MEDIAEVAL SCULPTURE, FROM THE FIFTH TO THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
The ancient or classic Italian sculpture of which we have spoken may be
said to have extended to about the middle of the fourth century of the
Christian era. The arch of Constantine was one of its latest works, and
is interesting as an example of the decline of art. The sculptures upon
it, which were taken from the arch of Trajan, executed two centuries
earlier, are so superior to those that were added in the time of
Constantine, that nothing could give one a clearer idea of the decadence
of sculpture than seeing the works of two periods thus placed side by
side.
After the time of Constantine, when the Christians were no longer forced
to hide their art in the catacombs, they began to have a sculpture of
their own. The first Christians in Rome were brought into contact with
the worship of Isis and Pan, Venus and Apollo, and were filled with
horror at the sight of the statues of these divinities. They believed
that any representation of the human form was forbidden by the
commandment which says, "Thou shalt not make to thyself any graven
image, nor the likeness of anything that is in the heaven above, or in
the earth beneath, or in the water under the earth." Thus it happened
that when the early Christians desired to represent the Saviour they
employed painting, such as is found in the catacombs, rather than
sculpture, and separate statues are the rarest remains of early
Christian art.
The oldest Christian statue which is known in marble is that of St.
Hippolytus, which is in the Museum of the Lateran Palace, where there
are also two small statues of Christ as the Good Shepherd, which were
found in the catacombs.
[Illustration: FIG. 71.--STATUE OF ST. PETER.]
The most important statue of this period is that of St. Peter, which is
held in great reverence by Roman Catholics, who kiss its toe as they
enter the church of St. Peter's at Rome, and press their foreheads
against the extended foot. The statue is of bronze, and some
antiquarians believe that it is the Jupiter of the Capitol changed so as
to answer for a statue of St. Peter; others say that it was cast from
the metal of the statue of Jupiter; and the usual belief is that it was
made by the order of Pope Leo I. about the middle of the fifth century
as a thank-offering for the deliverance of Rome from the barbarian
Attila by the miraculous protection of St. Peter and St. Paul. This
statue is too rude to belong to classic art, though it is of remarkable
excellence for a work of the fifth century (Fig. 71).
The principal use of sculpture by the early Christians was for the
decoration of the sarcophagi, or burial-cases. These were cut in
bas-reliefs after the manner of the ancients, the subjects being taken
from the life of Christ; the ornaments were the Christian emblems, such
as the lamb, cross, vine, palm, dove, and the monogram of Christ. As
time passed the designs were more and more elaborate; stories from the
Old Testament were frequently illustrated, and numerous figures were
crowded together, with many symbols ingeniously inserted to make the
meaning of the whole more clear.
The largest number and the best of these sarcophagi are now in the
museums of the Lateran and the Vatican. In the centre of one of the
finest of these is a shell, in which are the half figures of the two who
were buried in this sarcophagus. At the upper left hand is the Saviour
before the tomb of Lazarus; one of the sisters of the dead man kisses
the hand of Jesus; next to this is the Denial of Peter; nearest the
shell Moses reaches up to receive the Table of the Law. On the right of
the shell, in the upper row, is the Sacrifice of Isaac and the Washing
of Pilate's Hands. On the lower row, beginning at the left, is Moses
causing the Water to flow from the Rock; next is the Apprehension of
Peter, and next, Daniel in the Lions' Den. Besides these there are the
Healing of the Blind and the Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes. This will
show how elaborate the carving is on these burial-cases, and how the
subjects from the Old and New Testaments are mingled without order or
apparent reason. These sarcophagi have been found in various parts of
Italy and in France, and are seen in many museums.
In no part of the Roman Empire was sculpture as favorably regarded by
the early Christians as at Byzantium. Several attempts to adorn the city
with statues and other works of art were made there, and many of the
Greek sculptures which had been carried to Rome were again borne off to
decorate this new Capitol. The Emperor Constantine there erected a
column a hundred feet high, and placed his statue on it; Theodosius also
erected a column and an obelisk; but Justinian excelled all these, and
about 543 A.D. set up a monument with a colossal equestrian statue of
himself in bronze upon it. The column which supported this statue was of
brick masonry covered with plates of bronze. From the accounts we have
of it we conclude that this was a fine work for its time; it was called
the Augustio, and was placed on the Augusteum near the church of St.
Sophia; in the sixteenth century it had been overthrown and broken in
pieces, and the metal was then melted down. The artist who executed the
Augustio was Eustathius of Rome, who was sent to Byzantium for this
purpose.
But the Byzantine Christians soon grew into a fixed disapproval of
statues, and favored only the lesser works of art. Ivory-carving, which
long before had been brought from the East by the Greeks, now came into
special favor, and the Byzantine artists devoted all their talent to
making beautiful works of this sort. The most important of these
carvings which remains is in the cathedral of Ravenna. It is the
episcopal chair or cathedra of Maximianus, and was made between 546 and
552 (Fig. 72).
This chair is composed entirely of carved plates of ivory; scenes from
the life of Joseph and other similar designs are represented, and these
are surrounded by a great variety of small figures, which form a sort of
framework around the principal parts; for example, animals and birds
among vine-branches, and all arranged in a life-like and artistic
manner. So large a work as this chair in ivory is unusual. The greater
number of ivory carvings are upon small objects, such as drinking-cups
and other vessels, book-covers and diptychs, or tablets for writing, of
which fine specimens remain and are seen in art collections.
Diptychs were carved ivory tablets, with the inner surface waxed for
writing, and were used by the early Christians, as they had been by the
ancients. The illustration given here is from the diptych of the Consul
Areobrudus, and belongs to the year 506 (Fig. 73). The whole design upon
it represents a contest with lions and bears; the scene is where--the
circus gates being thrown open--the animals rush into the arena to be
slain by the gladiators. Some diptychs are ornamented with subjects from
the life of Christ and other religious themes.
[Illustration: FIG. 72.--FROM THE CATHEDRA OF MAXIMIANUS.]
About the beginning of the tenth century ivory-carving was much used for
church purposes. The smaller altars were covered with it, the vessels
used for the Holy Sacrament were made of it, magnificent covers for
church books, were carved, and as much thought seems to have been given
to the designs upon these small objects as had formerly been devoted to
the splendid temples of the ancients. Ivory-carving extended from
Byzantium into Germany and other Western countries, and along with it
went the working in rich and precious metals, which had also been
practised somewhat by the earlier Christians.
[Illustration: FIG. 73.--DIPTYCH. _Zurich._]
During the tenth century the metal works were very costly, and the
different cathedrals and churches rivalled each other in possessions of
this sort. Altar tables were covered with embossed metal plates, which
were extended down from the top of the table to the floor, forming
antependiums, as they are called, in the same way that those of cloth
are now used. These plates of metal were worked into designs in relief,
ornamented with delicate filigree work, with paintings in enamel, and
even with rare antique cameos and exquisite gems. Crucifixes were also
made of metals and richly adorned, as well as all the vessels and
smaller articles used in the service and ceremonials of the
church--incense-burners, candlesticks, tabernacles and reliquaries, or
caskets for preserving relics. In the sacristies of many old churches
and in art collections these rare, costly articles are still preserved,
and are of great interest in the study of art.
Many of the designs used on these objects were quaint and even
grotesque, while the drawing of the figures and the arrangement of the
subjects is often done in the crudest and most inartistic manner.
Vessels for church use were made in the shapes of griffins, dragons,
cranes, lions, and other curious birds and beasts, while the human faces
represented sometimes had enamelled or jewelled eye balls. In one case
the eyes of the Saviour were made of large carbuncles; you can
understand that this would give an expression quite the opposite of that
gentleness and peace which we look for in the face of the Redeemer. In
truth, there is so much of the grotesque and even barbarous element in
many of these works, that we can but ridicule while we recognize the
industry and care which was expended upon them. It is also difficult to
understand how the feeling for art and the practice of it which had
attained to such perfection among the ancients could have died out of
the world so completely, for in these mediaeval days it existed nowhere
on the face of the earth.
About the beginning of the eleventh century bronze casting came to hold
an important place in the art of Germany, and as architecture now
received more attention, and bronze gates, and occasionally bronze
figures of bishops and other church dignitaries, were used for the
decoration of church buildings, we may say that bronze works made the
medium through which sculpture in connection with architecture was again
brought into use. At Hildesheim there is still a bronze gate at the
principal entrance to the cathedral, which was cast in 1015, and in
various places in Germany, France, and Northern Italy works of this kind
are seen which belong to the eleventh century, while a bit of stone or
wood sculpture of this period is very rarely met.
The twelfth century brought about a great change in sculpture and its
uses. This century was a period of remarkable activity in every
department of human life. The Crusades were then preached, and armies of
zealous Christians went forth to redeem Jerusalem from the power of the
Pagans; in this century all the institutions of chivalry flourished; the
nations of the world had more intercourse with each other than had
before existed; commerce was extended into new channels; men were more
individual and thought more independently for themselves than they had
done hitherto; and, in short, human intellect all over the Western world
seemed to be awakening from a long, deep sleep, and to be inspired with
strength and activity.
With all the other changes there came revivals of architecture and
sculpture, which went hand in hand, and in the beginning can scarcely be
separated from each other. The early Christians had been content with
the decoration of interiors; now the exteriors received much attention,
and the portals or entrances to the churches were richly decorated with
statues and other sculptured ornaments, and the exterior decoration soon
extended to many portions of the edifices. In the interiors, too, the
altars, fonts, choir-screens, and other objects were made of carved
stone or of stucco, which hardened like stone, and were all richly
ornamented with sculpture. A completely new spirit seemed to possess
the artists, who thus found a satisfactory field for their labors, and
the period known as the _Romanesque_ was thus ushered in.
[Illustration: FIG. 74.--FROM THE FACADE OF CHARTRES CATHEDRAL.]
We cannot claim that the works of the twelfth century were free from the
faults of the preceding eras, or were satisfactory to our artistic
sense; but we may say that they show the effect of the new life which
had come into the world, and give unerring promise of the progress which
followed. The same improvement is seen in bronze-casting as in
sculpture; and though to our eyes it still remains crude and ungraceful,
yet by comparing it with the work of the previous century we mark a
hopeful and important change.
Germany, in its different provinces, took the lead in this artistic
progress; but France was not far behind; and, indeed, in the cathedral
of Chartres the first promise was given of the splendid church portals
of the early Gothic style of architecture which followed the Romanesque.
In this cathedral, too, we see for the first time an attempt to make the
head and face a reproduction of nature rather than a repetition of the
classic head, which had come to be so imperfectly copied that it had
degenerated into a caricature. (Fig. 74.)
Other cathedrals at St. Denis, Le Mans, Bourges, and Paris are splendid
examples of the art of this time; and when we remember how Italy took
the lead of these northern countries in later days, it seems strange
that at this era she was far behind them. It is even true that the first
works in Northern Italy which indicated that the awakening which had
come north of the Alps had reached that country were executed wholly or
in part by German artists; but by the end of the twelfth century both
the sculpture and bronze-casting of Italy gave promise of the great
revival of true art which was to come in that home of the arts.
However, it is not possible to connect the art of Italy with that of any
other country in any comprehensive sense. Italian art may be said to
have died out more completely in the beginning of the middle ages than
did the art of northern nations; its period of decline, too, was longer;
but when its awakening came it aroused itself and took on new strength
by a method of its own, and may be said to have been distinct from
northern art in every respect, and divided from it by its different
spirit as clearly as Italy was divided from other lands by the towering
summits of the Alps.
About the beginning of the thirteenth century there dawned upon the
northern nations a new era in literature. Hitherto the written language
had been the monkish Latin; now the poets began to use their own
tongues. This new writing may be said to have commenced with the
Provencal poets, who were followed by those of Northern France; but it
was in Germany that such song broke forth as showed how the national
feeling had been repressed, and how, now that it had burst its bonds, it
resembled the freshets of spring when they escape from the icy hand of
Winter and rush from one point to another, brushing aside every obstacle
which lies in their way. I cannot here speak in detail of these poets
and their works, but Hartmann of Aue, Walther von der Vogelweid, Wolfram
and Gottfried of Strasburg are names which grow brighter with passing
centuries.
At the same time with this advance in letters there came, in
North-eastern France, the new Gothic style of architecture, which had
the effect to revive sculpture and in a degree restore to it the
importance it had in classic days. Now, the same artist was both
architect and sculptor, and the result was that architecture was so
arranged as to afford an honorable place to sculpture, which, in its
turn, added much to the grand and full effect of architecture.
Artists now began to study nature and the life about them in preference
to the antique, and the sculptors of the thirteenth century were
fortunate in living in a time when costumes were picturesque and suited
to artistic representations. The dress of a knight was as graceful as
one could wish, with its flowing lines and the mantle clasped at one
side of the neck, or thrown loosely over the arm and shoulder; and the
costume of the other sex, with the full folds of the lower garment
fastened by the girdle, and veiling without hiding the movement of the
figure, was scarcely less fitting for the artists use than were the
classic robes of the Greeks.
The effect of the sculpture of this period was frequently heightened by
the use of color. The draperies were enriched by gold ornaments, and
painted in rich blue and red, while the flesh parts were delicately
tinted. Colors were used with care, and often served to conceal the
defects in the sculpture itself, and were thus of great advantage. Color
was most frequently used in interior decoration, but it was not unknown
upon exterior portals, and porches were introduced to protect this
polychromy, as the painting of sculpture was called.
The subjects now represented in sculpture were far more numerous than
formerly. While the life of Christ and the Virgin still made the central
and most important topic, there were added scenes from the lives of the
saints, those who were regarded as the patrons of the city or those to
whom the edifice was dedicated being most frequently chosen. New
symbolic designs were made showing the flight of time by seasons and
months; others represented the virtues, and even the customs and habits
of the people were sometimes introduced. There were also humorous
representations, even on sacred edifices. Water-pipes and gutter-spouts
were ended with the heads of monsters and curious animals, and even with
grotesque faces; in short, the smaller details of the architecture of
this period show the vividness of the imagination of the time. For
example, the leaf-work which was used in the ornamental portions of
sculpture had hitherto copied the antique acanthus leaf; now the flowers
and leaves native to France were the models of the sculptors, and a
charming variety of life-like ornament was the result.
The church of Ste. Chapelle, at Paris, completed about 1248, was the
first edifice in which this style was seen in its full development.
Here, for the first time, the statues were not placed in the stiff,
perpendicular posture, but, by being inclined to different positions,
had a light appearance and an air of movement, which was a great relief
from the rigidity which had ruled up to this time.
The cathedral at Rheims, however, shows the perfection of
thirteenth-century art. It is conceded to be the best example of church
building of its time, and its facade the most beautiful structure of the
Middle Ages. Its wealth of sculpture is wonderful; its three great
portals, the buttresses, the space above the great window and various
other portions are so much ornamented that the whole effect is that of a
forest of sculpture, and it is difficult to turn from it to consider the
architecture of the edifice. It naturally follows that in this vast
amount of artistic work there is no equality of excellence; some of the
statues are like those of an earlier date: some are too tall and
awkward; others too short and rotund; but there are many elegant
figures, full of grace and dignity, with the drapery falling in natural
folds, and an air of life and freedom of movement about the heads quite
unknown before this time.
In one of the side portals of this cathedral there is a figure of Christ
which was not surpassed by any work of this period. The study of every
portion of the figure is so perfect as to surprise us when we remember
that anatomy was not then studied by artists as it had been in classic
times or as it has been in more recent days. This statue holds an orb in
the left hand, and the right hand is uplifted; not only the nails of the
fingers, but the structure of all the joints is skilfully indicated.
It frequently happens that the reliefs are far more excellent than the
statues of mediaeval date. This is so noticeable that it would seem as if
the best sculptors preferred to make the reliefs, and that the figures
were left to those of less talent. On the pediment at Rheims the Last
Judgment is represented in five divisions, and these reliefs are among
the most beautiful sculptures of this century. The scene of the
Resurrection of the Dead is arranged in two rows of figures; a section
of it is here given (Fig. 75).
There are twenty-nine of these little figures in the whole subject, and
the variety of positions and the naturalness of the various expressions
are all that could be desired in any age of art. The forms are in good
proportions, and the faces are filled with fear, surprise, hope, and
supplication. A volume might be written upon the sculptures of the
Rheims Cathedral which would be full of interest to the student of
mediaeval art.
[Illustration: FIG. 75.--FROM THE NORTH TRANSEPT OF RHEIMS CATHEDRAL.]
Critics have compared the progress and life which pervaded the art of
the thirteenth century with the spirit of the age of Phidias. The two
periods are alike in the fact that the artists of each broke away from
the traditions of those who had preceded them, and took up their work
with a desire to come nearer to nature. They were alike, too, in the
union of architecture and sculpture, and in the fact that all kinds of
sculpture were required for the adornment of a single structure.
Colossal and full-sized statues, statuettes, reliefs, and a great
variety of simply ornamental designs were lavished upon the Christian
cathedral, as they had been upon the Greek temple; and in one case as in
the other the various groups and scenes represented were intended to
show forth religious mysteries, and to illustrate the working of the
supreme power which controls the world in relation to human beings.
But I must leave this part of our subject and speak of the monumental
sculpture of the thirteenth century. While many of the tomb statues
still retained a general resemblance to those of the past, there were
many examples of new strength and progress. In a church near Le Mans the
statue of Berengaria, the wife of Richard Coeur de Lion, who died in
1219, was made with open eyes; this gives a very life-like appearance to
the face, and the whole head is as noble as that of an antique statue;
the drapery is full and free; the feet rest upon a dog, which is the
emblem of fidelity, and in the hands is a casket. There is something
about this statue which appeals to us--a human element which had been
sadly wanting in the monumental statues of the preceding centuries.
But the series of reliefs which were made for the Cathedral of St. Denis
were the most important tomb sculptures of this period. They were
sixteen in number, and represented princes of the early lines of French
sovereigns down to the thirteenth century. Of course those of the
Merovingians and Carlovingians could not be portrait statues, and the
heads of both kings and queens are all of the same type until those of
Philip the Bold, who died in 1285, and his wife, Isabella of Aragon, who
died in 1271, are reached. These two are intended to be portraits, and
they show the individual characters of these royal personages. In all
France there is no more interesting succession of monuments than these.
In Germany the Romanesque style of architecture and the sculpture which
went with it held their sway much longer than in France, and the new
Gothic style made its way very slowly in the countries north of France.
Slight traces of its influence in one way and another may be found about
the middle of the thirteenth century; but it was not until the very end
of this period that the Gothic style had affected German art, except in
the south-western portions of the country. These provinces bordered upon
France, and formed a sort of middle ground between the two nations. In
Strasburg, at the end of the century, a cathedral was built which was
one of the most splendid examples of a union of the two styles that
could be produced. The sculptures show the effect of the new French
manner in their life and ease of grouping and attitude, while they are
still crowded and over-decorated, as in the earlier days, and the fixed
architectural frame of the German style is preserved throughout. (Fig.
76.)
[Illustration: FIG. 76.--FROM THE WEST FACADE, STRASBURG CATHEDRAL.]
There is reason to believe that the relief of the Death of the Virgin,
at Strasburg, was the work of Sabina von Steinbach, a daughter of the
architect of the west facade of the cathedral. The grouping is fine, and
the transparent drapery, which reminds us of the same effects in
antique sculpture, is beautifully executed.
In the Cathedral of Freiburg, the nave of which was completed in 1270,
there are some very fine sculptures, which are like the Rheims works in
spirit and execution; a figure of the Madonna is one of the best statues
of the time in any country. There is much to admire in the whole of this
cathedral. Here and there in Germany there are some tomb-sculptures of
the thirteenth century, which are simple, noble, and individual; but the
progress of art here was much less rapid than in France.
Another marked event in the art history of the thirteenth century was
the introduction of sculpture into England. The few pieces of plastic
art which existed in that country before this date were not sufficient
in number or excellence to merit the name of English sculpture.
[Illustration: FIG. 77.--DUKE ROBERT OF NORMANDY.]
The first important step was made about the end of the twelfth century,
when Guillaume de Sens, a French architect, was employed to build a new
choir to Canterbury Cathedral. Not long after this the Temple Church was
erected; then Westminster Abbey followed, and at length, under Henry
III., all the arts were rapidly advanced in his kingdom. This king
summoned artists and skilled workmen from different countries, and
portrait-sculpture received especial attention in the England of that
day. By comparing English tomb-sculpture with that of other countries,
it is seen that the aim of the artists was to make the statues resemble
those whose memories they honored, far more than other nations had
done. The illustration given here, with its air of life--almost of
motion--is a good example of what I mean (Fig. 77).
The sculptures upon the English exteriors, and, indeed, upon the
interiors of edifices, were far less lavish than on the Continent; but
in Wells Cathedral, completed before 1250, there is a wealth of
sculpture for an English church of this date, and from this time forward
the plastic arts were of great importance in Great Britain.
With the beginning of the fourteenth century there were great changes in
the religious and political affairs of all Europe. The Pope no longer
held the supreme authority that had belonged to his office, and the
imperial power was also much shaken. We cannot speak of these subjects
in detail here, but the result to art of these changes was seen in a
development of individualism, and the effects of it did not show an
improvement when considered as a whole, though it has some new features
which were attractive.
In these days of which we now speak the word citizen had a far deeper
meaning than ever before, and the growth of wealth and prosperity in the
citizen classes gave a new impulse to all the activities of life, and to
art along with others.
This new life and spirit gave more freedom to artists, and they
attempted new effects, so that a far greater variety was made in their
works. The statue of the Madonna, for example, was so often repeated
that it afforded an opportunity for all sorts of experiments, by which
the sculptors tried to add to the deep feeling and the devotion that had
already been expressed in the representations of the sweet Mother of
Christ. But just here they failed; the new era brought more realism,
more likeness to nature, more freedom to the artist to put something of
himself into his work; but much of the deep thought and the devout
feeling of the thirteenth century was lost, and it cannot be said that
art was elevated in its tone.
There were influences, too, in the new state of society which permitted
details to be introduced into religious subjects which were far from
suitable or devotional; sometimes they were even comic in their effects.
For example, such scenes as allowed the representation of evil spirits
or devils were made to serve for all sorts of coarse, grotesque, and
burlesque side-play, and the little figures which represented these
powers were made to do all kinds of ridiculous capers side by side with
such serious subjects as the Last Judgment or the death scenes of
eminent men. This makes us feel, when we study the fourteenth century,
that the sculpture of the Middle Ages reached its highest point in the
thirteenth century, and soon after began to decline.
In Germany the most important sculptures of this period were executed at
Nuremberg. The Church of St. Laurence, that of St. Sebald, the
Frauenkirche, or the Church of Our Lady, are all great monuments to the
art of this city and the calm dignity and grace which marked the works
of the Nuremberg sculptors.
At the close of the century, between 1385 and 1396, Master Heinrich den
Balier erected the "Beautiful Fountain," which is still the pride of the
city and a splendid monument of the time. In Nuremberg many of the
dwelling-houses were decorated with sculptures, and it is now one of the
most interesting places in all Germany to the student of ancient art.
We have not the space to speak in detail of the sculpture of the time;
Augsburg, Prague, Stuttgart, Bamberg, Wuerzburg, Cologne, and many other
German towns and cities have rich treasures of its work, but its
character is everywhere much the same, and great activity, with a
tendency toward decline, are its prominent features.
In Germany in this century ivory-carving was much practised and used
for a great variety of purposes. In these smaller works the life and
freshness, the grace and spirit of the manner of the time were very
attractive (Fig. 78).
[Illustration: FIG. 78.--IVORY RELIEF. HUNTING SCENE.]
In France the fourteenth century was much less productive of works of
art than the preceding one had been. The fact that so much had been done
in the thirteenth century--so many new churches built and so many older
ones remodelled--is one reason for this change. In this direction there
was very little left to be done. Then, too, the country was so disturbed
by wars with England that the arts of peace suffered neglect. However,
there was still much to be done to complete the grand works already
begun, and during the early part of this century a great deal was
accomplished by way of interior decoration in edifices not yet
completed, and in the making of monuments in memory of persons of rank
and importance. Those in the Cathedral of St. Denis were much increased
in number, and in all parts of France these works were multiplied.
During this century many artists from the Netherlands were employed in
France; and in the city of Dijon, which was the residence of the dukes
of Burgundy, the works of Flemish artists were very numerous.
Perhaps the most skilful of these masters was CLAUX SLUTER, who was the
favorite of Philip the Bold, and executed the splendid monument to that
duke which is now in the Museum at Dijon. He was also the sculptor of
the Moses Fountain, the decorations of the Carthusian chapel, and other
works which still remain to show how fine a sculptor he was. Sluter had
a great influence upon art, and, in fact, may be said to have
established a school the effects of which endured long after his time.
In England sculpture made no progress during the fourteenth century.
Large architectural sculptures were neither numerous nor fine.
Tomb-sculptures and monuments with portrait reliefs and statues were the
principal plastic works of the time. The habit of erecting monuments to
the dead now extended to all classes, whereas it had formerly been
confined to noble and distinguished people. The result was that the
monuments of the higher classes were more and more splendid in order to
mark the differences of rank, and much grand effect was thus produced;
but the merits of the sculpture was less than formerly, and the
monuments of this age are wanting in spirit, stiff and unattractive. The
costume of the time, too, was so ugly that it served to give a grotesque
air to many figures, and thus added to the general appearance of decline
which marked the English tomb-sculpture of the fourteenth century. It
compares unfavorably with the German monuments of the same period, and
the realistic portrait element which ruled it makes it seem like a
monotonous and feeble system of mechanics rather than a style of art.
As we have said, the sculpture of Italy was quite different from that of
the more northern countries of Europe. One great reason for this was
that individualism in art was a strong power in Italy much earlier than
in more northern countries. In Germany the early sculptors of the Middle
Ages did not put their names upon their works; they practised their art
as a religious service, and their pious devotion made them forget
themselves. Not so in Italy: there each artist wished to be known in his
works, and regarded them as works of art, done for the sake of art, and
not as acts of piety. One result of this difference was that the
northern sculptures had more of deep feeling and profound thought in
them, while the Italian works had more perfection of form.
In Italy sculpture held the second place in the decoration of churches.
Painting was preferred before it, and in spite of the influence of the
Gothic style, which extended south of the Alps, the Italians would not
give up their large wall-spaces and the splendid Christian paintings
which were their glory. They built their edifices with this end in view,
and as the same person was frequently an architect, painter and
sculptor, he knew how to arrange his plans so as to suit his ideas of
the merits of each art.
So it happened that the principal works which the sculptors did for the
church were separate objects, such as altar-pieces, fonts, pulpits, and
tombs. It rarely occurred that whole fronts of churches were covered
with sculptures, as in Germany or France, and there were few richly
sculptured portals of churches in Italy. The material mostly used for
Italian sculpture was fine white marble, which was very rarely colored;
sometimes a little gilding was used; but as a rule painting and
sculpture were not united, as they had been north of the Alps.
However, the sculptors of Italy had a wider range in art than in other
lands; for being less devoted to the service of the church, they were
employed for more secular works. It is true that the separate statues of
the Madonna were very numerous, and that tomb-sculpture was important;
but added to these there were civil monuments to show forth the glory of
the cities and their great men, and there were public fountains and
other sculptures which told of the splendor and fame of each one of the
many petty powers into which the whole country was divided. The
council-halls of the free cities were very fine, and gave great
opportunity to Italian artists to give variety to their works, and the
sculptors very early excelled in reliefs, which told historical stones
with great clearness.
As early as the beginning of the thirteenth century we can trace the
progress of Italian sculpture by telling the story of the lives of
separate artists. The first man of importance who thus claims our
attention is NICOLA PISANO, who was born at Pisa between 1205 and 1207,
and who, according to the custom of his time, was both architect and
sculptor. When he was but fifteen years old he received an appointment
as architect to Frederic II., with whom he went to Naples; he served
this sovereign ten years, and then went to Padua, where he was employed
as the architect of the Basilica of St. Anthony.
In 1237 Nicola made his first essay in sculpture, and executed a relief
representing the Deposition from the Cross, which still remains in its
place over one of the side doors of the Cathedral of San Martino at
Lucca. This work was most excellent as the attempt of a young artist,
and it was also excellent when compared with the work of other Italian
sculptors who had preceded him. (Fig. 79.)
[Illustration: FIG. 79.--RELIEF BY NICOLA PISANO. _Lucca._]
During the twelve years following this time Nicola Pisano was chiefly
employed as an architect, and it was not until 1260 that he established
his fame as a sculptor; but when we consider the pulpit for the
Baptistery of Pisa, which he now did, it is plain that he must have
given much thought and study to sculpture since his first work at Lucca;
and this last work has such qualities as indicate that he had studied
the sculpture of classic days. The work upon this pulpit is a wonderful
advance upon the sculpture of the period; and though there are marks of
his inexperience in its arrangement, as a whole it is above criticism
when the time to which it belonged and the circumstances of its
sculpture are taken into account. (Fig. 80.)
Nicola went next to Bologna to make a sarcophagus to contain the remains
of St. Dominick, who had died there in 1221. This burial-case was
completed in 1267, and is very interesting as an illustration of the art
of the thirteenth century. The next work of this sculptor was a pulpit
for the Cathedral of Siena. When he undertook this work he agreed to
live at Siena until it was completed, with the exception of short visits
to Pisa--four in each year. He had assistants in this work, and it was
completed in about a year and a half. Meantime he exerted a great
influence upon the sculpture of Siena, which up to this time had
amounted to little more than good stone-cutting. Indeed, Nicola Pisano
had an effect upon the art of all Italy: in the north at Padua, in the
south at Naples, and in Central Italy at Pisa, Lucca, and Siena.
[Illustration: FIG. 80.--RELIEF FROM THE PULPIT AT PISA. _Nicola
Pisano._]
In 1269 he was commissioned to build a convent and an abbey at La
Scorgola, which are now in ruins. In 1274 Nicola commenced his last
work, the Fountain of Perugia. He did not remain constantly in that
city, but after making the plans he left his son Giovanni in charge of
the work, while he returned to Pisa and occupied himself with making the
figures for its decoration. This fountain was held in such esteem that
laws were enacted for its preservation, and it was called the most
valuable possession of the city, while some went so far as to say that
it could not be surpassed in the world. Even now, after all it has
suffered from time and weather, it commands our admiration.
In 1278 Nicola died, after a life of great achievements. He left an
untarnished name, too, for he had been loved and respected by all his
associates, and as patron, friend, and servant had done all his duty.
Mr. Perkins, in his "Tuscan Sculptors," says of him: "Inestimable were
the services rendered to art by this great man. He gave the death-blow
to Byzantinism and barbarism; established new architectural principles;
founded a new school of sculpture in Italy, and opened men's eyes to the
degraded state of art by showing them where to study and how to study;
so that Cimabue, Guido da Siena, the Masuccios and the Cosmati all
profited by his pervading and enduring influence. Never hurried by an
ill-regulated imagination into extravagances, he was careful in
selecting his objects of study and his methods of self-cultivation; an
indefatigable worker, who spared neither time nor strength in obedience
to the numerous calls made upon him from all parts of the peninsula; now
in Pisa, then in Naples, Padua, Siena, Lucca, or Florence; here to
design a church, there to model a bas-relief, erect a pulpit, a palace
or a tower; by turns architect and sculptor, great in both, original in
both, a reviver in both, laying deep and well the foundations of his
edifices by hitherto unpractised methods, and sculpturing his
bas-reliefs upon principles evolved from the study of antique models
long unheeded. Ever respected and esteemed by the many persons of all
classes with whom he came in contact, he was truly a great man--one to
whom the world owes an eternal debt of gratitude, and who looms up in
gigantic proportions through the mist of five centuries, holding the
same relation to Italian art which Dante holds to Italian literature."
FRA GUGLIELMO D'AGNELLO (1238-1314?), also a Pisan, was a pupil of
Nicola Pisano, and worked with him at Bologna. There is little to be
said of his works after his master's death.
GIOVANNI PISANO (about 1240-1320) was born at Pisa, and though a pupil
of his father and a co-worker with him, he seems to have fallen under
some other and a very different influence. In architecture he preferred
the Gothic style, and in sculpture he was fond of all sorts of fantastic
action and expression; his works were full of exaggeration. He was an
architect as well as sculptor, and was a master in his own right when
twenty years old, and in 1268 he went to Naples to design a church for
the Franciscans; he was also the architect of the episcopal palace
there.
After the death of his father the Pisans were anxious to retain Giovanni
in their service; he first transformed an old church into a new one in
the pointed style of architecture. It was named Santa Maria della Spina,
because a rich merchant had presented one of the thorns from the crown
of Christ to it. This was the first building in Italy of this style of
architecture. Giovanni next built the Campo Santo of Pisa. Many
shiploads of earth had been brought from Palestine to Pisa in order to
make a burial-place in which Christians could be laid in the sacred
earth. Giovanni Pisano inclosed the spot where this earth was laid with
walls and arranged the interior of the inclosure in such a way that it
could be extensively decorated with works of art. He made it the most
beautiful Campo Santo in Italy. Many of the sculptures are by his own
hand. (Fig. 81.)
This allegorical representation of Pisa was the first attempt at making
large statues in Italy since the days of the Emperor Constantine. The
city stands alone, and is a proud princess with a diadem, holding in her
arms two infants to indicate her fruitfulness. Below her are four
statues of the cardinal virtues, Temperance being a nude figure. It is a
very strange work, and in some respects not attractive, but it shows the
originality of the sculptor; the principal figure has much intensity of
expression.
[Illustration: FIG. 81.--CAMPO SANTO OF PISA. _Giovanni Pisano._]
From this monument and his other works in Pisa, Giovanni became famous,
and was called to Siena to build the front of the cathedral. The people
of Siena held out every inducement to him to make his home there, by
freeing him from taxes for life; but after three years he went to
Perugia, where he erected a monument which has been destroyed. After
this time he devoted himself entirely to sculpture, and executed a
variety of works at Arezzo, Pistoja, Florence, Perugia, and Cortona. In
1312 he commenced the rebuilding of the cathedral at Prato.
We have not the space to speak of his works in detail. The Campo Santo
has more of interest than the others, and is Romanesque in its
character; and yet it is true that he employed Gothic forms far more
than any other. Some authors credit Giovanni with having introduced an
independent art into Italy; but let that be as it may, he had not the
feeling for beauty, neither had he the repose which was such a charm in
the works of his father. At the same time his works are full of life and
dramatic action, and could never have been designed or executed by any
man who had not an uncommon genius.
ARNOLFO DI CAMBIO (1232-1310) was also a pupil of Nicola Pisano, and
though eight years older than Giovanni Pisano he did not become an
independent master until after Giovanni had won much fame. There are
some works in Rome which are attributed to Arnolfo, but as there are
uncertainties about his being their author, it is not best for us to
discuss them here. He erected at Orvieto, in the church of San Domenico,
a monument to the Cardinal de Braye. It was a very elaborate work, and
the statue of the Madonna, which is placed above that of the cardinal,
is full of majestic spirit and dignified repose. This is the only
well-authenticated sculptural work by Arnolfo, but this is one of the
most finished monuments of the art of the Pisan school, and is quite
sufficient to bring his name through the centuries with honor.
ANDREA PISANO (1270-1345) is principally famous as a bronze-caster, and
his chief work was the making of the gates to the Baptistery of
Florence, which have since been replaced by those of Ghiberti. When
these gates were finished, in 1339, the Signory went in procession to
view them; this proves in what esteem they must have been held, for the
Signory never left the Palazzo Vecchio in a body except on the most
important occasions. After examining the gates they conferred the honor
of citizenship upon the sculptor. These gates told the story of John
the Baptist, and the work is full of sentiment, beauty, and simplicity,
while the design is pure, the draperies full of elegant grace, and the
execution of the whole almost perfect.
NINO PISANO was the son of the latter. The time of his birth is not
known; he died before 1361. His works are pleasing, and he especially
excelled in drapery. They are not numerous, and are seen in the churches
of Pisa.
But by far the most important pupil of Andrea Pisano, and, indeed, the
most important Tuscan master of the end of the fourteenth century, was
ANDREA ARCAGNUOLO DI CIONE, commonly called ANDREA ORCAGNA (1329-1376?).
This artist was the son of Maestro Cione, a goldsmith of Florence.
Orcagna was an architect, goldsmith, sculptor, painter, mosaist, and
poet. Painting is the art by which he is best known and of which he
executed the greatest number of interesting works. In this place we
shall speak of his most important work as a sculptor, which was the
tabernacle in the church of Or San Michele, in Florence, made to hold
the picture of the Madonna painted by Ugolino da Siena. This tabernacle
is of white marble in the Gothic style. It rises from the centre high up
toward the roof of the church, and has sculptures in bas-relief,
statuettes and busts, all illustrating the life of the Virgin from her
birth to her death. It is also enriched with mosaics, intaglios,
enamels, gilded glass, _pietra dura_, and all of these arranged in a
whole which is quite unique in art. It may be regarded as a piece of
architecture or as a sculptural work, and it is full of symbolism; and
whatever view is taken of it, it commands admiration for the artist who
conceived and executed so difficult a task.
During the later years of the fourteenth century there were many
sculptors in Italy of whom we know very little more than their names.
They did a vast amount of work in all parts of the country, much of
which is still to be seen. One of these, of whom few personal facts are
known, exerted a large influence in Florence, where the fruits of his
industry were almost marvellous. He was called PIETRO DI GIOVANNI and
PIETRO TEDESCO, or "the German". The time and place of his birth are not
known, but the records show that he worked on the Cathedral of Florence
from 1386 to 1399. He worked in true German style; wherever scroll-work
and simple ornamental designs were required he mingled a variety of
leaves and flowers where the acanthus alone had before been used. He
also made fantastic little human beings, dwarfs and grotesque beings of
different sorts, and exhausted the animal world in his designs. Lions,
bears, apes, dogs, lizards, crabs, birds and fish, bees, butterflies,
and all manner of insects may be seen nestling among vines and branches,
while angels play on pipes and violas. The whole effect of these works
is cheerful and natural, and would be as suitable to decorate a music
hall or a theatre as they are for a church.
The works of this master are too extreme in the realistic element to be
taken as a fair example of the Italian sculpture of this time, but
NICCOLO OF ARREZZO, the MASSEGNE, and the BON or BUONI family, and many
others in different portions of the country contributed to put aside the
stiff, formal manner of the past, and to bring in the more sympathetic
and natural one of the fifteenth century. In truth, the last decades of
the fourteenth century were a transition period, when art was bursting
its bonds, and was preparing for the glorious works of the golden days
of sculpture in Italy.