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[Illustration: FIG. 58.--THE VENUS OF MILO. (_See page 87._)]
A
HISTORY OF ART
FOR
BEGINNERS AND STUDENTS
PAINTING--SCULPTURE--ARCHITECTURE
WITH
_COMPLETE INDEXES AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS_
BY
CLARA ERSKINE CLEMENT
AUTHOR OF "HANDBOOK OF LEGENDARY AND MYTHOLOGICAL ART," "PAINTERS,
SCULPTORS, ENGRAVERS, ARCHITECTS AND THEIR WORKS," "ARTISTS OF THE
NINETEENTH CENTURY," ETC.
NEW YORK
FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY MDCCCXCI
COPYRIGHT, 1887,
BY FREDERICK A. STOKES,
SUCCESSOR TO WHITE, STOKES, & ALLEN.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
PAGE
ANCIENT SCULPTURE:
EGYPT, 1
ASSYRIA, 10
CHAPTER II.
GREEK SCULPTURE, 18
CHAPTER III.
ANCIENT ITALIAN SCULPTURE, 82
CHAPTER IV.
MEDIAEVAL SCULPTURE, FROM THE FIFTH TO THE FIFTEENTH
CENTURY, 105
CHAPTER V.
ITALIAN SCULPTURE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY, 136
CHAPTER VI.
SCULPTURE IN GERMANY, FRANCE, ENGLAND, AND SPAIN,
FROM 1450 TO 1550, 160
CHAPTER VII.
ITALIAN SCULPTURE IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY--CELLINI,
MICHAEL ANGELO, AND OTHERS, 181
CHAPTER VIII.
EUROPEAN SCULPTURE FROM MICHAEL ANGELO TO CANOVA, 213
CHAPTER IX.
CANOVA, THORWALDSEN, AND OTHER RECENT SCULPTORS, 235
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
Venus of Milo, _Frontispiece_
Statue of Cephren in the Museum at Cairo, 3
Various Kinds of Dogs, 5
Androsphinx, 6
Kriosphinx, 6
The Great Sphinx, 7
Hieracosphinx, 8
The Colossi at Thebes, 9
Polishing a Colossal Statue, 10
Mode of Transporting a Colossus from the Quarries (from a
lithographic Drawing), 11
Statue of Sardanapalus I. (from Nimrud), 12
Lion-Hunt (from Nimrud), 13
Wounded Lion Biting a Chariot-wheel, 15
Arm-chair or Throne (Khorsabad), 16
Mode of Drawing the Bow (Koyunjik), 17
Lion Devouring Deer, 22
Heracles, Triton, and Nereids, 23
Heracles and the Cecrops, 23
Actaeon and his Dogs, 24
From the Harpy Monument, London, 25
Figures from the Pediment of the Temple of Minerva, at AEgina, 27
Archaistic Artemis at Naples, 28
The Discobolus (Myron), 30
Athenian Coins with the Minerva Promachos, 34
Coin of Elis with the Olympian Zeus, 36
Bust of Jupiter found at Otricoli, 37
Torso of a Statue of Theseus (?), 38
From the Frieze of the Parthenon, 43
The Five Central Figures, 44
Youths Preparing to join the Cavalcade, 45
Horsemen Starting, 46
Procession of Cavalry, 46
Procession of Chariots, 47
Train of Musicians and Youths, 47
Cows for Sacrifice, 48
Train of Noble Maidens, 48
Head of Asclepius (in the British Museum), 50
A Wounded Amazon (Cresilas), 52
Statue of Pericles (Cresilas), 52
Eirene and the Young Plutus (Cephisodotus), 56
Portrait of Mausolus, 57
From the Frieze of the Mausoleum, 58
The Eros of Centocelle, 60
Niobe and her Youngest Daughter, 62
Brother and Sister, 63
The Eldest Daughter, 64
A Niobid, 65
Ganymede (after Leochares), 66
Monument of Lysicrates (Athens), 67
Bacchus and Lion (from the Lysicrates Monument), 68
The Apoxyomenos of Lysippus, 69
The Laocoon Group, 75
The Farnese Bull, 77
Gallic Warrior (Venice), 78
The Dying Gaul, 79
Boy and Goose, 80
Spinario, 81
Venus de' Medici, 86
The Farnesian Hercules, 89
The Apollo Belvedere, 90
Head of Apollo Belvedere, 91
The Steinhaeuser Head, 91
The Stroganoff Apollo, 92
_Diane a la Biche_, 95
Athena of the Capitol, 96
Triumphal Procession from Arch of Titus, 97
From the Reliefs of Trajan's Column, 99
Portrait of Sophocles, 101
Statue of Augustus, 102
Agrippina the Elder, 103
Statue of St. Peter, 106
From the Cathedra of Maximianus, 109
Diptych (Zurich), 110
From the Facade of Chartres Cathedral, 113
From the North Transept of Rheims Cathedral, 118
From the West Facade of Strasburg Cathedral, 120
Duke Robert of Normandy, 121
Ivory Relief (Hunting Scene), 124
Relief by Nicola Pisano (Lucca), 128
Relief from the Pulpit at Pisa (Nicola Pisano), 129
Campo Santo of Pisa (Giovanni Pisano), 132
Relief by Jacopo della Quercia (Bologna), 138
From the Eastern Gates (showing compartments 6, 8, and 10), 141
The Annunciation (Donatello), 143
Statue of St. George (Donatello), 144
Dancing Boys (Luca della Robbia), 147
Boy with Dolphin (Verocchio), 149
Statue of Colleoni (Verocchio), 150
Terra-cottas from the Ospedale Grande (Milan), 156
Count Eberhard von Grumbach (Rimpar), 169
Justice, 170
The Three Wise Virgins, 170
Tomb of St. Sebald (Nuremberg), 172
Peter Vischer's Statue, 173
St. Sebald and the Burning Icicles (Vischer), 174
Peter (Vischer), 175
John (Vischer), 175
Man and Geese (Labenwolf), 176
Pharisee, Levite (Rustici), 183
Bacchus (Jacopo Sansovino), 185
Perseus (Benvenuto Cellini), 191
Michael Angelo's Angel (Bologna), 197
Pieta (Michael Angelo), 199
Michael Angelo's David, 201
Giuliano de' Medici (Michael Angelo), 205
Statue of Moses (Michael Angelo), 207
Mercury (Giovanni da Bologna), 215
Relief by Berruguete (Valladolid), 217
Rape of Proserpine (Bernini), 225
Caryatide (Quellinus), 231
Heads of Dying Warriors (Schlueter), 232
The Great Elector (Schlueter), 233
The Three Graces (Canova), 241
Hebe (Canova), 246
Ariadne and the Panther (Dannecker), 249
Jason (Thorwaldsen), 256
Ganymede and the Eagle (Thorwaldsen), 260
The Three Graces (Thorwaldsen), 261
Statue of Queen Louise (Rauch), 270
Nymph (by Bosio), 273
SCULPTURE.
CHAPTER I.
ANCIENT SCULPTURE.
EGYPT.
No one can speak with exactness as to the time when sculpture was first
practised by the Egyptians; we only know that it was a very long time
ago. But we do know that in the time of the twelfth dynasty, which dates
from 2466 B.C., sculpture had reached a stage of excellence such as
could only have resulted from the experience of many years of training
and practice in this art.
In the Egyptian collection of the Louvre, at Paris, there is the
memorial stone of an old Egyptian sculptor which has an inscription that
reads as if he had written it himself; this was the way by which
Egyptians made these inscriptions sound as if the dead themselves spoke
to those who were still alive. This sculptor's name was Martisen, and he
lived about forty-four centuries ago. Brugsch-Bey, a very learned writer
on Egypt, says: "He calls himself 'a master among those who understand
art, and a plastic artist,' who 'was a wise artist in his art.' He
relates in succession his knowledge in the making of statues, in every
position, according to prescribed use and measure; and brings forward,
as his particular invention, an etching with colors, if I have rightly
understood the expression, 'which can neither be injured by fire nor
washed off by water; 'and, as a further explanation of this, states that
'no man has arisen who has been able to do this except himself alone and
the eldest son of his race, whom God's will has created. He has arisen
able to do this, and the exercise of his hand has been admired in
masterly works in all sorts of precious stones, from gold and silver to
ivory and ebony.'"
There is no doubt but that Martisen and his son, who was named
Usurtasen, were sculptors at the time when Egyptian art reached its
highest point.
The earliest works of Egyptian sculpture are the bas-reliefs found in
the chambers of the tombs; the walls are almost covered with them, and
they are painted with colors which are still bright and fresh, though
more than four thousand years have passed since they were put on. The
subjects of these reliefs are taken from the life of the persons buried
in the tombs, and even their possessions and occupations are thus
represented. These sculptures were made by tracing the designs on the
stone and then cutting it away between the figures. The mode of
arrangement in these reliefs does not satisfy our ideas of what it
should be. It seems as if the artists had no plan of their work in their
minds--no aim as to what the effect should be when finished. On the
contrary, the reliefs impress us as if the sculptors made one figure,
and then added another and another in such a way as to represent the
fact they wished to tell without any attention to the beauty of the
whole; and so it does not seem as if there was any unity in them, but as
if the large bas-reliefs were made up of disjointed parts which in one
sense really have no relation to each other.
The same is true of the Egyptian statues. It appears as if the different
parts might have been made separately or even by different sculptors,
and then joined together. All this is because the Egyptians seemed to
think of an object in parts and not as a whole. Then, too, the position
of the early statues was so unnatural and awkward. The arms were placed
close to the sides of the body, and there was no separation between the
legs; and though in some of their articles of furniture, their pottery,
and in the details of their architecture, the Egyptians made a great
advance, they did not equally improve in their sculpture.
One great hindrance to the progress of Egyptian sculpture was the fact
that figures were never represented in action. They were not figures
moving and living in stone; they were like figures petrified and fixed:
they were _statues_, and no one can forget this for a moment while
looking at them. I can learn of but one Egyptian figure sculptured as if
in action; this is a quoit-thrower in the Tombs of the Kings. A sitting
statue, whether of a man or a woman, had the hands rested on the knees
or held across the breast (Fig. 1).
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--STATUE OF CEPHREN IN THE MUSEUM AT CAIRO.]
There were very few groups in Egyptian sculpture, and these seldom had
more than two figures. It was customary to represent a husband and wife
sitting on the same chair holding each other's hands, or having their
arms around one another's waists or shoulders. Sometimes the principal
figure is of large size, and the inferior persons are made much smaller
and placed at the sides of the larger figure. In short, very few
attitudes are represented in Egyptian sculpture, and it almost seems as
if there must have been fixed rules for a certain limited number of
positions after which all sculptured figures were made.
In spite of this sameness and stiffness, Egyptian sculpture is
remarkable, and it is probable that if they had not been fettered by
prejudices and rules the Egyptians would have excelled both in sculpture
and painting.
The sides of obelisks and, more especially, the walls of temples were
covered with sculptures which gave the history of kings--of their wars
and conquests, and of their great works in their kingdoms. The
sculptures upon the temple walls could be estimated by square rods, or
even acres, better than by lesser measures. Their amount and the labor
it required to make them are simply marvellous.
I will describe the subjects depicted upon one inner wall in the
palace-temple of Medemet Haboo, and will quote from Wilkinson's "Egypt
and Thebes." On the west wall "the Egyptian princes and generals conduct
the 'captive chiefs' into the presence of the king. He is seated at the
back of his car, and the spirited horses are held by his attendants on
foot. Large heaps of hands are placed before him, which an officer
counts, one by one, as the other notes down their number on a scroll;
each heap containing three thousand, and the total indicating the
returns of the enemy's slain. The number of captives, reckoned one
thousand in each line, is also mentioned in the hieroglyphics above,
where the name of the Rebo points out the nation against whom this war
was carried on. Their flowing dresses, striped horizontally with blue or
green bands on a white ground, and their long hair and aquiline noses
give them the character of an Eastern nation in the vicinity of Assyria
and Persia, as their name reminds us of the Rhibii of Ptolemy, whom he
places near the Caspian." ...
The suite of this historical subject continues on the south wall. The
king, returning victorious to Egypt, proceeds slowly in his car,
conducting in triumph the prisoners he has made, who walk beside and
before it, three others being bound to the axle. Two of his sons attend
as fan-bearers, and the several regiments of Egyptian infantry, with a
corps of their allies, under the command of these princes, marching in
regular step and in the close array of disciplined troops, accompany
their king. He arrives at Thebes, and presents his captives to Amen-Ra
and Mut, the deities of the city, who compliment him, as usual, on the
victory he has gained, and the overthrow of the enemy he has "trampled
beneath his feet."
[Illustration: FIG. 2--VARIOUS KINDS OF DOGS.]
This description of these bas-reliefs, which are usually painted, will
give an idea of the great works of Egyptian sculptors.
The representation of the animals in these sculptures is as successful
as any part of them. There being no intellectual expression required,
they are more pleasing than the human beings, with their set, unchanging
features and expression. The Egyptians had several breeds of dogs, and
the picture here (Fig. 2) is made up from the dogs found in the
sculptures--No. 1, hound; 2, mastiff; 3, turnspit; 4, 5, fox-dogs; 6, 7,
greyhounds.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--ANDROSPHINX.]
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--KRIOSPHINX.]
One of the figures often repeated by the sculptors of Egypt was the
Sphinx. The colossal and most famous one (Fig. 5) is not far from the
great pyramid, and has the form of a recumbent lion with a human head.
It is one hundred and seventy-two feet long, and is _the_ Sphinx of the
world; but there were great numbers of these strange figures in
Egypt--in some cases there were avenues leading to the temples bordered
by them on each side. The form of the Sphinx was intended to express
some spiritual thought to the Egyptians, and the stories about it are
very interesting. Its form certainly denotes the union of physical and
mental power. The form of which we have spoken as being that of the
great Sphinx is called the _androsphinx_ (Fig. 3). Another has the body
of the lion with the head of the ram, and is called the _kriosphinx_
(Fig. 4); still another has the same body and the head of a hawk; this
is called the _hieracosphinx_ (Fig. 6). They all typified the king,
without doubt, and it is probable that the various heads were so given
to show respect for the different gods who were represented with the
heads of these creatures. Sometimes the androsphinx has human hands in
place of the lion's paws. The winged Sphinx has been found in Egypt, but
it is rare.
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--THE GREAT SPHINX.]
The colossal statues of Egypt are very wonderful on account of their
vast weight and size. The most famous are two which stand on the west
bank of the Nile at Thebes (Fig. 7). Each of these colossi is made from
a single block of stone such as is not found within several days'
journey of the place where they stand. They are forty-seven feet high,
and contain eleven thousand five hundred cubic feet each. But a third is
still larger; it represents the King Rameses II., and, when whole, was
of a single stone, and weighed eight hundred and eighty-seven tons. It
was brought from Assouan to Thebes, a distance of one hundred and
thirty-eight miles. It is wonderful to think of moving such a vast
weight over such a distance, and one would naturally wish to know also
how the sculptors could work on such a statue. The plate here given
(Fig. 8) shows the process of polishing a statue, and the following one
(Fig. 9) illustrates the mode of moving one when finished. These
representations are found in tombs and grottoes, and tell us plainly
just what we wish to know about these things.
[Illustration: FIG. 6.--HIERACOSPHINX.]
I have now pointed out the marked peculiarities of Egyptian sculpture,
and before leaving the subject will call your attention to the fact that
in most cases it was used in connection with and almost as a part of
Egyptian architecture. In the tombs the bas-reliefs are for the
decoration of the walls and to finish the work of the architect, while
at the same time they are an interesting feature of the art of the
nation and period. In the temple palaces this is also true--though the
reliefs serve the purpose of telling the history of the kings; they are,
as it were, framed into and make a part of the architectural effect. The
obelisks, colossal figures and Sphinxes were placed before the grand
buildings, and made a part of them architecturally. In general terms we
may say that sculpture never became an independent art in Egypt, but was
essentially wedded to architecture; and this fact largely accounts for
that other truth that sculpture never reached the perfection in Egypt
that it promised, or the excellence that would have seemed to be the
natural result of its earliest attainments.
[Illustration: FIG. 7.--THE COLOSSI AT THEBES.]
[Illustration: FIG. 8--POLISHING A COLOSSAL STATUE.]
ASSYRIA.
The works of sculpture in Assyria consisted of statues, bas-reliefs,
statuettes in clay, carvings in ivory, metal castings, and some smaller
works, such as articles for jewelry, made in minute imitation of larger
works in sculpture.
[Illustration: FIG. 9.--MODE OF TRANSPORTING A COLOSSUS FROM THE
QUARRIES. _From a Lithographic Drawing._
In a Grotto at Dayr E'Shake, near El Bersheh.
1. The statue bound upon a sledge with ropes. It is of a private
individual, not of a king, or a deity.
2. Man probably beating time with his hands, and giving out the verse of
a song, to which the men responded; though 3 appears as if about to
throw something which 2 is preparing to catch, or striking crotala.
4. Pouring a liquid, perhaps grease, from a vase.
5. Egyptian soldiers, carrying boughs.
6, 7, 8, 9. Men, probably captives and convicts, dragging the statue.
10. Men carrying water, or grease.
11. Some implements.
12. Taskmasters.
13, 14, 15, 16. Reliefs of men.]
The statues found in Assyria are by no means beautiful, according to our
idea of beauty. They are as set and stiff in design as the Egyptian
works of this sort, and they have suffered so much injury from the
weather and from violence that we cannot judge of the manner in which
they were originally finished.
[Illustration: FIG. 10.--STATUE OF SARDANAPALUS I.
_From Nimrud._]
The number of Assyrian statues that have been found is small; this one
given here (Fig. 10), of Sardanapalus I., is in the best state of
preservation of any of them. It is smaller than life size, being about
forty-two inches high. The statuettes of the Assyrians are less artistic
than the statues. They are made from a clay which turned red in baking,
and are colored so as to resemble Greek pottery. They are almost always
of a grotesque appearance, and usually represent gods or genii. They
also combine human and animal forms in a less noble and artistic way
than is done in the Egyptian representation of the Sphinx. There are
also small figures of animals in terra-cotta, principally dogs and
ducks. But the large and small statues of the Assyrians are their most
unimportant works in sculpture. It is in their bas-reliefs that their
greatest excellence is seen, and in them alone their progress in art can
be traced. This sort of sculpture seems to have been used by the
Assyrians just as painting was used in Italy after the Renaissance. It
was their mode of expressing everything. Through it they gave expression
to their religious feeling; they told the history of their nation, and
glorified their kings; they represented the domestic scenes which now
make the subjects of _genre_ pictures; and even imitated vegetables and
fruits, as well as to reproduce landscapes and architecture in these
pictures cut from stone. In truth, it is chiefly from the bas-reliefs
that we learn the history of Assyria, and in this view their sculptures
are even more important than when they are considered merely from an
artistic view.
[Illustration: FIG. 11.--LION-HUNT. _From Nimrud._]
The most ancient palaces at Nimrud furnish the earliest examples of
bas-relief. These date at about the end of the tenth century B.C. One
striking peculiarity in the design is that all the figures, both men and
animals, are given in exact profile. In spite of this sameness of
position they have much spirit and action. The picture of a lion-hunt
given here (Fig. 11) is one of the very best of these reliefs, and you
will notice that the animal forms are much superior to those of the
human beings. This is true of all Assyrian art in all its stages. In
these oldest bas-reliefs there are no backgrounds; but later on these
are added, and mountains, hills, streams, trees, and wild animals are
all introduced as details of the general design. The highest state of
this art was reached about 650 B.C. At this period the various forms
seem to be more varied and less arranged according to some rule. The
human faces and figures are more delicately finished, and there is an
air of freedom and a spirit in the handling of the subjects that is far
better than that of any other time. The plants and trees are far more
beautiful than before.
The figures of animals, too, are full of life and action in this period.
I shall only give one illustration, and shall choose the head of a lion,
probably the best specimen of animal drawing which is yet known in
Assyrian art. It represents the head of a wounded lion, who, in his
agony, rushes upon a chariot and seizes the wheel with his teeth. The
drawing of this head, as a portrayal of agony and fierceness, compares
favorably with anything of the same kind belonging to any age of art,
either classic or modern (Fig. 12).
There is a question which has not yet been decided as to the amount of
color used on the Assyrian bas-reliefs. From the traces of color
remaining on those that are found in the excavations, and from what we
know of the use of colors on the buildings to which the bas-reliefs
belonged, we may be sure that colors were used on them; but to what
extent cannot be told. It may have been applied with the freedom of the
Egyptians, or it may have been sparingly used, as was the manner of the
ancient Greeks. The colors that have been found in the ruins of Assyria
are white, black, red and blue.
Next to the sculpture, the metal work of the Assyrians was the most
important of their arts. This work was done in three ways: I. Whole
figures or parts of figures cast in a solid shape. II. Castings of low
bas-reliefs. III. Embossed designs made chiefly with the hammer, but
finished with the graver. In the solid castings there are only animal
forms, and lions are far more numerous than any other creature. Many of
them have a ring fastened to the back, which indicates that they were
used for weights. These castings are all small and their form good; but
we have no reason to think that the Assyrians could make large metal
castings.
[Illustration: FIG. 12.--WOUNDED LION BITING A CHARIOT-WHEEL. _From the
North Palace, Koyunjik._]
[Illustration: FIG. 13.--ARM-CHAIR OR THRONE.
_Khorsabad._]
The castings in relief were used to ornament thrones, furniture, and
perhaps chariots. They were fastened in their places by means of small
nails. They had no great merit. The embossed or hammered work, on the
contrary, is artistic and very curious. Large numbers of embossed bowls
and dishes have been found, and this work was used for the end of
sword-sheaths, the sides of chairs and stools, and various other
ornamental purposes. It is probable that the main part of the tables,
chairs, and so on were of wood, with the ornaments in embossed metals.
All this shows the Assyrians to have been an artistic people, and to
have reached an interesting stage in their arts, though their works are
coarse and imperfect when judged by Greek standards or by our own idea
of what is beautiful. If we had the space to consider all the various
designs of the bas-reliefs in detail, you would learn from them a great
many interesting facts concerning the domestic life of this ancient and
interesting people. From them we can learn all about the costumes worn
by the king and those of lesser rank; can see how their wars were
carried on, and what their chariots, weapons, and equipments were.
Their games, amusements, musical instruments, agricultural pursuits,
food, and, in short, everything connected with their daily life is
plainly shown in these sculptures, and, as I have said before, the whole
history of Assyria is better studied from them than from any other one
source. For this reason their great value cannot be over-estimated (Fig.
13).
Other very ancient nations had sculptors, and a few remains of their
arts still exist. This is true of the Medes, Babylonians, and Persians;
but the general features of their arts resembled those of the Assyrians,
though they were less advanced than that nation, and have left nothing
as interesting as the Egyptian and Assyrian remains which we have
considered. I shall therefore leave them and pass to the sculpture of
Greece.
[Illustration: FIG. 14.--MODE OF DRAWING THE BOW. _Koyunjik._]