CHAPTER IX.

CANOVA, THORWALDSEN, AND OTHER RECENT SCULPTORS.

In the middle of the eighteenth century the arts had fallen into such a

feeble state that a true artistic work--one conceived and executed in an

artist spirit--was not to be looked for. As in the Middle Ages, too,

thought seemed to be sleeping. Both art and letters were largely

prostrated to the service of those in high places; they were scarcely

used except for the pleasure or praise of men whose earthly power made

them to be feared, and because they were feared they were flattered

openly and despised secretly.

But about the end of the century another spirit arose; a second

Renaissance took place, which may be traced in literature and in art, as

it may be in the movement of political events and an independence of

thought everywhere.

Naturally the question as to where artists could turn for their models

was an important one, and as before in various epochs in art the antique

had been the "only help in time of trouble," so it proved again. In 1764

Winckelmann published his "History of Ancient Art," in which the rich

significance of classic art was clearly placed before the student. The

service which this author rendered to art can scarcely be

over-estimated, coming, as it did, at a time when the genius of art

seemed to have turned his back upon the world, and all true inspiration

was lost. At about the same time the monuments of Athens were recalled

to the European world by Stuart and Revett in their architectural

designs, and by the end of the century the study of the antique had done

its transforming work, and artists were striving for more worthy ends

than the favor of kings and powerful patrons. This new study of classic

art did not show its full and best results until the Danish sculptor

Thorwaldsen executed his works; but before his time others were striving

for that which it was his privilege to perfect.

Among the earliest and most famous of these eighteenth-century reformers

was the Venetian, ANTONIO CANOVA (1757-1822). He was born in Possagno,

and was the son and grandson of stone-cutters. His father died when he

was very young, and he was thus left to the care and instruction of his

grandfather, the old Pasino Canova, who lost no time in accustoming the

boy to the use of the chisel, for there are cuttings in existence which

were executed by Canova in his ninth year. Signor Giovanni Faliero dwelt

near Possagno, and was in the habit of employing Pasino Canova

frequently; he entertained such respect for the old stone-cutter that he

sometimes asked him to spend a few days at his villa. On these visits

the old man was accompanied by Antonio, who soon became a favorite with

all the family of Faliero, and a friend of the young Giuseppe.

On one occasion when Pasino and the boy attended a festival at Villa

Faliero, the ornament for the dessert was forgotten. When the servants

remembered it at the last moment they went to the old Pasino in

distress, and begged him to save them from the displeasure of the

master. The old man could do nothing for them, but the young Tonin, as

he was called, asked for some butter, and from it quickly carved a lion.

At table this strange ornament attracted the attention of all the

guests, and Tonin was called in to receive their praises; from this time

the Senator Faliero became his patron, and he placed the boy under the

instruction of Giuseppe Bernardi, called Toretto, a Venetian sculptor

who had settled at Pagnano.

At this time Canova was twelve years old; he studied two years under

Toretto, and made many statues and models, which are still preserved by

the Faliero family, or in other collections. His first really original

work was the modelling of two angels in clay; he did these during an

absence of his master's; he placed them in a prominent place, and then

awaited Toretto's opinion with great anxiety. When the master saw them

he was filled with surprise, and exclaimed that they were truly

marvellous; from these models the grandfather cut two angels in _pietra

dura_ for the high-altar at Monfumo. At this same period Canova made his

first representations of the human form; he was accustomed to make small

statues and give them to his friends.

When he was fifteen years old Faliero sent for him, and received him

into his own family. Canova wished to earn something for himself, and

engaged to work half of the day for Giuseppe Ferrari, who was a nephew

of his former master, Toretto. Of this time Canova afterward wrote: "I

labored for a mere pittance, but it was sufficient. It was the fruit of

my own resolution, and, as I then flattered myself, the foretaste of

more honorable rewards." This circumstance proves how remarkable he must

have been; it is unusual for a boy of fifteen to be paid for work

instead of paying for instruction. In Venice he was able to learn much

from observation. He divided his time systematically, spending his

mornings in the Academy or some gallery, his afternoons in the shop

where he was employed, and his evenings in studies for which he had had

no opportunity as a child.

The first commission which was given to Canova was from the Commendatore

Farsetti for a pair of baskets filled with fruit and flowers, to be

sculptured in marble, and placed on a staircase which led to the picture

gallery in the Farsetti Palace, where Canova spent much time in study.

These works have no special excellence.

After a year in Venice he went to Asolo with the Faliero family. Some

time before this his patron had asked Canova to make for him a group of

Orpheus and Eurydice, taking the moment when Eurydice beholds her lover

torn away from her forever. Canova had been busy with this in his

leisure hours in Venice, and he took with him to Asolo everything

necessary to the work. He completed the Eurydice in his sixteenth year;

it was life-size, and cut from _pietra di Costosa_.

With this first attempt Canova became convinced that the small models

such as were in use by sculptors were quite insufficient to good work,

and he determined that his models should be of the size which the

finished work would have, even when colossal.

After this time he had his studio in a cell of the monastery of the

Augustine friars attached to the Church of San Stefano, in Venice.

During the next three years he was occupied with his Orpheus and a bust

of the Doge Renier. At this time he studied entirely from nature; he

devoted himself to the pursuit of anatomy, and after a time was

accustomed to make dissections in order to sketch or model from

important parts or some conformations that he desired in particular

instances.

In 1776 his Orpheus was finished and exhibited, and it chanced to be at

the annual festival of the Ascension, when the opera of Orpheus was

brought out in Venice. Canova was accustomed to say that the praise he

then received was "that which made him a sculptor;" and so grateful was

he for it that later, when he became Marquis of Ischia, he chose for his

armorial ensigns the lyre and serpent which are the mythological symbols

of Orpheus and Eurydice. The Senator Grimani ordered a copy of the

Orpheus, and this was the first work of Canova in Carrara marble.

He soon found his workshop too small, and removed to one in the street

of San Maurizio, where he remained until he left his native country. His

next work was a statue of AEsculapius, larger than life; a short time

before his death, when he saw this statue, he sorrowfully declared that

"his progress had by no means corresponded with the indications of

excellence in this performance of his youth." About this time he

executed an Apollo and Daphne which was never entirely finished, and

when twenty-two years old he completed a group of Daedalus and Icarus for

the Senator Pisani. This was intended for an exterior decoration of his

palace; but when it was done Pisani considered it worthy of a place in

his gallery, already famous on account of the painting of Darius and his

Family, by Paul Veronese, and other fine works. This may be called

Canova's last work in Venice, as he went to Rome soon after his

twenty-third birthday.

The Cavaliere Zuliani was then the representative of Venice in Rome, and

Faliero gave Canova letters to him. Zuliani was an enlightened patron of

art, and he received the young sculptor with great kindness, and soon

arranged to have his model of Daedalus and Icarus exhibited to the best

artists and judges of art in Rome. We can fancy the anxiety with which

Canova went to this exhibition; but the praise which he there received

secured for him a place among the artists then in Rome.

Canova had a great desire to undertake a group of some important

subject, and Zuliani was his friend in this; for he gave him the marble,

and promised if no other purchaser appeared to give him the full value

of the work when completed. He also gave him a workshop in the Venetian

Palace, to which no one had access, where he could be entirely free and

undisturbed. The subject chosen for the group was Theseus vanquishing

the Minotaur, and the size was to be colossal. Canova now worked with

untiring devotion; he was often seen before the statues on Monte

Cavallo, with sketch-book in hand, as soon as it was light enough for

him to see, and he studied faithfully in the museums and galleries of

Rome. His friends in Venice had secured for him a pension of three

hundred ducats, which placed him above want, and he was free to devote

himself to his Theseus, although while at work on that he made a statue

of Apollo, which was exhibited with Angelini's Minerva, and received

much praise.

Meantime no one knew of the Theseus save the ambassador. When it was

finished Zuliani prepared it for exhibition, and invited all the most

distinguished men in Rome to an entertainment. A model of the head of

Theseus was put in a prominent place, and the guests were busy in

discussing it; they asked questions and expressed opinions, and when

their interest was well awakened Zuliani said: "Come, let us end this

discussion by seeing the original," and the statue was unveiled before

their eyes. Canova often declared that death itself could not have been

more terrible to him than were those moments. But he and all else were

forgotten in the surprise and admiration which the group excited; in

that hour the artists who afterward hated him gave him their sincere

praise. From that day the fame of Canova was established.

Very soon he was selected to erect a monument to Clement XIV. This pope

was a famous man; he was the collector of the Clementine Museum, the

author of the elegant letters known by his family name of Ganganelli,

and, above all, he was the suppressor of the Jesuits. While Canova felt

the honor that was thus offered him he also thought himself bound to

consult those who had conferred his pension upon him, and thus helped

him to become the artist that he was. He went, therefore, to Venice

and sought direction from the Senate; he was told to employ his time

as should be most profitable to himself. He therefore gave up his studio

in Venice, and as his patron, Zuliani, had now left Rome, he fitted up

the studio in the Strada Babbuino, which became so well known to lovers

of art of all nations who visited Rome. In 1787 the above monument was

exhibited, and was much admired. An engraving was made from it and

dedicated to Zuliani; but Canova desired to do something more worthy for

his patron, and made a statue of Psyche as a gift to him; Zuliani

hesitated to accept it, but finally consented to do so if Canova would

in turn accept a number of silver medals with the Psyche on one side and

a head of Canova on the other, which he could give to his friends. In

the midst of all this Zuliani died, and his heirs were so angry because

he had left works of art to the Public Library that they refused to

carry out his plans. In the end the Psyche was bought by Napoleon and

presented to the Queen of Bavaria.

[Illustration: FIG. 115.--THE THREE GRACES. _By Canova._]

Canova executed a second papal monument to Pope Clement XIII. It was

erected in St. Peter's by his nephews. The mourning genius upon it is

frequently mentioned as one of Canova's happiest figures. The execution

of these two monuments occupied almost ten years of the best part of

this sculptor's life.

Canova's fame had extended over all Europe, and he was asked to go to

St. Petersburg, and offered most advantageous terms if he would do so;

but he declined, and executed the monument of Admiral Emo, on a

commission from the Venetian Senate. For this work he received a gold

medal and an annuity for life.

In 1798, during the revolutionary excitement at Rome, Canova went to

Possagno, his native town. Here, in his retirement, he painted more than

twenty pictures, which were by no means to be despised. His masterpiece

represented the Saviour just taken from the cross, and surrounded by

the Marys, St. John, Nicodemus, and Joseph of Arimathea. This was the

first of the many gifts which he made to this little church, by which it

became a splendid temple and the expression of Canova's love for his

birthplace and early home.

After he returned to Rome his health was not sufficient to allow of his

usual close application to work, and he went to Berlin and Vienna in

company with Prince Rezzonico, and this so benefited him that he was

able to resume his labors with new energy. He soon achieved a proud

triumph, for his Perseus was placed in one of the Stanze of the Vatican

by a public decree; this was the first modern work which had been thus

honored.

In 1802-1803 Napoleon requested Canova to go to Paris to model a

portrait bust for a colossal statue; the work was finished six years

later. In 1805 the artist went again to Vienna, where he modelled a bust

of the Emperor of Austria; in 1810 again to Paris to prepare a model for

the statue of Maria Louisa. With the exception of these short journeys

he was constantly at work in his Roman studio until 1815, when he was

sent in an official capacity to France by the pope, for the purpose of

reclaiming the works of art which had been carried from Italy in times

of war, and which really belonged to the patrimony of the Church. Canova

executed his commission with rare judgment, and then continued his

journey to England. In London he received many honors; the king gave him

an order for a group, held several conversations with him, made him

valuable gifts, and intrusted him with a private letter to the pope.

Canova returned to Rome on January 5th, 1816. His entry might almost be

called a triumphal one, for the people of Rome were so grateful for the

restoration of their treasures that they expressed their joy in

demonstrations to Canova. He had been President of St. Luke's Academy

before; he was now made President of the Commission to purchase works of

art, and of the Academy of Archaeology. In full consistory of all the

high officers of the Church, the pope caused his name to be inscribed

upon the "golden volume of the Capitol," and conferred upon him the

title of Marquis of Ischia, with a pension of three thousand crowns a

year.

Canova now determined to execute a colossal statue of Religion, which

should commemorate the return of the pope from banishment. He endeavored

to persuade the authorities to decide where it should be placed; this

was not done, and he was much grieved at his failure to carry out the

idea. But he determined that from this time he would devote his life and

fortune to religion, and resolved to erect a church at Possagno, to

adorn it with works of art, and to make it his own burial-place.

On July 8th, 1819, Canova assembled his workmen in his native town, and

gave them a _fete_; many peasant girls joined in the festivities and

assisted in the breaking of the ground; at evening, as they all passed

before Canova to bid him farewell, each one received a gift from him.

Three days later the religious ceremony of laying the corner-stone of

the future church took place. An immense number of people from the

surrounding country and from Venice were present; Canova, in his robes

as a Knight of Christ, and wearing the insignia of other orders, led the

procession; all who had seen Canova when a poor boy in their midst were

much impressed by this occasion. Here, in a public manner, he

consecrated his life and fortune to the service of God and the benefit

of his birthplace. Every autumn Canova went to Possagno to encourage the

workmen and to give directions as to how the whole should be done.

Between these visits he worked devotedly, for he was forced to earn all

he could in order to pay for his great undertaking.

At this time he executed a statue of Washington, and was making an

equestrian statue of Ferdinand of Naples, and in the month of May, 1822,

went to that city, where he fell ill; he returned to Rome, and revived

somewhat, and resumed his work. On September 17th he went to Possagno,

in October to Villa Faliero, where, fifty years before, he had spent

such happy days. From here he went to Venice, and on the 13th of the

same month he died.

Solemn services were held in the cathedral, and his remains were then

intrusted to the priests of Possagno, who bore them to their temple,

where he was buried on the 25th of the month; the crowd was so great

that the oration was delivered in the open air. Canova's heart was given

to the Academy of Venice, and an elegant little monument was erected in

the Palace of Arts to contain this relic of the sculptor. The Venetian

artists arranged to erect to him a monument, and chose the design which

he himself had made for the tomb of Titian; it is in the Church of Santa

Maria de' Frari. In Rome a statue was decreed to him, and he was

declared the perpetual President of her chief academy.

In personal appearance Canova was not grand or very attractive. His head

was remarkably well placed upon his shoulders, and the loose manner in

which he dressed his neck allowed this to be seen; his forehead was a

noble one, his hair black, and his whole manner and dress was modest and

simple. His habits were very orderly and quiet; he rose early to work,

and went little into public society; but he welcomed a few friends to

dinner almost daily. He entertained them cordially, but without display,

and led the conversation to light, cheerful topics that did not touch

upon art, or demand mental exertion. At eleven o'clock he retired to his

own room and amused himself with a book or pencil before sleeping. Some

of his best drawings were made at this hour, and have been published

with the title of "Pensieri," or thoughts. To describe one day was to

give a picture of all, so regular were his habits of life.

In his professional life he was just and generous to others, and though

he would have no pupils, he would leave everything to advise an artist

or visit his works. He was also a patron of art, and had executed, at

his own expense, the numerous busts of distinguished persons in the

Capitoline Museum.

[Illustration: FIG. 116.--HEBE. _By Canova._]

There is a story of a romance in his life. It is said that when he first

arrived in Venice he fell in love with a beautiful girl who was older

than himself, who went to draw in the Farsetti Gallery. Day by day he

watched her until she came no more; at length her attendant returned,

and Canova inquired for her mistress; she burst into tears and answered,

"La Signora Julia is dead." He asked no more, and never knew who Julia

was or any circumstances of her history; but all his life he treasured

her image, and when he endeavored to unite the purity of an angel with

the earthly beauty of a woman, the remembrance of Julia was always in

his mind.

Canova was one of the few artists who received their full merit of

praise and the benefits of their labors while alive. Without doubt he

was a great sculptor, and coming as he did, at a time when art was at

its worst, he seemed all the more remarkable to the men around him. But

the verdict of to-day would not exalt him as highly as did his friends

and patrons. His statues lack the repose which makes the grandest

feature of the best sculpture; his female figures have a sentimental

sort of air that is not all we could wish, and does not elevate them

above what we may call pleasing art. His male figures are better, more

natural and simple, though some of his subjects bordered on the coarse

and brutal, as in the two fencers, Kreugas and Damoxenes, or Hercules

and Lichas. But in his religious subjects he is much finer, and in some

of his monuments he shows dignity and earnestness, while his composition

is in the true artistic spirit. Taken on the whole, he was a wonderful

artist and a man of whom his century might well be proud.

Other sculptors of this period and of different nations studied at Rome,

and devoted themselves to the antique with enthusiasm. One of these was

ANTOINE DENIS CHAUDET (1763-1810), who was born at Paris. His talent was

so early developed that he was admitted to the Royal Academy when

fourteen years old, and when twenty-one he gained the first prize, and

with the royal pension went to Rome, where he remained five years. He

soon took good rank among artists of that time, for he was a designer

and painter as well as sculptor. He adhered strictly to the antique

style, and attained much purity, though he was always cold in treatment.

He was made a Professor of Sculpture in the French Academy, and made

valuable contributions to the "Dictionary of Fine Arts."

Chaudet's principal works in sculpture were the silver statue of Peace

in the Tuileries; a statue of Cincinnatus in the Senate Chamber; a

statue of OEdipus; a bas-relief of Painting, Sculpture, and

Architecture, in the Musee Napoleon, and many busts and smaller works.

He also designed numerous medals and some of the illustrations for a

fine edition of Racine, and painted a picture of AEneas and Anchises in

the Burning of Troy.

JOHANN HEINRICH DANNECKER (1758-1841) was born at Stuttgart. By a statue

of Milo he gained the prize of the academy founded by Duke Charles

Eugene, and with the royal pension he went first to Paris and then to

Rome, where he studied seven years. He then returned to Wuertemberg, and

was made Director of the Royal Academy, with a salary of fifteen

thousand francs a year. During fifteen years Dannecker maintained a high

rank in his art, but his health became so feeble that he was forced to

see others excel him. One of his works has a wide reputation, and is

known to many people the world over, through the generosity of Herr

Bethmann of Frankfort, who admits visitors to his gallery, and from the

models and pictures which have been made from it; it is the Ariadne on a

Panther (Fig. 117).

Dannecker had a delicate feeling for nature; his figures were light and

graceful, and his heads were noble in expression. He labored eight years

upon a figure of Christ, which belongs to the Emperor of Russia; in

Stuttgart a nymph pouring water on Neckar Street and two nymphs on a

reservoir in the palace garden show his fine taste in architectural

sculpture. Among his other works are a statue of Alexander, a monument

to Count Zeppelin, a Cupid, and a Maiden lamenting a Dead Bird. Some of

his works are among the very best productions of modern sculpture; his

portraits are noble and true to nature; the works named here are by no

means all that he did, and we should add that his efforts in religious

subjects exhibit a pure sense of the beautiful, and a true conception of

Christian ideas.

[Illustration: FIG. 117.--ARIADNE AND THE PANTHER. _By Dannecker._]

We come now, for the first time, to a great English sculptor. JOHN

FLAXMAN (1755-1826) was born in York, but while he was still an infant

his father removed to London, where he kept a plaster-cast shop. The boy

began to draw and even to model very early; when but five years old he

kept some soft wax, with which he could take an impression from any seal

or ring or coin which pleased him. He was very delicate in health, and

was once thought to be dead, and was prepared for burial, when animation

returned; his parents tried to gratify all his wishes, and while a child

he modelled a great number of figures in wax, clay, and plaster.

By the time he was ten years old he was much stronger, and was able to

use the activity which corresponded to his enthusiastic feeling and

imagination. About this time he read "Don Quixote," and was so moved by

the adventures of that hero that he went out early one morning armed

with a toy sword and bent upon protecting some forlorn damsel; he went

to Hyde Park and wandered about all day, not finding any one who was in

need of his services. At night he returned home, very hungry and weary,

to find his family in great alarm over his unusual absence.

He now spent all his time in drawing and modelling, and never had more

than two lessons from a master; at eleven years of age he began to gain

various prizes, and at fourteen was admitted to study at the Royal

Academy, and gained the silver medal there that same year. About this

time he made some friends who aided him to study the classics and to

learn more of history, all of which was of great use to him in his art.

He was also fortunate in having the friendship of Mr. Wedgwood, for whom

he made many models. He also painted a few pictures in oil.

Among his earliest sculptures were a group of Venus and Cupid and a

monument to Mrs. Morley, who, with her baby, died at sea. Flaxman

represented the mother and child rising from the sea and being received

by descending angels.

In 1782 Flaxman married Miss Ann Denman, whose intelligence and love of

art were of great assistance to her husband. In 1787 he went to Rome,

where he remained seven years. During this time he made a group for Lord

Bristol, representing the Fury of Athamas, from the Metamorphoses of

Ovid; this work cost him much labor, for which he received but small

pay; it was carried to Ireland and then to Ickworth House, in Suffolk,

where but few people see it. In Rome Flaxman also made a group of

Cephalus and Aurora for Mr. Thomas Hope, and the designs from Homer,

AEschylus, and Dante, which have such a world-wide fame.

In 1794 he returned to England, where he was constantly employed on

important works until his death. We cannot give a list of his numerous

works. Many of his monuments are seen in the churches of England. In

Glasgow are his statues of Mr. Pitt and Sir John Moore, in bronze; in

Edinburgh is that of Robert Burns. Flaxman executed much sculpture for

the East Indies, one of these works being unfinished when he died. Some

critics consider his Archangel Michael and Satan his best work; it was

made for the Earl of Egremont, who had his life-size Apollo also.

In 1797 Flaxman was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy, in 1800

an Academician, and in 1810, when a Professor of Sculpture was added to

the other professors of the Academy, he was appointed to the office. His

lectures have been published. The friezes on the Covent Garden Theatre

were all designed by Flaxman, and he executed the figure of Comedy

himself. His last work was making designs for the exterior decoration of

Buckingham Palace, which would have been entirely under his direction

and partly executed by him if he had lived.

His wife died in 1820, and her loss was a grief from which he could not

recover; she had been a great advantage to him, and he had depended much

upon her sympathy and counsel. Flaxman was a singularly pure man, and so

attractive in manner that he was the friend of old and young alike.

Sir Richard Westmacott succeeded Flaxman as Professor at the Royal

Academy; he said: "But the greatest of modern sculptors was our

illustrious countryman, John Flaxman, who not only had all the fine

feeling of the ancient Greeks (which Canova in a degree possessed), but

united to it a readiness of invention and a simplicity of design truly

astonishing. Though Canova was his superior in the manual part, high

finishing, yet in the higher qualities, poetical feeling and invention,

Flaxman was as superior to Canova as was Shakespeare to the dramatists

of his day."

But the perfection of the results of the study of Canova and others who

endeavored to raise sculpture to its ancient glory was seen in the Dane,

BERTEL THORWALDSEN (1770-1844), who was born in Copenhagen. The descent

of this artist has been traced to memorable sources in two quite

distinct ways. Those who claim that the Norsemen discovered America

relate that during their stay upon this coast a child was born, from

whom Thorwaldsen's descent can be distinctly followed. The learned

genealogists of Iceland say that his ancestors were descended from

Harald Hildetand, King of Denmark, who, in the eighth century, was

obliged to flee, first to Norway and then to Iceland, and that one of

his descendants, Oluf Paa, in the twelfth century, was a famous

wood-carver. But this much is certain: in the fourteenth century there

lived in Southern Iceland a wealthy man, whose family and descendants

were much honored. One of these, Thorvald Gottskalken, a pastor, had

two sons and but a small fortune; so he sent his sons to Copenhagen,

where one became a jeweller and died young; the other, who was a

wood-carver, was the father of the artist, whose mother was Karen

Groeulund, the daughter of a Jutland peasant.

The father was employed in a shipyard, and carved only the rude

ornaments of vessels and boats; but these served to lead the mind of the

little Bertel to the art he later followed. His father could not have

dreamed of such a future as came to his son, but he was wise enough to

know that the boy might do more and better than he had done, and he sent

him, when eleven years old, to the free school of the Royal Academy to

study drawing; and very soon the works of the father showed the gain

which the son had made, for his designs were those now used by the old

wood-carver.

Bertel was also sent to study his books at the school of Charlottenburg,

and here he was so far from clever that he was put in the lowest class.

When Bertel gained his first prize at the academy the chaplain of the

school at Charlottenburg asked him if the boy who had taken the prize

was his brother. He looked up with surprise, and blushing, said, "It is

myself, Herr Chaplain." The priest was astounded at this, and said,

"Herr Thorwaldsen, please to pass up to the first class."

The boy was amazed at these honors, and from this day retained the title

of "Herr," which gave him much distinction. When, after many years, the

sculptor had been loaded with honors, and stood on the heights of fame,

he was accustomed to say that no glory had ever been so sweet to him as

that first rapture which came from the words of the Chaplain Hoeyer when

he was seventeen years old and a poor school-boy.

The effect of this first prize seemed to be to rouse his ambition, and

he worked with the greatest diligence and earnestness. Two years later

he made a bas-relief of Love in Repose, which took the large silver

medal. His father now thought him prepared to enter on the life of a

ship's carver, and Bertel made no objection to doing so; but the painter

Abildgaard, who had been his teacher in the academy, had grown very fond

of him, and saw how much talent he had, and could not think of his being

but a common tradesman without deep regret. He went, therefore, to the

old carver, and after some difficulty obtained his consent that his son

should spend half his time in study at the academy, and the other half

in the earning of his daily bread at his father's side.

In 1790, when twenty years old, Thorwaldsen made a medallion of the

Princess of Denmark, which was so good a likeness that a number of

copies was sold. A year later he gained the small gold medal of the

academy by a bas-relief of the Expulsion of Heliodorus from the Temple.

The Minister of State now became interested in the young artist, and

measures were taken to aid him to go on with his studies. His patrons

desired him to study the subjects of the antique sculptures, and he

chose that of Priam begging the Body of Hector from Achilles. Later in

life he repeated this subject, and it is interesting to notice the

strength and grandeur of the second when compared with the weakness of

the first. And yet it was from the latter that predictions were made of

Thorwaldsen's future greatness. In 1793 he gained the prize which

entitled him to travel and study three years at the expense of the

academy. The work he presented was a bas-relief of Saint Peter healing

the Paralytic. In these works this sculptor already showed two qualities

which remained the same through his life; in his subjects from antiquity

he showed a Greek spirit, which has led some writers to speak of him as

a "posthumous Greek," or a true Greek artist born after other Greek

artists had died; on the other hand, when he treated religious subjects

his spirit was like that of the best masters of the Renaissance, and

these works remind us of Raphael. All this excellence came entirely from

his artistic nature, for outside of that he was ignorant; he knew

nothing of history or literature, and was never a man of culture as long

as he lived. Outside of the work connected with his profession

Thorwaldsen was indolent, and only acquired knowledge of other matters

through observation or from the conversation of others.

Although he gained the prize which allowed him to travel in 1793, he did

not leave Copenhagen until May, 1796. In the mean time he had done what

he could to earn something: he had made designs for book-publishers,

given lessons in drawing and modelling, and made some bust and medallion

portraits, reliefs, and so on. The vessel in which the young sculptor

sailed for Naples was called the Thetis, and the captain engaged to

watch over him; the voyage was long, and all on board became fond of

Thorwaldsen, though the captain wrote, "He is an honest boy, but a lazy

rascal." This opinion is very amusing when we know what an enormous

amount of labor he performed. At Naples he remained for some time, and

saw and admired all its works of art. He did not reach Rome until about

nine months after leaving Copenhagen, but from that time his whole

thought and life were changed. He was accustomed to say, "I was born on

the 8th of March, 1797; before then I did not exist."

While in Naples Thorwaldsen had been ill, and suffered from a malarial

affection, which compelled him to be idle much of the time. But he was

always studying the antique statues, and made many copies. Some of the

first original works which he attempted were failures, when, at last, he

modelled a colossal statue of Jason, which was well received by those

who saw it, and made him somewhat famous in Rome (Fig. 118). Canova

praised it, and other critics did the same; but Thorwaldsen had no

money; the academy had supported him six years; what could he do? Quite

discouraged, he was engaged in his preparations for leaving Rome, when

Mr. Thomas Hope, the English banker, gave him an order for the Jason in

marble. In an hour his life was changed. He was living in Rome not as a

student on charity, but as an artist gaining his living. We are forced

to add that Mr. Hope did not receive this statue until 1828, and

Thorwaldsen has been much blamed for his apparent ingratitude; but we

cannot here give all the details of the unfortunate affair.

Thorwaldsen had a true and faithful friend in Rome, the archaeologist

Zoega; at his house the young Dane had met a beautiful Italian girl,

Anna Maria Magnani, whom he loved devotedly. She was too ambitious to

marry a poor sculptor, so she married a rich M. d'Uhden; but she

persuaded Thorwaldsen to sign an agreement by which he bound himself to

take care of her if she should not agree with her husband and should

leave him; this was just what happened in 1803, and the sculptor

received her into his house, where she remained sixteen years, when she

disappears from his life. He provided an honorable marriage for their

daughter.

[Illustration: FIG. 118.--JASON. _By Thorwaldsen._]

In 1803 Thorwaldsen also made the acquaintance of the Baron von

Schubart, the Danish Minister, who presented the sculptor to Baron von

Humboldt; and through the friendship of these two men, and the persons

to whom they presented him, Thorwaldsen received many orders. In 1804

his fame had become so well established that he received orders from all

countries, and from this time, during the rest of his life, he was never

able to do all that was required of him. He was much courted in society,

where he was praised for his art and beloved for his agreeable and

pleasing manner. In this same year he was made a Professor of the Royal

Academy of Florence; and though the Academy of Copenhagen expected his

return, they would not recall him from the scene of his triumphs, and

sent him a gift of four hundred crowns. A few months later he was made a

member of the Academy of Bologna and of that of his native city, in

which last he was also appointed a Professor.

Many circumstances conspired to increase his popularity and to excite

the popular interest in him, when, in 1805, he produced the bas-relief

of the Abduction of Briseis, which still remains one of his most

celebrated works. His Jason had put him on a level with Canova, who was

then at the height of his fame; now the Briseis was said by many to

excel the same type of works by Canova, and there is no question that in

bas-relief the Dane was the better sculptor of the two. This relief and

his group of Cupid and Psyche, which was completed in 1805, mark the era

at which Thorwaldsen reached his full perfection as a sculptor. In this

same year he modelled his first statue of Venus; it was less than

life-size; and though two copies of it were finished in marble, he was

not pleased with it, and destroyed the model: later he made the same

statue in full size.

In 1806 he received his first commission for religious subjects, which

consisted of two baptismal fonts for a church in the island of Fionia.

But he was devoted to mythological subjects, and preferred them before

all others, and in this same year modelled a Hebe while engaged upon

the fonts. His industry was great, but he found time to receive many

visitors at his studio, and went frequently into society. At the house

of Baron von Humboldt, then Prussian Ambassador at Rome, Thorwaldsen was

always welcome and happy; here he met all persons of note who lived in

or who visited Rome.

It was at this period that the young Prince Louis of Bavaria entered

into a correspondence with Thorwaldsen, which ended only with the

sculptor's life. Louis was collecting objects for his Glyptothek at

Munich, and he frequently consulted Thorwaldsen in these matters; his

advice was of value, and he more than once saved Louis from imposition

by dealers. Louis gave the sculptor the order for the fine Adonis, now

in the Glyptothek; it was modelled in 1808, but was not completed until

1832; this splendid work was executed entirely by Thorwaldsen's own

hands. In 1808 he also received the order for four bas-reliefs to be

used in the restoration of the Palace of Christiansborg, which had been

injured by fire. This was the year, too, when he was made an honorary

member of the Academy of St. Luke.

The year 1809 brought deep sorrows to Thorwaldsen in the death of his

two friends, Stanley and Zoega. He interested himself in the settlement

of the affairs of the latter, and had much trouble and anxiety; but he

managed to accomplish the modelling of six bas-reliefs in this year, in

spite of the disturbed state of Rome on account of the pope's departure,

and in spite of the hindrances in his own life.

In 1810 the King of Denmark made Thorwaldsen a Knight of Danebrog, and

he was then known in Italy as the _Cavaliere Alberto_. His work this

year was in bas-reliefs, and in 1811 he modelled a colossal statue of

Mars, the bust of Mademoiselle Ida Brun, a lovely statue of Psyche, and

his own portrait as a colossal Hermes.

The people of Denmark were growing very impatient at the prolonged

absence of their artist. He had left home a mere boy, and was now famous

over all the world. They wished for his return; a marble quarry had been

discovered in Norway, and even Prince Christian Frederick wrote to

Thorwaldsen to urge his going home. The sculptor wished to go, and even

made some preparations to do so, when he received so important a

commission that it was impossible to leave Rome. This new work was a

frieze for one of the great halls in the Quirinal Palace. He chose the

Entrance of Alexander the Great into Babylon for his subject, and it

proved to be one of the most important works of his life. It was

completed in June, 1812; and though it had been somewhat criticised as

too rough in its finish, when it was elevated to its proper height it

was all that had been expected by the artist's friends; later he

repeated this frieze for his own countrymen. In Rome he was now

frequently called the "Patriarch of Bas-relief." Soon after this he was

made a member of the Imperial Academy of Vienna.

In 1813 Thorwaldsen was again a victim of malignant fever, and visited

the baths of Lucca, in company with the Baron and Baroness von Schubart,

for the benefit of his health. He met many people and received much

honor, especially from the Grand Duchess of Tuscany. His health was

improved, but his old and tried friend, the Baroness von Schubart, died

the winter following; he felt her loss deeply, for she had been his

friend and confidante from the time of his arrival in Rome.

He was always busy, and one after another of his almost numberless works

was finished. In 1815 he made the Achilles and Priam, a relief which is

sometimes called his masterpiece; in the same year he made the famous

and familiar medallions of Night and Morning; it is said that he

conceived the first while awake in a sleepless, restless condition, and

modelled it entirely on the following day; these medallions have been

reproduced in all possible forms--in engravings, on cameos, gems, in

metals, and a variety of marble, plaster, and porcelain.

About this time Thorwaldsen removed to a spacious studio with gardens,

and received pupils, and was overwhelmed with orders, so that he could

not yet go to Denmark, in spite of the urgent letters he received. He

executed many important original works, and also restored the marbles of

AEgina, now at Munich; this was a great task, but his study of the

antique had made him better able to do it than was any other modern

sculptor.

[Illustration: FIG. 119.--GANYMEDE AND THE EAGLE. _By Thorwaldsen._]

The exquisite group of Ganymede and the Eagle (Fig. 119) shows the

effect of his study of the antique, and the same may be said of his

statue of Hope, a small copy of which was afterward placed above the

tomb of the Baroness von Humboldt. The Three Graces (Fig. 120) belongs

to the year 1817; the Mercury was of about this date, as well as the

elegant statue of the Princess Baryatinska, which is his finest portrait

statue.

After an absence from Denmark of twenty-three years he left Rome in

July, 1819, and turned his face toward home. His model for the famous

Lion of Lucerne had already been sent on before him, and the work

commenced by one of his pupils, Bienaime. Thorwaldsen first went to

Lucerne, where he gave all necessary advice in this work, and then

proceeding on his journey reached Copenhagen on the 3d of October.

Apartments had been prepared for him in the Academy of Fine Arts, and as

soon as it was known that he was there he was the centre of attraction

and importance. Crowds went to welcome him to his home. A great

reception and a grand banquet were given in his honor, and he was lauded

to the skies in speeches, and was made a Counsellor of State, in order

that he might sit at table with the royal family and not violate the

court etiquette.

[Illustration: FIG. 120.--THE THREE GRACES. _By Thorwaldsen._]

All this must have gratified the artist, who had earned such proud

honors by the force of his genius; but it interests us much more to know

that he received commissions for some very important works, among which

those of the Church of Our Lady are very interesting. The orders for all

the work which he did here were not given at once, but in the end it

became a splendid monument to this sculptor, and embraces almost all his

religious works of any importance. There are the figures of Christ and

the Twelve Apostles; the Angel of Baptism, which is an exquisite font;

the Preaching of St. John the Baptist, which is a group in terra-cotta

on the pediment of the church; a bas-relief in marble of the

Institution of the Lord's Supper; another in plaster of Christ's Entry

into Jerusalem; one of Christ Bearing the Cross; one of the Baptism of

Christ; another of the Guardian Angel, and one of Christian Charity.

He did not remain very long in Denmark, but went to Warsaw, where he had

been summoned to arrange for some important works. He was presented to

the Emperor Alexander, who gave him sittings for a portrait bust; this

was so successful that for some years Thorwaldsen employed skilled

workmen to constantly repeat it, in order to fill the demand for it

which was made upon him. While at Warsaw he received an order for a

monument to Copernicus, which was dedicated in 1830; other important

commissions were given him, and after visiting Cracow, Troppau, and

Vienna, he reached Rome in December, 1820, where he was heartily

welcomed by the artists, who gave him a banquet, on which occasion the

Prince Royal of Denmark sat next to the sculptor.

Before this a correspondence had established a friendship between

Thorwaldsen and Prince Louis of Bavaria; but from the year 1821 intimate

personal relations existed between them. He took up work with great

energy; he had returned to Rome with so much to do that he required much

room, and employed a large company of workmen. In the summer of 1822 he

was able to secure a large building which had been used for a stable to

the Barberini Palace, and here he was able to set up all his large

models.

In 1824 Thorwaldsen was summoned by the Cardinal Consalvi, who gave him

the commission for the monument to Pius VII., now in the Clementine

Chapel of St. Peter's at Rome; this work was not completed when the

cardinal himself died, and his own monument by Thorwaldsen was placed in

the Pantheon before that of Pius VII. was put in its place. He also made

a cross for the Capuchins for which he would accept no reward, though

they were entirely satisfied with it.

In 1825 Thorwaldsen was elected President of the Academy of St. Luke

with the advice and consent of Pope Leo XII., who paid him a visit in

his studio. Many delays occurred, and the monument to Pius VII. was not

erected until 1831.

The works upon which the artist and his assistants were engaged were far

too numerous to be mentioned; he was at the very height of fame and

popularity, and was forced to refuse some of the commissions sent him.

In 1830 he went to Munich to superintend the setting up of his monument

to Eugene Beauharnais, the Duke of Leuchtenberg. This gave Louis of

Bavaria an opportunity to show his regard for the sculptor, which he did

in every possible way. Soon after the monument was unveiled Thorwaldsen

received the cross of an officer of the Legion of Honor.

Thorwaldsen's place in Rome was a very important one, not only as an

artist, but as a man. He had the respect and esteem of many good men of

all nations; he also suffered some things from the envy of those who

were jealous of him, as is the case with all successful men; but he was

a fearless person, and did not trouble himself on account of these

things. The frequent agitations of a political nature, however, did

disturb him, and he began to think seriously of returning to Denmark. In

1837, when the cholera broke out in Rome, he determined to leave; his

countrymen were delighted, and a government frigate was sent to take him

home; he sailed from Leghorn in August, 1838. His arrival was hailed

with joy in Denmark, and wherever he went his progress was marked by

tokens of the pride which his countrymen felt in him. As soon as it was

known in Copenhagen, on September 17th, that the "Rota," which brought

the sculptor, was in the harbor, a flag was run up from St. Nicolas

Church as a signal for the beginning of the festivities which had been

arranged.

Although it rained heavily, boats filled with artists, poets, students,

physicians, mechanics, and naval officers went out to meet him; each

boat had a flag with an appropriate device, that of the artists having

Thorwaldsen's Three Graces, the poets, a Pegasus, and so on. The meeting

with his friends on the deck of the ship was a pleasant surprise to the

artist, who was hurried ashore amid the firing of salutes and all sorts

of joyous demonstrations, a vast number of boats rowing after that in

which he was seated. His carriage was drawn by the people from the quay

to Charlottenburg, where a vast crowd assembled to get a sight at him.

His form was tall and erect, his step firm; his long white hair fell on

his shoulders, and his clear eye and benevolent face beamed with

intelligence and sympathetic interest in all around him. He was led out

on a balcony, where, uncovered, he saluted the people, who greeted him

with wild applause. Thorwaldsen smiled and said, "Would not any one

think that we were in Rome, and I were the pope about to give the

benediction _urbi et orbi_ from the balcony of St. Peter's?"

One ovation after another followed, day by day, and such crowds of

visitors went to see him that he was unable to unpack and arrange his

possessions which he had brought from Italy, or to work at all, which

was worse to him. At last he began to do as he had done in Rome, and to

receive his friends with his chisel or modelling-stick in hand. He

lived frugally, and continued many of his Roman habits of life; but he

was forced to dine out every evening.

He was now sixty-eight years old, but he did a vast amount of work in

one way and another, and was so pursued by all sorts of people who

wished to engage his attention in a variety of projects, that he

seriously considered the question of leaving Copenhagen. He became very

fond of certain families where he visited, among which was that of the

Baron von Stampe, who, with his wife and children, were soon treated by

the sculptor as if they were his own kindred. He went with them to their

summer home at Nysoe, and while there the baroness persuaded him to

model his own statue. He did this imperfectly, as he had no suitable

workshop; and when the baroness saw his difficulty in working in an

ordinary room she had a studio built for him in a garden near the

castle. She took the time to do this when Thorwaldsen was absent for

eight days, and in this short space the whole was completed, so that

when he returned it seemed to him like magic. This studio was dedicated

in July, 1839.

He then began the proper modelling of his own statue, and was

progressing very well when he received a letter from the poet

Oehlenschlaeger, who was in great haste to have a portrait bust made of

himself. Thorwaldsen felt that he ought not to make his own statue when

thus wanted for other work, and he threw down his tools, and would have

broken the model. But the baroness succeeded in getting him away, and

locked the studio, keeping the key. However, no argument or entreaty

would move the sculptor, and she could do nothing with him until she

happened to think of crying. When she began to weep and to accuse him of

having no affection for her, and reminded him of the proofs of her

devotion which she had given him, he was taken in by her mock tears, and

exclaimed, "Well, they may think what they like. My statue is not for

posterity, but I cannot refuse it to a friend to whom it will give such

pleasure." He then resumed his work, and completed his statue in

seventeen days. He represented himself standing with one arm resting

upon his statue of Hope.

After this summer Thorwaldsen divided his time between Copenhagen and

Stampeborg, and worked with the same industry in one place as in the

other. The life in the country was a great delight to him; he played

games, listened to fairy tales from the poet Andersen, or to music from

the young girls of the house, all with equal pleasure; and if he were

allowed to have his mornings for work he would spend the rest of the day

in the woods or pay visits, and was perfectly happy in this succession

of labor and leisure.

Baroness Stampe did not stop at one trick upon the old artist, for she

found it more easy to gain a point in this way than by argument. He had

promised to execute a statue of Christian IV. for Christian VIII., the

reigning king; he put it off until the king was impatient. One day, when

he had gone for a walk, the baroness went to the studio and began a

sketch in clay as well as she could. When Thorwaldsen returned he asked

what she was doing, and she answered, "I am making the statue of the

king. Since you will not do it, and I have pledged my word, I must do it

myself." The artist laughed, and began to criticise her work; she

insisted it was all right, and at last said, "Do it better, then,

yourself; you make fun of me; I defy you to find anything to change in

my work." Thorwaldsen was thus led on to correct the model, and when

once he had begun he finished it.

It would be impossible to give any account here of the numerous

incidents in the later years of the life of this sculptor; of the honors

he received, of the many works he was consulted about and asked to do,

of the visits he paid and received from persons of note; few lives are

as full as was his, and the detailed accounts of it are very

interesting.

He had always desired to go again to Rome, and in 1841, when the Baron

von Stampe decided to go there with his family, Thorwaldsen travelled

with them. They went through Germany, and were everywhere received as

honorably as if he were a royal person: he was invited to visit royal

families; court carriages were at his service; Mendelssohn gave a

musical _fete_ for him; in all the great cities he was shown the places

and objects worthy of his attention; poets and orators paid him respect,

and nothing that could be done to show appreciation of his genius and

his works was omitted.

In Rome it was the same; he remained there almost a year, and upon his

arrival at Copenhagen, in October, 1842, he experienced the crowning

glory of his life. During his absence the Thorwaldsen Museum had been

completed, and here, the day after he reached home, he was received. The

building was decorated with garlands, and he went over the whole of it;

at last he entered the inner court, where he was to be buried; here he

stood for some time with bowed head, while all about him kept silence.

Can any one fancy the thoughts that must have come to him? Here he must

be buried, and yet here would he live in the works of his hand which

would surround him and remain to testify to his immortal powers.

He lived three years more, and was always busy. His mind was strong and

his conceptions of his subjects had lost nothing, but his ability to

execute his works was less; his hand had lost somewhat of its cunning.

He went much into society, was fond of the theatre, and under the

devoted care of his servant, Wilkens, he enjoyed all that was possible

to a man of his age. On the 24th of March 1844, the Baroness von Stampe

went to ask him to dine at her house; he said he was not well and would

not go out; but as his daughter was to be there and expected him he

decided to go. He was modelling a bust of Luther, and threw down before

it a handful of clay and stuck a trowel in it; just so, as he left it,

this now stands in the museum, preserved under glass, with the print of

his hand in the clay.

He was merry at dinner, and in speaking of the museum said he could die

now, whenever he chose, since the architect Bindesboell had finished his

tomb. After dinner he went to the theatre, and there it was seen that he

was really ill; he was taken out with haste and laid upon a sofa, when

it was found that he was already dead. The Charlottenburg joined the

theatre, and there, in the hall of antique sculpture, he was laid. He

was first buried in the Frue Kirke, which he had so splendidly

decorated; four years later he was borne to the vault in the centre of

the Thorwaldsen Museum, where above him grows the evergreen ivy, a

fitting emblem of his unfading fame.

Thiele, in his splendid book called "Thorwaldsen and his Works," gives a

list of two hundred and sixty works by this master; and as one journeys

from Rome, where are some of his sculptures in St. Peter's and the

Quirinal, to Copenhagen, with the Frue Kirke and the Museum, one passes

through few cities that are not adorned by his statues and reliefs.

Among his most important works are the frieze of Alexander's entrance

into Babylon, at the Quirinal; the Lion of Lucerne; the many statues,

groups, and bas-reliefs in the Frue Kirke; more than thirty sepulchral

and commemorative monuments in various cities and countries; sixteen

bas-reliefs which illustrate the story of Cupid and Psyche; twenty

bas-reliefs of Genii; twenty-two figures from antique fables, and many

portrait busts and statues, and various other subjects.

Thorwaldsen was a very remarkable man. No circumstance of his youth

indicated his success, and a certain indolence which he had would have

seemed to forbid it; but the power was within him, and was of that

genuine quality which will declare itself; and a man who has it becomes

great without intending to be so, and almost without believing that he

is remarkable beyond others. The true antique spirit seems to have been

revived in him. His characteristics as a sculptor are severe simplicity,

perfect beauty in form, distinctness, and repose. Thiele says of him:

"He has challenged and has received the decision of the world's Supreme

Court, that his name shall stand on the rolls of immortality. And if his

life might be embodied in a single emblem, perhaps it should be that of

a young lion, with an eye that glows and flashes fire, while he is bound

with ivy and led by the hand of the three graces."

The sculpture of Germany in the last part of the eighteenth and the

early years of the present century was very interesting. The architect

Schinkel was a great lover of antique art, and he had much influence

over all arts, as well as in his special department. Thorwaldsen himself

so admired the sculptor JOHN RUDOLPH SCHADOW (1786-1822) that when the

King of Prussia gave him a commission for a statue he replied: "Sire,

there is at this moment in Rome one of your faithful subjects who is

more capable than I of performing to your satisfaction the task with

which you deign to honor me; permit me to solicit for him your royal

favor." The commission was given to Schadow, and he made his charming

work, The Spinner. John Rudolph was the son of JOHN GOTTFRIED SCHADOW

(1764-1850), who was court sculptor, and long survived his gifted son.

The chief works of the father were the statues of Count von der Mark, at

Berlin; that of Frederick the Great, at Stettin; Luther's monument in

the market-place at Wittenberg, and Bluecher's statue at Rostock.

John Rudolph Schadow studied under both Canova and Thorwaldsen, and was

a very gifted artist. He was engaged upon a group of Achilles protecting

the body of Penthesilea at the time of his death; it was finished by

Wolff.

CHRISTIAN FREDERIC TIECK (1776-1851) was an eminent sculptor of his

time, and decorated with sculpture some of the fine edifices erected at

Berlin by Schinkel. He was very active in establishing a gallery of

models from the antique at Berlin, and was a Director of the Sculptures

in the Museum as well as a member of the Academy. His most successful

original works were portrait busts, and he had many notable people among

his sitters. Among them were the Emperor of Germany, the King of

Bavaria, Schelling, Goethe, Lessing, and many others.

[Illustration: FIG. 121.--STATUE OF QUEEN LOUISE. _By Rauch._]

CHRISTIAN RAUCH (1777-1857). This eminent sculptor was born at Waldeck,

and followed the manner of Schadow, which he carried to its perfection.

His statue of Queen Louise (Fig. 121) is one of the finest works of

modern sculpture, and his statues of the Generals Scharnhorst and Buelow,

in Berlin, are very fine; the reliefs upon the pedestals are of classic

beauty. But his masterpiece is the grand Friedrichs monument. Rauch

executed many excellent busts; he made good portraits, and yet he

elevated the character of his subjects to the greatest nobleness of

which they were capable. As a rule Rauch avoided religious subjects, but

late in life he modelled the group of Moses supported in prayer by Aaron

and Hur.

Among his important works are the statue of Bluecher, at Breslau; that of

August Hermann Franke, at Halle; Duerer, at Nuremberg; monument to

Maximilian I., at Munich; and six marble Victories for the Walhalla. His

works are numerous, and in them we feel that this artist had not a great

imaginative power; he rarely conceived imaginary subjects, but he took

some fact or personality as his motive, and elevated it to the highest

point to which it could be brought, and under his masterly style of

execution produced splendid results.

ERNST RIETSCHEL (1804-1860) was a gifted pupil of Rauch. After spending

some time in Rome he settled in Dresden, and executed the statue of

Friederich August of Saxony, for the Zwingerhof, when but twenty-seven

years old. His chief excellence was in portrait statues, and those of

Lessing and Luther are remarkable for their powerful expression of the

intellectual and moral force of those men. His religious subjects were

full of deep feeling, and his lighter works have a charming grace about

them.

LUDWIG SCHWANTHALER (1802-1848) studied much in Rome, and was as devoted

to the antique as was Thorwaldsen. He executed many works in Munich, the

principal ones being the interior decoration of the Glyptothek; also

that of the Koenigsbau and two groups for the Walhalla. A prominent work

by this master is the bronze statue of Bavaria, which is fifty-four feet

high and stands in front of the Ruhmeshalle. He also made twelve

gilt-bronze statues of Bavarian sovereigns. Schwanthaler had remarkable

powers of invention and a fruitful imagination; in these points he ranks

with the first of modern sculptors; but his works rarely rise above what

we call decorative art, and in spite of his excellent gifts he lacked

the power to arouse any enthusiasm for his statues.

There are many other names that might be mentioned in connection with

modern sculpture in Germany. Nowhere have the monuments and portrait

statues and busts reached a higher excellence than in what we may call,

in general terms, the Berlin school. Profound attention has been given

to the proper reproduction of the individual characters of its subjects,

while the art has not been allowed to sink into caricature or

commonplaceness. Nowhere does the traveller better appreciate the art of

our own day than in the sculpture of Germany.

But there are exceptions to this rule; some such artists as THEODORE

KALIDE and LUDWIG WICHMANN are wanting in the serious qualities of

Schadow, Rauch, and their followers, and sometimes fall into a coarse

realism; but in spite of this, the revival of love for the antique,

which began with Canova and his time, has borne rich fruit in the works

of modern German sculptors.

In France the spirit of modern sculpture has been largely that of the

severe classic style, and it has shown many of the same qualities that

we have seen in modern German sculpture; but the different

characteristics of the two nations have had their influence here as in

everything else. In France the artist has aimed at a fine

effect--flowing outline and dazzling representations of dramatic

motives--far more than the northern sculptors have done. There is less

thought and depth of feeling, more outward attraction and striking

effect. The classic taste which asserted itself in the time of Canova

was adopted in France, but in a French manner; and one of the earliest

artists who showed its effects was FRANCOIS JOSEPH BOSIO (1769-1845),

who was much honored. He was made a member of the Institute of France

and of the Royal Academy of Berlin: he was chief sculptor to the King of

France, and executed many public works. He made many portrait busts of

the royal family and other prominent persons, but his chief works were

the reliefs on the column of the Place Vendome, the Chariot on the arch

of the Place du Carrousel, the monument to the Countess Demidoff, and

statues of mythological heroes and heroines. For the Chapelle

Expiatoire, Bosio executed a group representing Louis XVII. receiving

comfort from an angel; the design is not as good as in some of his

classic works, but the conception is pure and noble.

[Illustration: FIG. 122.--NYMPH. _By Bosio._]

JAMES PRADIER (1790-1832), though born in Geneva, was essentially a

French sculptor, and excelled the artists of his day in his

representations of feminine beauty. His masterpiece is a fountain at

Nimes, in which the figures are fine and the drapery noble and distinct

in treatment. The serious and comic Muses of the Fountain Moliere are

excellent works. He made several separate statues which are well known;

his Psyche has a butterfly poised on the upper part of the arm; Atalanta

is fastening her sandals; Sappho is in despair. His Niobe group showed

his power to represent bold action, and his Prometheus chained, erected

in the garden of the Tuileries, is grand and spirited.

We could name a great number of French sculptors belonging to this

period whose works are seen in many public places which they adorn, but

whose genius was not sufficient to place them in the first ranks of the

world's artists, or make the accounts of them anything more than a list

of works which has little meaning, except when one stands before them.

Perhaps no one man had so wide an influence upon this art as had PIERRE

JEAN DAVID (1793-1856), who is called David of Angers, which was his

birthplace, in order to distinguish him from Jacques Louis David, the

great painter, who was like a father to this sculptor, though in no way

connected with him by ties of kindred, as far as we know. But when the

sculptor went to Paris, a very poor boy, David the painter, whose

attention was called to him in some way, was his friend, and gave him

lessons in drawing and aided him in other ways. In 1811 David of Angers

obtained the prize which enabled him to go to Rome, and after his

return to Paris he was constantly employed. The amount of his work was

enormous; many of his statues were colossal, and he executed a great

number of busts and more than ninety medallions.

He made the statue of Mme. de Stael; one of Talma for the Theatre

Francais; the colossal statue of King Rene at Aix; monument to Fenelon

at Cambray; the statue of the great Conde at Versailles; the Gutenberg

memorial at Strasburg, which is one of his most successful works, and a

large number of other sculptures.

His chief characteristic is realism, and he carried this so far that it

frequently became coarseness. David designed the relief for the pediment

of the Pantheon. The inscription on the building declares that it is

dedicated by a grateful country to its great men, and the sculptor seems

to have had this in mind, for he represented in his group a figure of

France surrounded by those who had been great in its times of war and

days of peace. It is too realistic to be pleasing, and is far less

creditable to the sculptor than are many of his less prominent works.

If little can be said of the modern French sculpture prior to our

immediate time, there is still less to be told of that of England. There

are many public monuments there, but they do not show forth any high

artistic genius or rise above the commonplace except in very rare

instances. There is but one English sculptor of whom I shall speak. JOHN

GIBSON (1791-1866) was born near Conway, in Wales. When he was nine

years old his parents went to Liverpool with the intention of sailing

for America; but they gave up the idea, and the boy was sent to school

in Liverpool. Before this he had been in the habit of drawing and of

making sketches of anything that he saw and was pleased with; he now

studied the prints in the shop windows, and made pictures, which he sold

to his fellow-pupils. He attracted the attention of a print-seller, who

was so interested in him that he allowed him to draw from studies and

casts from the antique which he had. When fourteen years old the boy was

apprenticed to a cabinet-maker, but after a year he persuaded his

employer to allow him to leave his shop, and was then apprenticed to a

wood-carver. He did not stop at this, however, for when he became

acquainted with the Messrs. Francis, who had a marble-yard, he persuaded

his second master to release him, and was apprenticed for the third

time, and in this case to the occupation which he had determined should

be that of his life.

He was now very happy, and his improvement in drawing, modelling, and

working in marble was very rapid. After a few months he made the

acquaintance of William Roscoe, who became his friend and patron. He

remained in Liverpool until he was twenty-seven years old; he had

improved every advantage within his reach, but he was very desirous of

travelling. In 1817, armed with a few letters of introduction, he went

to London, where he obtained several orders, and in October of that year

went to Rome.

He had a letter to Canova, who took him under his care and gave him

admission to the classes in the Academy, in which he could draw from

living models. In 1819 he received his first important commission; it

was from the Duke of Devonshire for a group of Mars and Cupid. From this

time he advanced steadily in his profession, and was always busy. He

lived twenty-seven years in Rome, and passed his summers in Innsbrueck.

In 1844 he went to Liverpool to oversee the erection of his statue of

Mr. Huskisson; he was received with enthusiasm, and when he went to

Glasgow to superintend the placing of his statue of Mr. Finlay in the

Merchants' Hall his reception was even more flattering, as it was given

him simply as an artist, and not connected with any former associations,

as in Liverpool. During this visit to England Gibson was summoned to

Windsor to make a statue of Queen Victoria, which he completed after

his return to Rome. The queen was represented in a classical costume,

and the diadem, sandals, and borders of the drapery were colored. This

was very much criticised and much was written and said about it; Gibson

took little notice of all this, and simply answered it by saying,

"Whatever the Greeks did was right."

In 1851 Gibson sustained a great loss in the death of his brother Ben,

who had lived with him in Rome for fourteen years. Five years later,

when in perfect health, the sculptor was attacked by paralysis, and

lived but a short time. He was buried in the English cemetery at Rome,

and Lord Lytton wrote the inscription upon his monument. It says: "His

native genius strengthened by careful study, he infused the spirit of

Grecian art into masterpieces all his own. His character as a man was in

unison with his attributes as an artist--beautiful in its simplicity and

truthfulness, noble in its dignity and elevation." A monument was also

raised to Gibson in the church at Conway.

The master left the models of all his works and the larger part of his

fortune to the Royal Academy in London. Among his works are Mars and

Cupid, at Chatsworth; Psyche borne by Zephyrs, in the Palazzo Torlonia,

at Rome, and a replica at St. Petersburg; Hylas surprised by Nymphs, in

the National Gallery, London; Sleeping Shepherd Boy, in the Lenox

collection in New York; Cupid disguised as a Shepherd, which he often

repeated; portraits of Queen Victoria, at Buckingham Palace and Osborne;

Sir Robert Peel, in Westminster Abbey; George Stephenson, in St.

George's Hall, Liverpool; eighteen portrait busts; sixteen bas-reliefs

of ideal subjects and sixteen others for monuments to the dead. A large

part of these are in the chapel of the Liverpool Cemetery. He modelled a

bas-relief of Christ blessing little children.

Gibson found his entire happiness in his art. In his own words, he

worked on "happily and with ever new pleasure, avoiding evil and with a

calm soul, making images, not for worship, but for the love of the

beautiful. The beautiful elevates us above the crowd in this world; the

ideal, higher--yes, higher still, to celestial beauty, the fountain of

all. Socrates said that outward beauty was the sign of the inward; in

the life of a man, as in an image, every part should be beautiful."

He was never elated by praise; he was glad of tributes which proved that

he was respected, but he received all honors with a simplicity of

self-respect which spoke the sincere nobility of his nature.

There are many amusing anecdotes told of his absentmindedness about

everything not connected with his art. Miss Harriet Hosmer was his only

pupil, and she said of him: "He is a god in his studio, but God help him

when he is out of it." He never could master the ins and outs of

railroad travelling, and even when put in the right train at the right

time he would be sure to get out at the wrong place at the wrong time.

On one of his journeys, when he supposed he was at the right place, he

got out and asked the porter to show him the way to the cathedral. In

his own account he said: "But the scoundrel would have it there was no

cathedral in the place, and at last had the impudence to ask me if I

knew where I was. Then I discovered that instead of being in Chichester,

where I had a particular appointment with the dean and chapter, I was

safe in Portsmouth, where there was no cathedral at all."

The time has not come for any comprehensive estimate of the sculpture of

our own country. So many of our artists are still living that it would

be unjust to speak of them in connection with those whose work is

complete and whose rank is fixed as a matter of history. We have no

right to say of one who is still working that he has reached his full

height, and even after death a certain period must elapse before the

true merit of an artist can be established and his name written in its

just place upon the roll of fame. So, in leaving this subject, we will

turn again to the land of which we first spoke in considering modern

sculpture. In Italy this art has not risen above the elevation to which

Canova and Thorwaldsen brought it; for though the last was a Dane, his

work may truly be said to belong to the Roman school. We must regard

Italy as the land of art in a peculiar sense, but it is easy to

understand that under the political misfortunes which she has suffered

an advance in artistic life could not be made. Now, when a new spirit is

active there, and a freer thought prevails in other directions, may we

not believe that in the arts there will be a revival of the best

inspiration that has ever come to that home of grace and beauty?

As we glance over the entire civilized world of to-day we find an

immense activity in all matters pertaining to the fine arts. Schools and

academies are multiplied everywhere, and the interest in works of art is

universal. Many a private gentleman is to-day as liberal a patron of

artists as were the princes and nobles of the past. It is as if there

were a vast crucible in which artists of all nations are being tested,

and from this testing of their metal it would seem that much pure gold

must come forth.

As we review the history of sculpture from its earliest days to the

present, we are compelled to linger lovingly with the Greek or classic

art. The period in which it existed was a blessed period for the

sculptor. We all know that the best foundation for the excellence of art

is the study and reproduction of _nature_, and in the times of the

Greeks there was no reason why the human form, the most beautiful object

in nature, should not be used by the sculptor for the decoration of the

temple, for the statues of the public square or theatre, or for any

position in which sculpture could be used at all. The customs of modern

life are opposed to this free exhibition of nude forms, and the

difficulties that are thrown in the way of the sculptor by this one fact

are almost more than we can realize; and the task of draping a figure

and yet showing its shape and indicating its proper proportions and

action is one before which even a Greek sculptor would have reason to

doubt himself.

On the other hand, when a sculptor does succeed in producing a draped

figure which satisfies artistic taste, he has achieved much, and merits

the highest praise. A drapery which has gracefully composed masses and

flowing lines adds great dignity to the figure of a patriarch or a

prophet, and there are numerous subjects, religious and monumental, in

which a full, graceful drapery is requisite; but when, as is often the

case, the sculptor is required to reproduce the actual costume of the

day, what can we look for? The truth is, it has no grace in itself;

what, then, must it be when put into the fixedness of bronze or marble?

Yet where is the remedy for this? We do not wish to see the men whom we

have known and who have moved among us in the dress of other men put

into an antique disguise by the sculptor; the incongruity of this is too

apparent. Much has been written and said upon these points, and no

solution of the difficulty has been found; but it is only just that when

we judge of the statues made under such difficulties, we should remember

them and give the artist the benefit of the consideration of all the

hindrances that exist for him.

Westmacott, in his "Handbook of Sculpture," gives as his "Conclusion" an

account of the mechanical methods of the sculptor, and I believe that I

can add nothing here which will be of greater use to my readers than a

quotation from that author.

"The artist, having invented or conceived his subject, usually begins by

making a small sketch of it in some soft and obedient substance, as

clay or wax. He can change or alter this at his pleasure till he is

satisfied with the lines and masses of the composition, and the

proportions it will command of light and shadow. He then proceeds to

copy this small but useful sketch, as his guide, in its general

arrangement, for his full-sized model. Before commencing the larger

model it is necessary to form a sort of skeleton or framework of iron

and wood, with joints made of wire, to support the great mass of clay in

which the figure or group is now to be executed. This iron frame is

firmly fixed upon a turning bench, or banker, so that the model may be

constantly moved without difficulty, so as to be seen in different

lights and in various points of view. As the clay is likely to shrink as

it gets dry, it is necessary occasionally to wet it. This is done by

sprinkling water over it with a brush, or from a large syringe, and by

laying damp cloths upon it. This is the ordinary process for making a

model in the 'round.'

"In modelling in _rilievo_ of either kind, _alto_ or _basso_, a plane or

ground is prepared upon which the design is, or should be, carefully

drawn. This may be made of clay floated or laid upon a board, or the

ground may be of slate, or even of wood, though the latter is

objectionable, in large works especially, from its liability to shrink

and to be warped by the action of damp or moisture. The clay is then

laid in small quantities upon this ground, the outline being bounded by

the drawing, which should be carefully preserved; and the bulk or

projection of the figures is regulated by the degree of relief the

sculptor desires to give to his design.

"If the final work is to be baked in clay (_terra-cotta_) there must be

no iron or wooden nucleus, as it would interfere with the model drying

regularly and uniformly, and probably cause it to crack in shrinking.

The model is therefore prepared for drying without such support. When

perfectly free from moisture the model is placed in an oven and baked

slowly, by which it acquires great hardness and the peculiar

brownish-red color seen in these works. This art has been brought to

great perfection in England in modern days.

"If the final work is to be in marble, or bronze, or only in plaster,

the next process after finishing the model is to mould it, in

preparation for its being reproduced in a material that will bear moving

about without risk of injury to the design. This is done by covering it

with a mixture of plaster of Paris with water, which quickly sets or

becomes consistent, forming a hard and thick coating over the whole. The

clay is then carefully picked out, and an exact matrix, or form,

remains. This is washed clean, and the interior is then brushed over

with any greasy substance, usually a composition of soap and oil, to

prevent the plaster with which it is next to be filled adhering too

firmly to it. The fresh plaster is mixed to about the consistency of

cream and then poured into the mould, which is gently moved about till

the inner surface is entirely filled or covered, so that all parts may

be reached. The thickness or substance of the coating depends upon the

size of the work and the degree of strength required.

"When the newly introduced plaster is set the mould is carefully knocked

away with chisels, and a true cast appears beneath, giving an entire

fac-simile of the original model. Some skill is required in making

moulds, in order to provide for projecting parts and under-cuttings;

practice alone can teach the artist how to deal with those difficulties

when they occur. The above general instructions sufficiently explain the

ordinary processes of moulding and casting in plaster.

"In metal-casting or founding great attention must be paid to the

strengthening of the parts to bear the weight of the metal; but the

principle described in plaster-moulding applies also to the preparation

for metal-casting. The mixture of metals to form bronze, the proper

heating of the furnace, burning and uniting parts, chasing and other

processes of founding cannot be fully described in this place. They

belong to a distinct practice, and to be well understood must be studied

in the foundry.

"If the model--now reproduced in plaster--is to be copied in marble or

stone, the first step is to procure a block of the required size. Two

stones, called _scale-stones_, are then prepared, upon one of which the

model or plaster cast is placed, and upon the other the rough block of

marble. The fronts of these stones have figured marks or 'scales,' to

use the technical term, exactly corresponding. An instrument capable of

being easily moved, and which is fitted up with socket-joints and

movable arms, is then applied to the scale-stone of the model, and a

projecting point or 'needle' is made to touch a particular part of the

model itself. This is carefully removed to the scale-stone of the rough

block, and the marble is cut away till the 'needle' reaches so far into

the block as to correspond with the 'point' taken on the model. A

pencil-mark is then made to show that the _point_ is found and

registered. This process is repeated all over the model and block,

alternately, till a rough copy or shape of the model is entirely made.

These 'pointing' machines are not always precisely alike in their forms,

but the principle upon which they act is exactly similar in all. The

statue being thus rudely shaped out, the block is placed in the hands of

a superior workman, called a 'carver,' who, having the plastic model

near at hand to refer to, copies the more minute portions of the work by

means of chisels, rasps, and files, the pencil-marks made by the

'pointer' showing him the precise situation of the parts and the limit

beyond which he is not to penetrate into the marble. When the carver has

carried the work as far as the sculptor desires, he proceeds himself to

give it the finishing touches, improving the details of form and

expression, managing the different effects produced by two different

materials--one, the plastic model, being opaque; the other, the marble,

being considerably diaphanous; giving the proper varieties of texture in

the flesh, hair, and drapery, and, more especially, harmonizing the

whole.

"The rich quality of surface that appears more or less in works of

marble is produced by rubbing with fine sand or pumice-stone and other

substances, and the ancients appear to have completed this part of their

work by a process which is called '_circumlitio_,' and may mean not only

rubbing or polishing, but applying some composition, such as hot wax, to

give a soft, glowing color to the surface. Many of the ancient statues

certainly exhibit the appearance of some foreign substance having

slightly penetrated the surface of the work to about one eighth of an

inch, and its color is of a warmer tint than the marble below it; a

process, be it observed, quite distinct from and not to be confounded

with _polychromy_, or what is usually understood by painting sculpture

with various tints, in imitation of the natural color of the complexion,

hair, and eyes. Its object, probably, with the ancients as with modern

sculptors, has been simply to get rid of the glare and freshness of

appearance that is sometimes objected to in a recently finished work, by

giving a general warmth to the color of the marble."

INDEX.

"Abduction of Briseis" (Thorwaldsen), 257

Abildgaard, 254

"Abraham and Isaac," 139

"Abundance" (della Porta), 212

Academy of Fine Arts, Florence, Michael Angelo's David in, 201

Achilles, story of, 26;

and Priam (Thorwaldsen), 299;

and Penthesilea (Schadow), 270

Acropolis, 78

Action in Egyptian sculpture, 3

"Actaeon and his Dogs," 24

"Adam" (Cano), 220

"Adam and Eve," reliefs of, 138, 139;

by Rizzo, 154

"Adonis" (Thorwaldsen), 258

"Adoring Madonna," 152

AEgina, marbles of, and Thorwaldsen, 260

AEmilius Paulus, 84

"AEneas and Anchises" (Chaudet), 248

AEsculapius. _See_ Asclepius

AEtolians, 84

Agamemnon, 90

Agesander and the Laocoon, 74

Agnello, Fra Guglielmo d', 130

Agoracritus, 49, 51

Agrippa and the Apoxyomenos, 70

Agrippina, statue of, 103

Aix, 275

Alaric and Minerva Promachos, 35

Albert, Archduke, and Duquesnoy, 226

Alcamenes, 49

Aldovrandi, Gian Francesco, 198

Alexander the Great;

statues of, 69, 72;

decline after, 72;

portrait statues of, 100;

and Diogenes, by Puget, 229;

by Dannecker, 248;

by Thorwaldsen, 259;

Entrance into Babylon of, 268

Alexander, Emperor of Russia, and Thorwaldsen, 262

Alexander VII., monument of, 226

Alexandros, sculptor of Venus of Milo, 87

Alto-rilievo, 281

Altoviti, statue of (Cellini), 191

Amadeo, Giovanni Antonio, 157

Amboise Monument, 177

Ambraser Gallery, Vienna, Cellini's salt-cellar in, 190

Amiens Cathedral, 176

Ancient Italian sculpture, 82

Ancona, 156

Andersen, Hans, and Thorwaldsen, 266

Androsphinx, 6

"Angel of Baptism" (Thorwaldsen), 262

"Angel's Salutation" (Stoss), 165

Anguier, Francois, 228

Anguier, Michael, 228

Animals in Egyptian sculpture, 5

Anne of Austria, and Anguier, 228

Anne of Brittany, monument of, 177

"Annunciation" (Donatello), 142

Annunziata, church of, 212

Antigonus, father of Poliorcetes, 73

Antium, 91

Antonelli, Cardinal, 100

Antwerp, town hall of, 231

Aphrodite. _See_ Venus

Apollo;

Sosianus, temple of, 61;

by Leochares, 65;

the Belvedere, 91,

theories concerning, 92, 95;

the Steinhaeuser, 91;

the Stroganoff, 92;

by Sansovino, 186;

and Daphne, by Bernini, 224;

and Daphne, by Canova, 239;

by Canova, 240;

by Flaxman, 251

Apollodorus, 86

Apollonius, of the Toro Farnese, 76

Apostles (Thorwaldsen), 262

"Apoxyomenos" (Lysippus), 70

Archaic period, 22

Archaistic period, 27

Arches in Rome, 97

Architecture, close connection with Egyptian sculpture, 10

"Archangel Michael and Satan" (Flaxman), 251

Areobrudus, diptych of, 109

Arezzo, 132

Argos, school of, 72

"Ariadne" (Dannecker), 248

Arrezzo, Niccolo of, 135

Artemis, archaistic statue of, 28, 94, 95 (and _see_ Diana)

Aschaffenburg Vischer's works in, 175

Asclepius, by Alcamenes, 50;

by Canova, 239

Assos, reliefs from, 23

Assyria, 10

Assyrian influence on Etruscan art, 82

Atalanta, by Pradier, 274

Athena;

Promachos (Phidias), 34;

birth of, 38;

attributes of, 39;

representations of, 40;

by Phidias, 84;

of the Capitol, 94, 95, 96 (and _see_ Minerva and Pallas)

Athenodorus and the Laocoon, 74

Athens, statue from, at Rome, 84

Attalus I., statues of, 78

Augsburg, 123, 164

Augustio, 108

Augustus, Emperor;

and archaistic period, 27;

and Grecian spoils, 84;

statue of, 102

Babylonians, 17

Bacchus;

and the Tyrrhenian robbers, 67;

tripod of, by Lysicrates, 67; 84;

by Sansovino, 185;

by Michael Angelo, 200

Baldachin, 174

Balier, Heinrich den, 123

Bamberg, 123;

carvings in, 167;

and Krafft, 168

Bandinelli, Baccio, 212;

and Cellini, 190

Baptistery of Pisa, 128

Baptistery of Florence, 137, 138;

gates of, 133

Barberini, Cardinal, and Bernini, 223

"Barberini Faun," 73

Bargello, museum of the, 139

Baryatinska, Princess, 260

Basle, Steinhaeuser Apollo in, 91

Basilica of San Petronio, Bologna, 137

Bas-relief;

Egyptian, 2;

Assyrian, 12;

the first, 20

Basso-rilievo, 281

"Battle of Athenians and Amazons," 78

"Battle of Marathon," 78

"Battle of the Gods and Giants," 78

Bavaria;

King of, 270;

statue of, 271;

sovereigns of, Schwanthaler's statues of, 272

Beata Villana, 151

Beauharnais, monument to, 263

"Beautiful Fountain," Nuremberg, 123

Beauty, Greek love of, 18

Begarelli, Antonio, 193

"Berengaria," statue of, 119

Berlin Museum, works of Pythagoras in, 30;

Begarelli's works in, 194

Berlin school, 272

Bernardi, Giuseppe, 237

Berne, cathedral of, 170

Bernini, 223

Berruguete, Alonso, 217

Bertoldo and Michael Angelo, 195

Bethmann, Herr, 248

Beuch, 213

Bienaime, pupil of Thorwaldsen, 261

Bindesboell, architect, 268

"Birth of St. John" (Duerer), 166

Bluecher, Schadow's statue of, 269;

Rauch's statue of, 271

Boboli Gardens, 214

Boethus of Chalcedon, 80

Boileau, bust of, 229

Bologna; 128;

works of Lombardo in, 192;

Michael Angelo in, 198

Bologna, Giovanni da, 213

Bon family, 135

Bontemps, Pierre, 178

Bosio, Francois Joseph, 273

Bottigari, de', 193

Bourges, Cathedral of, 114, 178

Bourgtherroulde, Hotel, 178

"Boy and Dolphin" (Verocchio), 149

"Boy and Goose," 80

Braccini, Nicolo, 187

Bramante and Michael Angelo, 202

Braye, Cardinal de, monument of, 133

Bregno, Antonio Giovanni, 154

Breslau, 271

Briseis, by Thorwaldsen, 257

Bristol, Lord, and Flaxman, 251

British Museum;

Harpy monument in, 24;

Elgin marbles in, 37;

statue of Pericles in, 52;

statue of Mausolus in, 57;

Etruscan table-ware in, 83;

Duerer's carvings in, 166

Bronzes, Etruscan, 82

"Brother and Sister," Niobe group, 64

Bruges, 178

Brugsch-Bey concerning Martisen, 1

Brun, Charles le, monument of, 229

Brun, Ida, Thorwaldsen's statue of, 258

Brunelleschi, 139, 140

Bruni, Lionardo, statue of, 151

Brunswick Museum, 166

Buckingham Palace, and Flaxman, 251;

and Gibson, 277

Buonarroti, 194

Buoni, 135

Burgkapelle, and Veit Stoss, 165

Burgos, Altars of, 179

"Burial of Christ" (Krafft), 168

Burns, Flaxman's statue of, 251

Buelow, Rauch's statue of, 270

Byzantium, early Christian sculpture in, 108;

ivory carving in, 108

"Cain and Abel," 139

Calabria, Duke of, 153

Calamis, 31

Caligula, and the Thespian Cupid, 61;

and Grecian spoils, 84

Callimachus, 52

Callon of AEgina, 27

Cambio, Arnolfo di, 133

Cambray, 275

Campanile at Florence, 146

Campo Santo of Pisa, 131

Cano, Alonso, 219

Canon of Polycleitus, 54

Canova, Antonio, 236;

and Gibson, 276

Canova, Pasino, 236

Canterbury Cathedral, 121

Capitol at Rome;

Helios in, 69;

Minerva in, 95

Capitoline Museum, busts by Canova in, 246

Capuchins and Thorwaldsen, 263

Caracalla, Baths of;

and "Farnese Bull," 76;

and "Farnesian Hercules," 88

Caridad of Seville, 220

Carlovingians, statues of, 119

Carrousel, Place du, Chariot of, 273

Carthusian Chapel, Dijon, 125

Carver, 283

Casa Santa, Loreto, 184

Castellani collection, 78

Cavaliere Alberto, 258

Cellini, Benvenuto, 187

"Centaurs and Lapithae" (Alcamenes), 51

"Cephalus and Aurora" (Flaxman), 251

Cephisodotus, 55

Ceres;

Roman temple of, 83;

Livia as, 104

Certosa of Pavia, 177; 194;

and Omodeo, 158

Cesena, 156;

and Lombardo, 192

Chapelle Expiatoire, 274

Chares of Lindos, 71

"Charity" (Coysevox), 229

Charles I. and Bernini, 226

Charles VIII., 177

Charmidas, 32

Chartres, cathedral of, 114

Chaudet, Antoine Denis, 247

Choragic monument of Lysicrates, 65

Choragus, 65

Christ;

early statues of, 106;

figure of, at Rheims, 117;

by Vischer, 174;

by Michael Angelo, 206;

by Coustou, 230;

by Dannecker, 248;

various statues of, by Thorwaldsen, 262;

by Gibson, 277

Christian IV., Thorwaldsen's statue of, 266

Christian VIII. and Thorwaldsen, 266

Christian Art, 104

"Christian Charity" (Thorwaldsen), 262

Christian Frederick, Prince, 259

Christian sculpture, 105

Christiansborg palace and Thorwaldsen, 258

Chryselephantine statues, 22