A cesura

is a pause determined by the sense. It coincides with some break in the

sense. It is found in different parts of the verse and may be entirely

lacking. Its observance does not noticeably interfere with the rhythm. In

the following selection it is marked thus: ||.

U _ | U _ | U _| U _ |

The sun came up || upon the left,

_ U| U _ | U _ |

Out of the sea || came he;

U _| U _ | U _| U _|

And he shone bright, || and on the right

U _ | U_ | U _ |

Went down || into the sea

--Coleridge.

Lives of great men || all remind us

We can make our lives || sublime,

And, departing, || leave behind us,

Footprints || on the sands of time.

--Longfellow.

Read the selections on page 197 so as to indicate the position of the

cesural pauses.

+113. Scansion.+--Scansion is the separation of a line into the feet which

compose it. In order to scan a line we must determine the rhythmic

movement of it. The rhythmic movement determines the accented syllables.

Sometimes in scanning, merely the accented syllables are marked. Usually

the whole metrical scheme is indicated, as in the examples on page 199.

EXERCISE

Scan the following selections. Note substitutions and

elusions.

1.

The night has a thousand eyes,

And the day but one;

Yet the light of the bright world dies

With the dying sun.

The mind has a thousand eyes,

And the heart but one;

Yet the light of a whole life dies

When love is gone.

--Francis W. Bourdillon.

2.

Laugh, and the world laughs with you,

Weep, and you weep alone;

For the sad old earth must borrow its mirth,

But has trouble enough of its own.

--Ella Wheeler Wilcox.

3.

Hear the robin in the rain,

Not a note does he complain.

But he fills the storm refrain

With music of his own.

--Charles Coke Woode.

4.

The mistletoe hung in the castle hall,

The holly branch shone on the old back wall

And the baron's retainers are blithe and gay,

And keeping their Christmas holiday.

--Thomas Haynes Bagley.

+114. Rhyme.+--Rhyme is a regular recurrence of similar sounds. In a broad

sense, it may include sounds either terminal or not, but as here used it

refers to terminal sounds.

Just as we expect a recurrence of accent in a line, so may we expect a

recurrence of similar sounds at the end of certain lines of poetry. The

interval between the rhymes may be of different lengths in different

poems, but when the interval is once established, it should be followed

throughout the poem. A rhyme out of place jars upon the rhythmic

perfection of a stanza just as an accent out of place interferes with the

rhythm of the verse.

Not only should the rhymes occur at expected places, but they should be

the expected rhymes; that is, real rhymes. If we are expecting a word

which will rhyme with _blossom_ and find _bosom_, or if we are expecting a

rhyme for _breath_ and find _beneath_, the effect is unpleasant. The

rhymes named above are based on spelling, while a real rhyme is based on

sound. A correct rhyme should have precisely the same vowel sounds and the

final consonants should be the same, but the initial consonant should be

different. For example: _death, breath; home, roam; tongue, young;

debating, relating_.

Notice the arrangement of the rhymes in the following selections:--

1.

My soul to-day is far away,

Sailing the Vesuvian Bay;

My winged boat, a bird afloat,

Swims round the purple peaks remote.

--T. Buchanan Read.

2.

I come from haunts of coot and hern,

I make a sudden sally,

And sparkle out among the fern,

To bicker down the valley.

By thirty hills I hurry down,

Or slip between the ridges,

By twenty thorps, a little town,

And half a hundred bridges.

--Tennyson.

3.

I know it is a sin

For me to sit and grin

At him here;

But the old three-cornered hat

And the breeches, and all that,

Are so queer!

--Holmes.

4.

The splendor falls on castle walls

And snowy summits old in story;

The long light shakes across the lakes

And the wild cataract leaps in glory.

Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying;

Blow, bugle; answer, echoes, dying, dying, dying.

--Tennyson.

5.

Breathes there a man with soul so dead

Who never to himself hath said,

This is my own, my native land!

Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned

As home his footsteps he hath turned

From wandering in a foreign strand!

If such there be, go mark him well:

For him no minstrel raptures swell;

High though his titles, proud his name,

Boundless his wealth as wish can claim:

Despite those titles, power, and pelf,

The wretch concentered all in self,

Living, shall forfeit fair renown

And, doubly dying, shall go down

To the vile dust from whence he sprung,

Unwept, unhonored, and unsung.

--Scott.

+115. Blank Verse.+--When rhyme is omitted, we have blank verse. This is

the most dignified of all kinds of verse, and is, therefore, appropriate

for epic and dramatic poetry, where it is chiefly found. Most blank verse

makes use of the iambic pentameter measure, but we find many exceptions.

Read the following examples of blank verse so as to show the rhythm:--

1.

So live, that when thy summons comes to join

The innumerable caravan that moves

To the pale realms of shade, where each shall take

His chamber in the silent halls of death,

Thou go not like the quarry slave at night

Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed

By an unfaltering trust, approach the grave

Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch

About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams.

--Bryant.

2.

I stood upon the steps--

The last who left the door--and there I found

The lady and her friend. The elder turned

And with a cordial greeting took my hand,

And rallied me on my forgetfulness.

Her eyes, her smile, her manner, and her voice.

Touched the quick springs of memory, and I spoke

Her name. She was my mother's early friend

Whose face I had not seen in all the years

That had flown over us, since, from her door,

I chased her lamb to where I found--myself.

--Holland.

+116. The Stanza.+--Some of our verse is continuous like Milton's

_Paradise Lost_ or Shakespeare's plays, but much of it is divided into

groups called stanzas. The lines or verses composing a stanza are bound

together by definite principles of rhythm and rhyme. Usually stanzas of

the same poem have the same structure, but stanzas of different poems show

a variety of structure.

Two of the most simple forms are the couplet and the triplet. They often

form a part of a continuous poem, but they are occasionally found in

divided poems.

1.

The western waves of ebbing day

Roll'd o'er the glen their level way.

--Scott.

2.

A chieftain's daughter seemed the maid;

Her satin snood, her silken plaid,

Her golden brooch such birth betray'd.

--Scott.

A stanza of four lines is called a quatrain. The lines of quatrains show a

variety in the arrangement of their rhymes. The first two lines may rhyme

with each other and the last two with each other; the first and fourth may

rhyme and the second and third; or the rhymes may alternate. Notice the

example on page 208, and also the following:--

1.

I ask not wealth, but power to take

And use the things I have aright.

Not years, but wisdom that shall make

My life a profit and delight.

--Phoebe Cary.

2.

I count this thing to be grandly true:

That a noble deed is a step toward God,--

Lifting the soul from the common sod

To a purer air and a broader view.

--Holland.

A quatrain consisting of iambic pentameter verse with alternate rhymes is

called an elegiac stanza.

Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight,

And all the air a solemn stillness holds,

Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight,

And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds.

--Gray.

The Tennysonian stanza consists of four iambic tetrameter lines in which

the first line rhymes with the fourth, and the second with the third.

Let knowledge grow from more to more,

But more of reverence in us dwell;

That mind and soul, according well,

May make one music as before.

--Tennyson.

Five and six line stanzas are found in a great variety. The following are

examples:--

1.

We look before and after,

And pine for what is not;

Our sincerest laughter

With some pain is fraught;

Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought.

--Shelley.

2.

And if I should live to be

The last leaf upon the tree

In the spring.

Let them smile as I do now,

At the old forsaken bough

Where I cling.

--Holmes.

3.

The upper air burst into life;

And a hundred fire flags sheen,

To and fro they were hurried about;

And to and fro, and in and out,

The wan stars danced between.

--Coleridge.

The Spenserian stanza consists of nine lines: the first eight are iambic

pentameters, and the last line is an iambic hexameter or Alexandrine.

Burns makes use of this stanza in _The Cotter's Saturday Night._ The

following stanza from that poem shows the plan of the rhymes:--

O Scotia! my dear, my native soil!

For whom my warmest wish to Heaven is sent!

Long may thy hardy sons of rustic toil

Be blest with health, and peace, and sweet content!

And oh! may Heaven their simple lives prevent

From luxury's contagion, weak and vile!

Then, howe'er crowns and coronets be rent,

A virtuous populace may rise the while,

And stand a wall of fire around their much beloved isle.

EXERCISES

_A._ Scan the following:--

Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting:

The soul that rises with us, our life's star,

Hath had elsewhere its setting,

And cometh from afar:

Not in entire forgetfulness,

And not in utter nakedness,

But trailing clouds of glory do we come

From God, who is our home.

--Wordsworth.

Into the sunshine,

Full of light,

Leaping and flashing

From morn to night!

--Lowell.

_B._ Name each verse in the following stanza:--

Hear the sledges with the bells--

Silver bells!

What a world of merriment their melody foretells!

How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle,

In the icy air of night!

While the stars that oversprinkle

All the heavens seem to twinkle

With a crystalline delight--

Keeping time, time, time,

In a sort of Runic rhyme

To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells

From the bells, bells, bells, bells,

Bells, bells, bells--

From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells.

--Poe.

+117. Kinds of Poetry.+-There are three general classes of poetry:

narrative, lyric, and dramatic.

_A. Narrative poetry_, as may be inferred from its name, relates events

which may be either real or imaginary. Its chief varieties are the epic,

the metrical romance or lesser epic, the tale, and the ballad.

_An epic_ poem is an extended narrative of an elevated character that

deals with heroic exploits which are frequently under supernatural

control. This kind of poetry is characterized by the intricacy of plot, by

the delineation of noble types of character, by its descriptive effects,

by its elevated language, and by its seriousness of tone. The epic is

considered as the highest effort of man's poetic genius. It is so

difficult to produce an epic that but few literatures contain more than

one. Homer's _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, Virgil's _Aeneid_, the German

_Nibelungenlied_, the Spanish _Cid_, Dante's _Divine Comedy_, and Milton's

_Paradise Lost_ are important epics found in different literatures.

A _metrical romance_ or lesser epic is a narrative poem, shorter and less

dignified than the epic. Longfellow's _Evangeline_ and Scott's _Marmion_

and _Lady of the Lake_ are examples of this kind of poetry.

_A metrical tale is_ a narrative poem somewhat simpler and shorter than

the metrical romance, but more complex than the ballad. Longfellow's

_Tales of a Wayside Inn_, Tennyson's _Enoch Arden_, and Lowell's _Vision

of Sir Launfal_ are examples of the tale.

_A ballad_ is the shortest and most simple of all narrative poems. It

relates but a single incident and has a very simple structure. In this

kind of poetry the interest centers upon the incident rather than upon any

beauty or elegance of language. Many of the Robin Hood Ballads are well

known. Macaulay's _Lays of Ancient Rome_ and Longfellow's _Wreck of the

Hesperus_ are other examples of the ballad. It may be well to note here

that it is not always possible to draw definite lines between two

different kinds of narrative poetry. In fact, there will sometimes be a

difference of opinion as regards the classification.

_B. Lyric poetry_ was the name originally applied to poetry that was to be

sung to the accompaniment of the lyre, but now the name is often applied

to poems that are not intended to be sung at all. Lyric poetry deals

primarily with the feelings and emotions. Love, hate, jealousy, grief,

hope, and praise are emotions that may be expressed in lyric poetry. Its

chief varieties are the song, the ode, the elegy, and the sonnet.

A _song_ is a short poem intended to be sung. Songs may be divided into

sacred and secular. _Jerusalem, the Golden_, and _Lead, Kindly Light_, are

examples of sacred songs. Secular songs may be patriotic, convivial, or

sentimental.

An _ode_ expresses exalted emotion and is more complex in structure than

the song. Some of the best odes in our language are Dryden's _Ode to St.

Cecilia_, Wordsworth's _Ode on Intimations of Immortality_, Keats's _Ode

on a Grecian Urn_, Shelley's _Ode to a Skylark_, and Lowell's

_Commemoration Ode_.

An _elegy_ is a lyric pervaded by the feeling of grief or melancholy.

Milton's _Lycidas_, Tennyson's _In Memoriam_, and Gray's _Elegy in a

Country Churchyard_ are all noted elegies.

A _sonnet_ is a lyric poem of fourteen lines which deals with a single

idea or sentiment. It is not a stanza taken from a poem, but is a complete

poem itself. In the Italian sonnet and those modeled after it, the

emotional feeling rises through the first two quatrains, reaching its

climax at or near the end of the eighth line, and then subsides through

the two tercets which make up the remaining six lines. If the sentiment

expressed does not adjust itself to this ebb and flow, it is not suitable

for a sonnet. Milton's sonnet on his blindness is one of the best. Notice

the emotional transition in the middle of the eighth line. This sonnet

will also illustrate the fixed rhyme scheme:--

When I consider how my light is spent

Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide,

And that one talent, which is death to hide,

Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent

To serve therewith my Maker, and present

My true account, lest he, returning, chide;

Doth God exact day labor, light denied?

I fondly ask. But Patience, to prevent

That murmur, soon replies, God doth not need,

Either man's work or his own gifts. Who best

Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His state

Is kingly; thousands at his bidding speed,

And post o'er land and ocean without rest;

They also serve who only stand and wait.

There is a form of sonnet called the Shakespearean which differs in its

arrangement from the Italian sonnet.

_C. Dramatic poetry_ relates the occurrence of human events, and is

designed to be spoken on the stage. If the drama has an unhappy ending, it

is _a tragedy_. As is becoming in such a theme, the language is dignified

and impressive, and the whole appeals to our deeper emotions. If the drama

has a happy conclusion, it is _a comedy_. Here the movement is quicker,

the language less dignified, and the effort is to make the whole light and

amusing.

PART II

Description, Narration, Exposition, and Argument have been treated in an

elementary way in Part I. A more extensive treatment of each is given in

Part II. It has been deemed undesirable to repeat in Part II many things

which have been previously treated. The treatment of any one of the forms

of discourse as given in Part II is not complete. By reference to the

index all the sections treating of any phase of any one subject may be

found.

[Illustration: See page 224, _C._]

VIII. DESCRIPTION

+118. Description Defined.+--By means of our senses we gain a knowledge of

the world. We see, hear, taste, smell, and feel; and the ideas so acquired

are the fundamental elements of our knowledge, without which thinking

would be impossible. It, therefore, happens that much of the language that

we use has for its purpose the transmission to others of such ideas. Such

writing is called description. We may, therefore, define description as

that form of discourse which has for its purpose the formation of an

image.

As here used, the term _image_ applies to any idea presented by the

senses. In a more limited sense it means the mental picture which is

formed by aid of sight. It is for the purpose of presenting images of this

kind that description is most often employed. It is most frequently

concerned with images of objects seen, less frequently with sounds, and

seldom with ideas arising through touch, taste, and smell. In this

chapter, therefore, we shall consider chiefly the methods of using

language for the purpose of arousing images of objects seen.

+119. Order of Observation.+--In description we shall find it of advantage

to use such language that the reader will form the image in the same way

as he would form an image from actual observation. There is a customary

and natural order of observation, and if we present our material in that

same order, the mind more easily forms the desired image. Our first need

in the study of description is to determine what this natural order of

observation is.

Look at the building across the street. Your _first_ impression is that of

size, shape, and color. Almost instantly, but nevertheless _secondly_, you

add certain details as to roof, door, windows, and surroundings. Further

observation adds to the number of details, such as the size of the window

panes or the pattern of the lattice work. Our first glance may assure us

that we see a train, our second will tell us how many cars, our third will

show us that each car is marked Michigan Central. The oftener we look or

the longer we look, the greater is the number of details of which we

become conscious. Any number of illustrations will show that we first see

the general outline, and after that the details. We do not observe the

details one by one and then combine them into an object, but we first see

the object as a whole, and our first impression becomes more vivid as we

add detail after detail.

Following this natural order of observation a description should begin

with a sentence that will give the reader a general impression of the

whole. Notice the beginnings of the following selections. After reading

the italicized sentence in each, consider the image that it has caused you

to form.

The door opened upon the main or living room. _It was a long apartment

with low ceiling and walls of hewn logs chinked and plastered and all

beautifully whitewashed and clean._ The tables, chairs, and benches were

all homemade. On the floor were magnificent skins of wolf, bear, musk ox,

and mountain goat. The walls were decorated with heads and horns of deer

and mountain sheep, eagle's wings, and a beautiful breast of a loon, which

Gwen had shot and of which she was very proud. At one end of the room a

huge stone fireplace stood radiant in its summer decorations of ferns and

grasses and wildflowers. At the other end a door opened into another room,

smaller, and richly furnished with relics of former grandeur.

--Connor: _The Sky Pilot_.

_The stranger was of middle height, loosely knit and thin, with a cunning,

brutal face._ He had a bullet-shaped head, with fine, soft, reddish brown

hair; a round, stubbly beard shot with gray; and small, beady eyes set

close together. He was clothed in an old, black, grotesquely fitting

cutaway coat, with coarse trousers tucked into his boot tops. A worn

visored cloth cap was on his head. In his right hand he carried an old

muzzle-loading shotgun.

--George Kibbe Turner: _Across the State_ ("McClure's").

+120. The Fundamental Image.+--The first impression of the object as a

whole is called the fundamental image. The beginning of a description

should cause the reader to form a correct general outline, which will

include the main characteristics of the object described. While the

fundamental image lacks definiteness and exactness, yet it must be such

that it shall not need to be revised as we add the details. If one should

begin a description by saying, "Opposite the church there is a large

two-story, brick house with a conservatory on the left," the reader would

form at once a mental picture including the essential features of the

house. Further statements about the roof, the windows, the doors, the

porch, the yard, and the fence, would each add something to the picture

until it was complete. The impression with which the reader started would

be added to, but not otherwise changed. But if we should conclude the

description with the statement, "This house was distinguished from its

neighbors by the fact that it was not of the usual rectangular form, but

was octagonal in shape," the reader would find that the image which he

had formed would need to be entirely changed. It is evident that if the

word _octagonal_ is to appear at all, it must be at the beginning. Care

must be taken to place all the words that affect the fundamental image in

the sentence that gives the general characteristics of that which we are

describing.

Hawthorne begins _The House of the Seven Gables_ as follows:--

Halfway down a by-street of one of our New England towns stands a rusty

wooden house, with seven acutely peaked gables, facing towards various

points of the compass, and a huge, clustered chimney in the midst. The

street is Pyncheon street; the house is the old Pyncheon house; and an elm

tree, of wide circumference, rooted before the door, is familiar to every

town-born child by the title of the Pyncheon elm. On my occasional visits

to the town aforesaid, I seldom failed to turn down Pyncheon street, for

the sake of passing through the shadow of these two antiquities,--the

great elm tree and the weather-beaten edifice.

Later he gives a detailed description of the house on the morning of its

completion as follows:--

Maule's lane, or Pyncheon street, as it were now more decorous to call it,

was thronged, at the appointed hour, as with a congregation on its way to

church. All, as they approached, looked upward at the imposing edifice,

which was henceforth to assume its rank among the habitations of mankind.

There it rose, a little withdrawn from the line of the street, but in

pride, not modesty. Its whole visible exterior was ornamented with quaint

figures, conceived in the grotesqueness of a Gothic fancy, and drawn or

stamped in the glittering plaster, composed of lime, pebbles, and bits of

glass, with which the woodwork of the walls was overspread. On every side

the seven gables pointed sharply towards the sky, and presented the aspect

of a whole sisterhood of edifices, breathing through the spiracles of one

great chimney. The many lattices, with their small, diamond-shaped panes,

admitted the sunlight into hall and chamber, while, nevertheless, the

second story, projecting far over the base, and itself retiring beneath

the third, threw a shadowy and thoughtful gloom into the lower rooms.

Carved globes of wood were affixed under the jutting stories. Little

spiral rods of iron beautified each of the seven peaks. On the triangular

portion of the gable, that fronted next the street, was a dial, put up

that very morning, and on which the sun was still marking the passage of

the first bright hour in a history that was not destined to be all so

bright. All around were scattered shavings, chips, shingles, and broken

halves of bricks; these, together with the lately turned earth, on which

the grass had not begun to grow, contributed to the impression of

strangeness and novelty proper to a house that had yet its place to make

among men's daily interests.

EXERCISES

_A._ Select the sentence or part of a sentence which gives the fundamental

image in each of the following selections:--

1. It was a big, smooth-stone-faced house, product of the 'Seventies,

frowning under an outrageously insistent Mansard, capped by a cupola, and

staring out of long windows overtopped with "ornamental" slabs. Two

cast-iron deer, painted death-gray, twins of the same mold, stood on

opposite sides of the front walk, their backs toward it and each other,

their bodies in profile to the street, their necks bent, however, so that

they gazed upon the passer-by--yet gazed without emotion. Two large, calm

dogs guarded the top of the steps leading to the front door; they also

were twins and of the same interesting metal, though honored beyond the

deer by coats of black paint and shellac.

--Booth Tarkington: _The Conquest of Canaan_ ("Harper's").

2. At the first glance, Phoebe saw an elderly personage, in an

old-fashioned dressing gown of faded damask, and wearing his gray or

almost white hair of an unusual length. It quite overshadowed his

forehead, except when he thrust it back, and stared vaguely about the

room. After a very brief inspection of his face, it was easy to conceive

that his footstep must necessarily be such an one as that which, slowly,

and with as indefinite an aim as a child's first journey across a floor,

had just brought him hitherward. Yet there were no tokens that his

physical strength might not have sufficed for a free and determined gait.

It was the spirit of a man that could not walk. The expression of his

countenance--while, notwithstanding, it had the light of reason in it--

seemed to waver, and glimmer, and nearly to die away, and feebly to

recover itself again. It was like a flame which we see twinkling among

half-extinguished embers; we gaze at it more intently than if it were a

positive blaze, gushing vividly upward--more intently, but with a certain

impatience, as if it ought either to kindle itself into satisfactory

splendor, or be at once extinguished.

--Hawthorne: _The House of the Seven Gables_.

3. One of the best known of the flycatchers all over the country is the

kingbird. He is a little smaller than a robin, and all in brownish black,

with white breast. He has also white tips to his tail feathers, which look

very fine when he spreads it out wide in flying. Among the head feathers

of the kingbird is a small spot of orange color. This is called in the

books a "concealed patch," because it is seldom seen, it is so hidden by

the dark feathers.

--Mary Rogers Miller: _The Brook Book_.

(Copyright, 1902, by Doubleday, Page and Co.)

Notice the use of a comparison in establishing a correct fundamental image

in example 3.

_B._ Select five buildings with which the members of the class are

familiar. Write a single sentence for each, giving the fundamental image.

Read these sentences to the class. Let them determine for which building

each is written.

_C._ Notice the pictures on page 218. Write a single sentence for each,

giving the fundamental image.

+Theme LII.+--_Write a paragraph, describing something with which you are

familiar._

Suggested subjects:--

1. The county court house.

2. The new church.

3. My neighbor's house.

4. Where we go fishing.

5. A neighboring lake.

6. A cozy nook.

(Underscore the sentence that gives the fundamental image. Will the

reader get from it at once a correct general outline of the object to

be described? Will he need to change the fundamental image as your

description proceeds?)

+121. Point of View.+--What we shall see first depends upon the point of

view. Seen from one position, an object or a landscape will present a

different appearance from that which it will present when viewed from

another position. A careful writer will give that fundamental image that

would come from actual observation if the reader were looking at the scene

described from the point of view chosen by the writer. He will not include

details that cannot be seen from that position even though he knows that

they exist.

Notice that the following descriptions include only that which can be seen

from the place indicated in the italicized phrases:--

_Forward from the bridge_ he beheld a landscape of wide valleys and

irregular heights, with groves and lakes and fanciful houses linked

together by white paths and shining streams. The valleys were spread

below, that the river might be poured upon them for refreshment in day of

drought, and they were as green carpets figured with beds and fields of

flowers and flecked with flocks of sheep white as balls of snow; and the

voices of shepherds following the flocks were heard afar. As if to tell

him of the pious inscription of all he beheld, the altars out under the

open sky seemed countless, each with a white-gowned figure attending it,

while processions in white went slowly hither and thither between them;

and the smoke of the altars half risen hung collected in pale clouds over

the devoted places.

Wallace: _Ben-Hur_.

(Copyright, 1880. Harper and Bros.)

The house stood unusually near the river, facing eastward, and standing

four-square, with an immense veranda about its sides, and a flight of

steps in front, spreading broadly downward, as we open our arms to a

child. _From the veranda_ nine miles of river were seen; and in their

compass near at hand, the shady garden full of rare and beautiful flowers;

farther away broad fields of cane and rice, and the distant quarters of

the slaves, and on the horizon everywhere a dark belt of cypress forest.

--Cable: _Old Creole Days_.

+122. Selection of Details Affected by Point of View.+--A skillful writer

will not ask his reader to perform impossible feats. We cannot see the

leaves upon a tree a mile away, and so should not describe them. The finer

effects and more minute details should be included only when our chosen

point of view brings us near enough to appreciate them. In the selection

below, Stevenson tells only as much about Swanston cottage as can be seen

at a distance of six miles.

So saying she carried me around the battlements _towards the opposite or

southern side of the fortress and indeed to a bastion_ almost immediately

overlooking the place of our projected flight. Thence we had a view of

some foreshortened suburbs at our feet, and beyond of a green, open, and

irregular country rising towards the Pentland Hills. The face of one of

these summits (say two leagues from where we stood) is marked with a

procession of white scars. And to this she directed my attention.

"You see those marks?" she said. "We call them the Seven Sisters. Follow a

little lower with your eye, and you will see a fold of the hill, the tops

of some trees, and a tail of smoke out of the midst of them. That is

Swanston cottage, where my brother and I are living."

--Stevenson: _St. Ives_.

(Copyright, 1897. Charles Scribner's Sons.)

Notice in the selection below that for objects _near at hand_ details so

small as the lizard's eye are given, but that these details are not given,

when we are asked to observe things far away.

Slow though their march had been, by this time _they had come to the end

of the avenue, and were in the wide circular sweep before the castle._

They stopped here and stood looking off over the garden, with its somber

cypresses and bright beds of geranium, down upon the valley, dim and

luminous in a mist of gold. Great, heavy, fantastic-shaped clouds,

pearl-white with pearl-gray shadows, piled themselves up against the

scintillant dark blue of the sky. In and out among the rose trees _near at

hand_, where the sun was hottest, heavily flew, with a loud bourdonnement,

the cockchafers promised by Annunziata,--big, blundering, clumsy, the

scorn of their light-winged and businesslike competitors, the bees.

Lizards lay immobile as lizards cast in bronze, only their little

glittering, watchful pin heads of eyes giving sign of life. And of course

the blackcaps never for a moment left off singing.

--Henry Habland: _My Friend Prospero_ ("McClure's").

_We round a corner of the valley, and beyond, far below us, looms the town

of Sorata. From this distance_ the red tile roofs, the soft blue, green,

and yellow of its stuccoed walls, look indescribably fresh and grateful. A

closer inspection will probably dissipate this impression; it will be

squalid and dirty, the river-stone paving of its street will be deep in

the accumulation of filth, dirty Indian children will swarm in them with

mangy dogs and bedraggled ducks, the gay frescoes of its walls will peel

in ragged patches, revealing the 'dobe of their base, and the tile roofs

will be cracked and broken. But from the heights at this distance and in

the warm glow of the afternoon sun it looks like a dainty fairy village

glistening in a magic splendor against the Titanic setting of the Andes.

--Charles Johnson Post: _Across the Highlands of the World_

("Harper's").

Come on, sir; here's the place. Stand still. How fearful

And dizzy 'tis to cast one's eyes so low!

The crows and choughs that wing the midway air

Show scarce so gross as beetles. Halfway down

Hangs one that gathers sampire, dreadful trade!

Methinks he seems no bigger than his head.

The fishermen that walk upon the beach

Appear like mice; and yond tall anchoring bark

Diminish'd to her cock; her cock, a buoy

Almost too small for sight. The murmuring surge

That on the unnumber'd idle pebble chafes,

Cannot be heard so high. I'll look no more,

Lest my brain turn and the deficient sight

Topple down headlong.

--Shakespear: _King Lear_

+123. Implied Point of View.+--Often the point of view is not specifically

stated, but the language of the description shows where the observer is

located. Often such an implied point of view gives a delicate touch to a

description that could not be obtained by direct statements.

In which of the following selections is the point of view merely implied?

1. Thus pondering and dreaming, he came by the road down a gentle hill

with close woods on either hand; and so into the valley with a swift river

flowing through it; and on the river a mill. So white it stood among the

trees, and so merrily whirred the wheel as the water turned it, and so

bright blossomed the flowers in the garden, that Martimor had joy of the

sight, for it reminded him of his own country.

--Henry Van Dyke: _The Blue Flower_. (Copyright, 1902. Charles Scribner's

Sons.)

2. There is an island off a certain part of the coast of Maine,--a little

rocky island, heaped and tumbled together as if Dame Nature had shaken

down a heap of stones at random from her apron, when she had finished

making the larger islands, which lie between it and the mainland. At one

end, the shoreward end, there is a tiny cove, and a bit of silver sand

beach, with a green meadow beyond it, and a single great pine; but all the

rest is rocks, rocks. At the farther end the rocks are piled high, like a

castle wall, making a brave barrier against the Atlantic waves; and on top

of this cairn rises the lighthouse, rugged and sturdy as the rocks

themselves; but painted white, and with its windows shining like great,

smooth diamonds. This is Light Island.

--Laura E. Richards: _Captain January_.

+124. Changing Point of View.+--We cannot see the four sides of a house

from the same place, though we may wish to have our reader know how each

side looks. It is, therefore, necessary to change our point of view. It is

immaterial whether the successive points of view are named or merely

implied, providing the reader has due notice that we have changed from one

to the other, and that for each we describe only what can be seen from

that position. A description of a cottage that by its wording leads us to

think ourselves inside of the building and then tells about the yard would

be defective.

Notice the changing point of view in the following:--

At long distance, looking over the blue waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence

in clear weather, you might think that you saw a lonely sea gull,

snow-white, perching motionless on a cobble of gray rock. Then, as your

boat drifted in, following the languid tide and the soft southern breeze,

you would perceive that the cobble of rock was a rugged hill with a few

bushes and stunted trees growing in the crevices, and that the gleaming

speck near the summit must be some kind of a building,--if you were on the

coast of Italy or Spain you would say a villa or a farmhouse. Then as you

floated still farther north and drew nearer to the coast, the desolate

hill would detach itself from the mainland and become a little mountain

isle, with a flock of smaller islets clustering around it as a brood of

wild ducks keep close to their mother, and with deep water, nearly two

miles wide, flowing between it and the shore; while the shining speck on

the seaward side stood clearly as a low, whitewashed dwelling with a

sturdy, round tower at one end, crowned with a big eight-sided lantern--a

solitary lighthouse.

--Henry Van Dyke: _The Keeper of the Light_.

(Copyright, 1905. Charles Scribner's Sons.)

+125. Place of Point of View in Paragraph.+--The point of view may be

expressed or only implied or wholly omitted, but in any case the reader

must assume one in order to form a clear and accurate image. Beginners

will find that they can best cause their readers to form the desired

images by stating a point of view. When the point of view is stated it

must of necessity come early in the paragraph. We have already learned

that the beginning of a description should present the fundamental image.

For this reason the first sentence of a description frequently includes

both the point of view and the fundamental image.

EXERCISES

_A._ Consider the following selections with reference to--

(_a_) The point of view.

(_b_) The fundamental image.

(_c_) The completeness of the images which you have formed (see

Sections 26, 27).

1. The Lunardi [balloon], mounting through a stagnant calm in a line

almost vertical, had pierced the morning mists, and now swam emancipated

in a heaven of exquisite blue. Below us by some trick of eyesight, the

country had grown concave, its horizon curving up like the rim of a

shallow bowl--a bowl heaped, in point of fact, with sea fog, but to our

eyes with a froth delicate and dazzling as a whipped syllabub of snow.

Upon it the traveling shadow of the balloon became no shadow, but a stain;

an amethyst (you might call it) purged of all grosser properties than

color and lucency. At times thrilled by no perceptible wind, rather by the

pulse of the sun's rays, the froth shook and parted; and then behold, deep

in the crevasses vignetted and shining, an acre or two of the earth of

man's business and fret--tilled slopes of the Lothians, ships dotted on

the Firth, the capital like a hive that some child had smoked--the ear of

fancy could almost hear it buzzing.

--Stevenson: _St. Ives_.

(Copyright, 1897. Charles Scribner's Sons.)

2. When Aswald and Corinne had gained the top of the Capitol, she showed

him the Seven Hills and the city, bound first by Mount Palatinus, then by

the walls of Servius Tullius, which inclose the hills, and by those of

Aurelian, which still surround the greatest part of Rome. Mount Palatinus

once contained all Rome, but soon did the imperial palace fill the space

that had sufficed for a nation. The Seven Hills are far less lofty now

than when they deserted the title of steep mountains, modern Rome being

forty feet higher than its predecessor, and the valleys which separated

them almost filled up by ruins; but what is still more strange, two heaps

of shattered vases have formed new hills, Cestario and Testacio. Thus, in

time, the very refuse of civilization levels the rock with the plain,

effacing in the moral, as in the material world, all the pleasing

inequalities of nature.

--Madame De Staël: _Corinne: Italy_.

_B._--Select five descriptions from the following books and note whether

each has a point of view expressed or implied:--

Cooper: Last of the Mohicans.

Scott: Ivanhoe.

Scott: Lady of the Lake.

Irving: Sketch Book.

Burroughs: Wake Robin.

Van Dyke: The Blue Flower.

Howells: The Rise of Silas Lapham.

Muir: Our National Parks.

Kate Douglas Wiggin: Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm.

+Theme LIII.+--_Write a descriptive paragraph beginning with a point of

view and a fundamental image._

Suggested subjects:--

1. The crossroads inn.

2. A historical building.

3. The shoe factory.

4. The gristmill.

5. The largest store in town.

6. The union station.

(In your description underscore the sentence giving the point of view. Can

you improve the description by using a different point of view? Will the

reader form at once a correct general outline? Will the entire description

enable the reader to form a clear and accurate image?)

+126. Clear Seeing.+-Clear statement depends upon clear seeing. Not only

must we choose an advantageous point of view, but we must be able to

reproduce what can be seen from that location. We may write a description

while we are looking at the object, but it is frequently convenient to do

the writing when the object is not visible. Oral descriptions are nearly

always made without having the object at hand. When we attempt to describe

we examine not the object itself, but our mental image of it. It is

evident that at least the essential features of this mental picture must

stand out clearly and definitely, or we shall be unable to make our

description accurate.

The habit of accurate observation is a desirable acquisition, and our

ability in this direction can be improved by effort. It is not the

province of this book to provide a series of exercises which shall

strengthen habits of accurate observation. Many of your studies,

particularly the sciences, devote much attention to training the observing

powers, and will furnish many suitable exercises. A few have been

suggested below merely to emphasize the point that every successful effort

in description must be preceded by a definite exercise in clear seeing.

EXERCISE

1. Walk rapidly past a building. Form a mental picture of it. Write down

as many of the details as you can. Now look at the building again and

determine what you have left out.

2. Call to mind some building with which you are familiar. Write a list of

the details that you recall. Now visit the building and see what important

ones you have omitted.

3. While looking at some scene make a note of the important details. Lay

this list away for a day. Then recall the scene. After picturing the scene

as vividly as you can, read your notes. Do they add anything to your

picture?

4. Make a list of the things on some desk that you cannot see but with

which you are familiar; for example, the teacher's desk. At the first

opportunity notice how accurate your list is.

5. Look for some time at the stained glass windows of a church or at the

wall paper of the room. What patterns do you notice that you did not see

at first? What colors?

6. Make a list of the objects visible from your bedroom window. When you

go home notice what you have omitted.

7. Practice observation contests similar to the following: Let two or more

persons pass a store window. Each shall then make a list of what the

window contains. Compare lists with one another.

+Theme LIV.+--_Write a description of some dwelling._

(Select a house that you can see on the way home. Choose a point of view

and notice carefully what can be seen from it. When you are ready to

write, form as vivid a mental picture of the house as you can. Write the

sentence that gives the fundamental image. Add such of the details as will

enable the reader to form an accurate image.)

+127. Selection of Essential Details.+--After deciding upon a point of

view and such general characteristics as are essential to the forming of a

correct outline of the object to be described, we must next give our

attention to the selection of the details. If our description has been

properly begun, this general outline will not be changed, but each

succeeding phrase or sentence will add to the clearness and distinctness

of the picture. Our first impression of a house may include windows, but

the mention of them later will bring them out clearly on our mental

picture much as the details appear when one is developing a negative in

photography.

If the peculiarities of an object are such as to effect its general form,

they need to be stated in the opening sentence; but when the peculiar or

distinguishing characteristic does not affect the form, it may be

introduced later. If we say, "On the corner across the street from the

post office there is a large, two-story, red brick store," the reader can

form at once a general picture of such a store. Only those things which

give a general outline have been included. As yet nothing has been

mentioned to distinguish the store from any other similar one. If some

following sentence should be, "Though not wider, it yet presents a more

imposing appearance than its neighbors, because the door is placed at one

side, thus making room for a single wide display window instead of two

stuffy, narrow ones," a detail has been added which, though not changing

the general outline, makes the picture clearer and at the same time

emphasizes the distinguishing feature of this particular store.

EXERCISES

1. Observe your neighbor's barn. What would you select as its

characteristic feature?

2. Take a rapid glance at some stranger whom you meet. What did you notice

most vividly?

3. In what respect does the Methodist church in your city differ from the

other church buildings?

4. Does your pet dog differ from others of the same breed in appearance?

In actions?

+Theme LV.+--_Write a descriptive paragraph, using one of the following

subjects:_--

1. A mountain view.

2. An omnibus.

3. A fort.

4. A lighthouse.

5. A Dutch windmill.

6. A bend in the river.

7. A peculiar structure.

8. The picture on this page.

(Underscore the sentence that pictures the details most essential to the

description. Consider the unity of your paragraph. Section 81.)

[Illustration]

+128. Selection and Subordination of Minor Details.+--In many descriptions

the minor details are wholly omitted, and in all descriptions many that

might have been included have been omitted. A proper number of such

details adds interest and clearness to the images; too many but serve to

render the whole obscure. If properly selected and effectively presented,

minor details add much to the beauty or usefulness of a description, but

if strung together in short sentences, the effect may be both tiresome and

confusing. A mere catalogue of facts is not a good description. They must

be arranged so that those which are the more important shall have the

greater prominence, while those of less importance shall be properly

subordinated.

Often minor details may be stated in a word or phrase inserted in the

sentence which gives the general view. Notice the italicized portion of

the following: "Opposite the church, _and partly screened by the scraggly

evergreens of a broad, unkempt lawn_, there is a large, octagonal, brick

house, with a conservatory on the left." This arrangement adds to the

general view and gives a better result than would be obtained by

describing the lawn in a separate sentence. Often a single adjective adds

some element to a description more effectively than can be done with a

whole sentence. Notice how much is added by the use of _scraggly_ and

_unkempt_.

EXERCISES

Make a careful study of the following selections with reference to the way

in which the minor details are presented. Can any of them be improved by

re-arranging them?

1. At night, as I look from my windows over Kassim Pasha, I never tire of

that dull, soft coloring, green and brown, in which the brown of roofs and

walls is hardly more than a shading of the green of the trees. There is

the lonely curve of the hollow, with its small, square, flat houses of

wood; and above, a sharp line of blue-black cypresses on the spine of the

hill; then the long desert plain, with its sandy road, shutting in the

horizon. Mists thicken over the valley, and wipe out its colors before the

lights begin to glimmer out of it. Below, under my windows, are the

cypresses of the Little Field of the Dead, vast, motionless, different

every night. Last night each stood clear, tall, apart; to-night they

huddle together in the mist, and seem to shudder. The sunset was brief,

and the water has grown dull, like slate. Stamboul fades to a level mass

of smoky purple, out of which a few minarets rise black against a gray sky

with bands of orange fire. Last night, after a golden sunset, a fog of

rusty iron came down, and hung poised over the jagged level of the hill.

The whole mass of Stamboul was like black smoke; the water dim gray, a

little flushed, and then like pure light, lucid, transparent, every ship

and every boat sharply outlined in black on its surface; the boats seemed

to crawl like flies on a lighted pane.

--Arthur Symons: _Constantinople: An Impression_ ("Harper's").

2. The boy was advancing up the road, carrying a half-filled pail of milk.

He was a child of perhaps ten years, exceedingly frail and thin, with a

drawn, waxen face, and sick, colorless lips and ears. On his head he wore

a thick plush cap, and coarse, heavy shoes upon his feet. A faded coat,

too long in the arms, drooped from his shoulders, and long, loose overalls

of gray jeans broke and wrinkled about his slender ankles.

--George Kibbe Turner: _Across the State_ ("McClure's").

3. They met few people abroad, even on passing from the retired

neighborhood of the House of the Seven Gables into what was ordinarily the

more thronged and busier portion of the town. Glistening sidewalks, with

little pools of rain, here and there, along their unequal surface;

umbrellas displayed ostentatiously in the shop windows, as if the life of

trade had concentered itself in that one article; wet leaves of the

horse-chestnut or elm trees, torn off untimely by the blast, and scattered

along the public way; an unsightly accumulation of mud in the middle of

the street, which perversely grew the more unclean for its long and

laborious washing;--these were the more definable points of a very somber

picture. In the way of movement, and human life, there was the hasty

rattle of a cab or coach, its driver protected by a water-proof cap over

his head and shoulders; the forlorn figure of an old man, who seemed to

have crept out of some subterranean sewer, and was stooping along the

kennel, and poking the wet rubbish with a stick, in quest of rusty nails;

a merchant or two, at the door of the post office, together with an

editor, and a miscellaneous politician, awaiting a dilatory mail; a few

visages of retired sea captains at the window of an insurance office,

looking out vacantly at the vacant street, blaspheming at the weather, and

fretting at the dearth as well of public news as local gossip. What a

treasure trove to these venerable quidnuncs, could they have guessed the

secret which Hepzibah and Clifford were carrying along with them!

--Hawthorne: _The House of the Seven Gables_.

+Theme LVI.+--_Write a description of one of the following:_--

1. A steamboat.

2. An orchard.

3. A colonial mansion.

4. A wharf.

5. A stone quarry.

6. A shop.

(Consider what you have written with reference to the point of view,

fundamental image, and essential details. After these have been arranged

to suit you, notice the way in which the minor details have been

introduced. Have you given undue prominence to any? Can a single adjective

or phrase be substituted for a whole sentence? Think of the image which

your words will produce in the mind of the reader. Consider your theme

with reference to unity. Section 81.)

+129. Arrangement of Details.+--The quality of a description depends as

much upon the arrangement of the material as upon the selection. Under

paragraph development we have discussed the necessity of arranging the

details with reference to their natural position in space (see Sections 47

and 86). Such an arrangement is the most desirable one and should be

departed from only with good reason. Such departures may, however, be

made, as shown in the following selection:--

A pretty picture the lad made as he lay there dreaming over his earthly

possessions--a pretty picture in the shade of the great elm, that sultry

morning of August, three quarters of a century ago. The presence of the

crutch showed there was something sad about it; and so there was; for if

you had glanced at the little bare brown foot, set toes upward on the

curbstone, you would have discovered that the fellow to it was missing--

cut off about two inches above the ankle. And if this had caused you to

throw a look of sympathy at his face, something yet sadder must long

have held your attention. Set jauntily on the back of his head was a

weather-beaten dark blue cloth cap, the patent leather frontlet of which

was gone; and beneath the ragged edge of this there fell down over his

forehead and temples and ears a tangled mass of soft yellow hair, slightly

curling. His eyes were large and of a blue to match the depths of a calm

sky above the treetops: the long lashes which curtained them were brown;

his lips were red, his nose delicate and fine, and his cheek tanned to the

color of ripe peaches. It was a singularly winning face, intelligent,

frank, not describable. On it now rested a smile, half joyous, half sad,

as though his mind was full of bright hopes, the realization of which was

far away. From the neck fell the wide collar of a white cotton shirt,

clean but frayed at the elbows, and open and buttonless down to his bosom.

Over this he wore an old-fashioned satin waistcoat of a man, also frayed

and buttonless. His dress was completed by a pair of baggy tow breeches,

held up by a single tow suspender fastened to big brown horn buttons.

--James Lane Allen: _Flute and Violin_.

(Copyright, 1892, Harper and Brothers.)

The details are not stated with reference to their natural position in

space, but they are given in the probable order of observation. If we were

to look upon such a boy, the crutch would attract our attention and would

lead us to look at once for the reason why a crutch was needed. The writer

skillfully uses the sympathy thus aroused as a means of transition to the

face. In the remainder of the description the natural position in space is

closely followed.

+Theme LVII.+-_Write a description of one of the following:_--

1. The bayou.

2. Looking down the mountain.

3. Looking up the mountain.

4. The floorwalker.

5. An old-fashioned rig.

6. A house said to be haunted.

7. The deacon.

(Consider the arrangement of details with reference to their position in

space. Consider your paragraphs with reference to coherence and emphasis.

Sections 82 and 83.)

+130. Effectiveness in Description.+--Every part of a description should

aid in rendering it effective, and this effectiveness is as much

the purpose of the principles previously discussed as it is of those

which follow. This paragraph is inserted here to separate more or less

definitely those things which can be done under direction from those which

cannot be determined by rule. Up to this point emphasis has been laid upon

the clear presentation of a mental image as the object of description.

But the clear presentation of mental images is not all there is to

description. A point of view, a fundamental image, a judicious selection

of essential and minor details and the relating of them with reference to

their natural position in space, may set forth an image clearly and yet

fail to be satisfactory as a description.

For the practical affairs of life it may be sufficient to limit ourselves

to clear images set forth barely and sparely, but there is a pleasure

and a profit in using the subtler arts of language, in placing a word

here or a phrase there that shall give a touch of beauty or a flash of

suggestiveness and so save our descriptions from the commonplace. It is to

these less easily demonstrated methods of giving strength and beauty that

we wish now to turn our attention.

+131. Word Selection.+--The effectiveness of our description will depend

largely upon our right choice of words. If our range of vocabulary is

limited, the possibility of effective description is correspondingly

limited. Only when our working vocabulary contains many words may we hope

to choose with ease the one most suitable for the effective expression of

the idea we wish to convey. To prepare a list of words that may apply and

then attempt to write a theme that shall make use of them is a mechanical

process of little value. The idea we wish to express should call up the

word that exactly expresses it. If our ideas are not clear or our

vocabulary is limited, we may be satisfied with the trite and commonplace;

but if our experience has been broad or our reading extended, we may have

at command the word which, because it is just the right one, gives

individuality and force to our phrasing. Every one is familiar with dogs,

and has in his vocabulary many words which he applies to them, but a

reading of one or two good dog stories, such as _Bob, Son of Battle_, or

_The Call of the Wild_, will show how wide is the range of such words and

how much the description is enhanced by their careful use.

EXERCISE

Consider the following selections with reference to the choice of words

which add to the effectiveness of the descriptions:--

1. She was a little, brown, thin, almost skinny woman with big, rolling,

violet-blue eyes and the sweetest manners in the world.

2. The sounds and the straits and the sea with its plump, sleepy islands

lay north and east and south.

3. The mists of the Cuchullins are not fat, dull, and still, like lowland

and inland mists, but haggard, and streaming from the black peaks, and

full of gusty lines. We saw them first from the top of Beimna-Caillach, a

red, round-headed mountain hard by Bradford, in the isle of Skye.

Shortly after noon the rain came up from the sea and drew long delicate

gray lines against the cliffs. It came up licking and lisping over the

surface of Cornisk, and drove us to the lee of rocks and the shelter of

our ponchos, to watch the mists drifting, to listen to the swell and lull

of the wind and the patter of the cold rain. There were glimpses now and

then of the inner Cuchullins, a fragment of ragged sky line, the sudden

jab of a black pinnacle through the mist, the open mouth of a gorge

steaming with mist.

We climbed the great ridge, at length, of rock and wet heath that

separates Cornisk from Glen Sligachan, slowly through the fitful rain and

driving cloud, and saw Sgurr-nan-Gillian, sharp, black, and pitiless, the

northernmost peak and sentinel of the Cuchullins. The yellow trail could

be seen twisting along the flat, empty glen. Seven miles away was a white

spot, the Sligachan Hotel.

I think it must be the dreariest glen in Scotland. The trail twists in a

futile manner, and, after all, is mainly bog holes and rolling rocks. The

Red Hills are on the right, rusty, reddish, of the color of dried blood,

and gashed with sliding bowlders. Their heads seem beaten down, a Helot

population, and the Cuchullins stand back like an army of iron conquerors.

The Red Hills will be a vanished race one day, and the Cuchullins remain.

Arthur Colton: _The Mists o' Skye_ ("Harper's").

+132. Additional Aids to Effectiveness.+--Comparison and figures of speech

not only aid in making our picture clear and vivid, but they may add

a spice and flavor to our language, which counts for much in the

effectiveness and beauty of our description. Notice the following

descriptions:--

He was a mongoose, rather like a little cat in his fur and his tail, but

quite like a weasel in his head and his habits. His eyes and the end of

his restless nose were pink; he could scratch himself anywhere he pleased,

with any leg, front or back, that he chose to use; he could fluff up his

tail till it looked like a bottle brush, and his war cry as he scuttled

through the long grass was Rikk-tikk-tikki-tikki-tikk.

--Kipling: _Jungle Book_.

Ichabod was a suitable figure for such a steed. He rode with short

stirrups, which brought his knees nearly up to the pommel of his saddle;

his sharp elbows stuck out like grasshoppers' legs; he carried his whip

perpendicularly in his hand, like a scepter, and, as his horse jogged on,

the motion of his arms was not unlike the flapping of a pair of wings. A

small wool hat rested on the top of his nose, for so his scanty strip of

forehead might be called; and the skirts of his black coat fluttered out

almost to the horse's tail. Such was the appearance of Ichabod and his

steed, as they shambled out of the gate of Hans Van Ripper, and it was

altogether such an apparition as is seldom to be met with in broad

daylight.

--Irving: _Legend of Sleepy Hollow_.

+Theme LVIII.+--_Write a description of one of the following:_--

1. My cat.

2. The pony at the farm.

3. The glen.

4. The prairie.

5. The milldam.

6. The motorman.

7. The picture on this page.

[Illustration]

(Consider the effectiveness of your description. Can you improve your

choice of words? Have you used comparisons or figures, and if so, do they

improve your description? Consider your theme with reference to euphony.