Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
file which includes the original illustrations.
See 47506-h.htm or 47506-h.zip:
(https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/47506/pg47506-images.html)
or
(https://www.gutenberg.org/files/47506/47506-h.zip)
Images of the original pages are available through
Internet Archive. See
https://archive.org/details/comingoffairies00doylrich
THE COMING OF THE FAIRIES
ARTHUR CONAN DOYLE
[Illustration: MR. E. L. GARDNER
Member of the Executive Committee of the Theosophical Society (England)
[_Frontispiece_]
THE COMING OF THE FAIRIES
by
ARTHUR CONAN DOYLE
Author of "The New Revelation," "The Vital Message,"
"Wanderings of a Spiritualist"
Illustrated from Photographs.
[Illustration]
New York
George H. Doran Company
Copyright, 1921, 1922,
By George H. Doran Company.
[Illustration]
THE COMING OF THE FAIRIES.
Printed in the United States of America.
PREFACE
This book contains reproductions of the famous Cottingley photographs,
and gives the whole of the evidence in connection with them. The
diligent reader is in almost as good a position as I am to form a
judgment upon the authenticity of the pictures. This narrative is not a
special plea for that authenticity, but is simply a collection of facts
the inferences from which may be accepted or rejected as the reader may
think fit.
I would warn the critic, however, not to be led away by the sophistry
that because some professional trickster, apt at the game of deception,
can produce a somewhat similar effect, therefore the originals were
produced in the same way. There are few realities which cannot be
imitated, and the ancient argument that because conjurers on their
own prepared plates or stages can produce certain results, therefore
similar results obtained by untrained people under natural conditions
are also false, is surely discounted by the intelligent public.
I would add that this whole subject of the objective existence of a
subhuman form of life has nothing to do with the larger and far more
vital question of spiritualism. I should be sorry if my arguments in
favour of the latter should be in any way weakened by my exposition
of this very strange episode, which has really no bearing upon the
continued existence of the individual.
ARTHUR CONAN DOYLE.
CROWBOROUGH,
_March 1922_.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I HOW THE MATTER AROSE 13
II THE FIRST PUBLISHED ACCOUNT, _STRAND_
CHRISTMAS NUMBER 1920 39
III RECEPTION OF THE FIRST PHOTOGRAPHS 59
IV THE SECOND SERIES 93
V OBSERVATIONS OF A CLAIRVOYANT IN THE
COTTINGLEY GLEN, AUGUST 1921 108
VI INDEPENDENT EVIDENCE FOR FAIRIES 123
VII SOME SUBSEQUENT CASES 152
VIII THE THEOSOPHIC VIEW OF FAIRIES 171
ILLUSTRATIONS
MR. E. L. GARDNER _Frontispiece_
PAGE
ELSIE AND THE GNOME 32
ELSIE AND FRANCES 33
COTTINGLEY BECK AND GLEN 33
ELSIE IN 1920, STANDING NEAR WHERE THE GNOME
WAS TAKEN IN 1917 48
FRANCES IN 1920 48
FRANCES AND THE FAIRIES 49
ELSIE SEATED ON THE BANK ON WHICH THE FAIRIES
WERE DANCING IN 1917 (PHOTO 1920) 64
THE FALL OF WATER JUST ABOVE THE SITE OF LAST
PHOTOGRAPH 64
FRANCES AND THE LEAPING FAIRY 65
FAIRY OFFERING POSY OF HARE-BELLS TO ELSIE 80
FAIRIES AND THEIR SUN-BATH 81
A VIEW OF THE BECK IN 1921 128
THE TWO GIRLS NEAR THE SPOT WHERE THE LEAPING
FAIRY WAS TAKEN IN 1920 129
THE PHOTOGRAPH FROM CANADA 144
THE COMING OF THE FAIRIES
CHAPTER I
HOW THE MATTER AROSE
The series of incidents set forth in this little volume represent
either the most elaborate and ingenious hoax ever played upon the
public, or else they constitute an event in human history which may
in the future appear to have been epoch-making in its character. It
is hard for the mind to grasp what the ultimate results may be if we
have actually proved the existence upon the surface of this planet
of a population which may be as numerous as the human race, which
pursues its own strange life in its own strange way, and which is
only separated from ourselves by some difference of vibrations. We
see objects within the limits which make up our colour spectrum, with
infinite vibrations, unused by us, on either side of them. If we could
conceive a race of beings which were constructed in material which
threw out shorter or longer vibrations, they would be invisible unless
we could tune ourselves up or tone them down. It is exactly that power
of tuning up and adapting itself to other vibrations which constitutes
a clairvoyant, and there is nothing scientifically impossible, so
far as I can see, in some people seeing that which is invisible to
others. If the objects are indeed there, and if the inventive power
of the human brain is turned upon the problem, it is likely that some
sort of psychic spectacles, inconceivable to us at the moment, will
be invented, and that we shall all be able to adapt ourselves to the
new conditions. If high-tension electricity can be converted by a
mechanical contrivance into a lower tension, keyed to other uses, then
it is hard to see why something analogous might not occur with the
vibrations of ether and the waves of light.
This, however, is mere speculation and leads me to the fact that early
in May 1920 I heard, in conversation with my friend Mr. Gow, the Editor
of _Light_, that alleged photographs of fairies had been taken. He had
not actually seen them, but he referred me to Miss Scatcherd, a lady
for whose knowledge and judgment I had considerable respect. I got into
touch with her and found that she also had not seen the photographs,
but she had a friend, Miss Gardner, who had actually done so. On May 13
Miss Scatcherd wrote to me saying that she was getting on the trail,
and including an extract from a letter of Miss Gardner, which ran as
follows. I am quoting actual documents in this early stage, for I think
there are many who would like a complete inside view of all that led up
to so remarkable an episode. Alluding to her brother Mr. Gardner, she
says:
"You know that Edward is a Theosophist, has been for years, and now he
is mostly engaged with lecturing and other work for the Society--and
although for years I have regarded him as bathed in error and almost
past praying for, I now find a talk with him an inspiring privilege.
I am so very thankful that I happened to be in Willesden when his
bereavement took place, for it was so wonderful to watch him, and to
see how marvellously his faith and beliefs upheld and comforted him.
He will probably devote more and more of his time and strength to
going about the country lecturing, etc.
"I wish you could see a photo he has. He believes in fairies, pixies,
goblins, etc.--children, in many cases, really see them and play with
them. He has got into touch with a family in Bradford where the little
girl, Elsie, and her cousin, Frances, constantly go into woods and
play with the fairies. The father and mother are sceptical and have
no sympathy with their nonsense, as they call it, but an aunt, whom
Edward has interviewed, is quite sympathetic with the girls. Some
little time ago, Elsie said she wanted to photograph them, and begged
her father to lend his camera. For long he refused, but at last she
managed to get the loan of it and one plate. Off she and Frances went
into the woods near a waterfall. Frances ''ticed' them, as they call
it, and Elsie stood ready with the camera. Soon the three fairies
appeared, and one pixie dancing in Frances' aura. Elsie snapped and
hoped for the best. It was a long time before the father would develop
the photo, but at last he did, and to his utter amazement the four
sweet little figures came out beautifully!
"Edward got the negative and took it to a specialist in photography
who would know a fake at once. Sceptical as he was before he tested
it, afterwards he offered £100 down for it. He pronounced it
absolutely genuine and a perfectly remarkable photograph. Edward has
it enlarged and hanging in his hall. He is very interested in it and
as soon as possible he is going to Bradford to see the children. What
do you think of this? Edward says the fairies are on the same line of
evolution as the _winged_ insects, etc., etc. I fear I cannot follow
all his reasonings, but I knew you would be keenly interested. I wish
you could see that photo and another one of the girls playing with
the quaintest goblin imaginable!"
This letter filled me with hopes, and I renewed my pursuit of the
photographs. I learned that they were two in number and that they had
been sent for inspection to Miss Blomfield, a friend of the family. My
chase turned, therefore, in that direction, and in reply to a letter of
inquiry I received the following answer:
_The Myrtles, Beckenham, June 21, 1920._
DEAR SIR,
I am sending the two fairy pictures; they _are_ interesting, are they
not?
I am sure my cousin would be pleased for you to see them. But he said
(and wrote it to me afterwards) that he did not want them to be used
in any way at present. I believe he has plans in regard to them, and
the pictures are being copyrighted. I don't think the copyright will
be his. He has not yet finished his investigations. I asked him if I
might photograph them myself so as to have a few prints to give to
friends interested, but he wrote that he would rather nothing was
done at present.
I think my cousin is away from home just now. But his name is Edward
L. Gardner, and he is President of one of the branches of the
Theosophical Society (Blavatsky Lodge), and he lectures fairly often
at their Hall (Mortimer Hall, Mortimer Square, W.). He lectured there
a few weeks ago, and showed the fairies on the screen and told what he
knew about them.
Yours sincerely,
E. BLOMFIELD.
This letter enclosed the two very remarkable photographs which are
reproduced in this volume, that which depicted the dancing goblin,
and the other of wood elves in a ring. An explanatory note setting
forth the main points of each is appended to the reproductions. I was
naturally delighted at the wonderful pictures, and wrote back thanking
Miss Blomfield for her courtesy, and suggesting that an inquiry should
be set on foot which would satisfy me as to the genuine nature of the
photographs. If this were clearly established I hoped that I might be
privileged to help Mr. Gardner in giving publicity to the discovery. In
reply I had the following letter:
_The Myrtles, Beckenham, June 23, 1920._
DEAR SIR ARTHUR,
I am so glad you like the fairies! I should be only too glad to help
in any way if I could, but there is so little I can do. Had the
photographs been mine (I mean the negatives), I should have been most
pleased that anything so lovely in the way of information should have
been introduced to the public under such auspices. But it would, as
things are, be necessary to ask my cousin. I believe he _wants_ people
to know, but, as I wrote before, I do not know his plans, and I'm not
sure if he is ready.
It has occurred to me since writing to you that it would have been
better had I given you his sister's address. She is a most sensible
and practical person, much engaged in social work, with which her
sympathetic nature and general efficiency make her very successful.
She believes the fairy photographs to be quite genuine. Edward is a
clever man--and a good one. His evidence on any of the affairs of life
would, I am sure, be considered most reliable by all who knew him,
both for veracity and sound judgment. I hope these details will not
bore you, but I thought perhaps some knowledge of the people who, so
to say, "discovered" the photographs would help in taking you _one_
step nearer the source. I do not see any opening for fraud or hoax,
though at first when I saw the prints I thought there must be some
other explanation than the simple one that they were what they seemed.
They appeared too good to be true! But every little detail I have
since heard has added to my conviction that they are genuine; though I
have only what Edward tells me to go upon. He is hoping to obtain more
from the same girls.
Yours sincerely,
E. BLOMFIELD.
At about the same time I received a letter from another lady who had
some knowledge of the matter. It ran thus:
_29 Croftdown Road, Highgate Road, N.W., June 24, 1920._
DEAR SIR ARTHUR,
I am glad to hear that you are interested in the fairies. If they were
really taken, as there seems good reason to believe, the event is no
less than the discovery of a new world. It may not be out of place to
mention that when I examined them with a magnifying glass I noticed,
as an artist, that the hands do not appear to be quite the same as
ours. Though the little figures look otherwise so human, the hands
seemed to me something like this. (There followed a sketch of a sort
of fin.) The beard in the little gnome seems to me to be some sort of
insect-like appendage, though it would, no doubt, be called a beard by
a clairvoyant seeing him. Also it occurs to me that the whiteness of
the fairies may be due to their lack of shadow, which may also explain
their somewhat artificial-looking flatness.
Yours sincerely,
MAY BOWLEY.
I was now in a stronger position, since I had actually seen the
photographs and learned that Mr. Gardner was a solid person with a
reputation for sanity and character. I therefore wrote to him stating
the links by which I had reached him, and saying how interested I was
in the whole matter, and how essential it seemed that the facts should
be given to the public, so that free investigation might be possible
before it was too late. To this letter I had the following reply:
_5 Craven Road, Harlesden, N.W.10., June 25, 1920._
DEAR SIR,
Your interesting letter of the 22nd has just reached me, and very
willingly I will assist you in any way that may be possible.
With regard to the photographs, the story is rather a long one
and I have only gathered it by going very carefully. The children
who were concerned are very shy and reserved indeed.... They are
of a mechanic's family of Yorkshire, and the children are said to
have played with fairies and elves in the woods near their village
since babyhood. I will not attempt to narrate the story here,
however--perhaps we may meet for that--but when I at length obtained
a view of the rather poor prints it so impressed me I begged for the
actual negatives. These I submitted to two first-class photographic
experts, one in London and one in Leeds. The first, who was unfamiliar
with such matters, declared the plates to be perfectly genuine and
unfaked, but inexplicable! The second, who did know something of the
subject and had been instrumental in exposing several "psychic" fakes,
was also entirely satisfied. Hence I proceeded.
I am hopeful of getting more photographs, but the immediate difficulty
is to arrange for the two girls to be together. They are 16 or 17
years old and beginning to work and are separated by a few miles.
It may be we can manage it and thus secure photographs of the other
varieties besides those obtained. These nature spirits are of the
non-individualized order and I should greatly like to secure some of
the higher. But two children such as these are, are rare, and I fear
now that we are late because almost certainly the inevitable will
shortly happen, one of them will "fall in love" and then--hey presto!!
By the way, I am anxious to avoid the money consideration. I may not
succeed, but would far rather not introduce it. We are out for Truth,
and nothing soils the way so quickly. So far as I am concerned you
shall have everything I can properly give you.
Sincerely yours,
(Sgd.) EDW. L. GARDNER.
This letter led to my going to London and seeing Mr. Gardner, whom
I found to be quiet, well-balanced, and reserved--not in the least
of a wild or visionary type. He showed me beautiful enlargements of
these two wonderful pictures, and he gave me much information which is
embodied in my subsequent account. Neither he nor I had actually seen
the girls, and it was arranged that he should handle the personal side
of the matter, while I should examine the results and throw them into
literary shape. It was arranged between us that he should visit the
village as soon as convenient, and make the acquaintance of everyone
concerned. In the meantime, I showed the positives, and sometimes the
negatives, to several friends whose opinion upon psychic matters I
respected.
Of these Sir Oliver Lodge holds a premier place. I can still see his
astonished and interested face as he gazed at the pictures, which I
placed before him in the hall of the Athenæum Club. With his usual
caution he refused to accept them at their face value, and suggested
the theory that the Californian Classical dancers had been taken and
their picture superimposed upon a rural British background. I argued
that we had certainly traced the pictures to two children of the
artisan class, and that such photographic tricks would be entirely
beyond them, but I failed to convince him, nor am I sure that even now
he is whole-hearted in the matter.
My most earnest critics came from among the spiritualists, to whom
a new order of being as remote from spirits as they are from human
beings was an unfamiliar idea, and who feared, not unnaturally, that
their intrusion would complicate that spiritual controversy which is
vital to so many of us. One of these was a gentleman whom I will call
Mr. Lancaster, who, by a not unusual paradox, combined considerable
psychic powers, including both clairvoyance and clairaudience, with
great proficiency in the practice of his very prosaic profession. He
had claimed that he had frequently seen these little people with his
own eyes, and I, therefore, attached importance to his opinion. This
gentleman had a spirit guide (I have no objection to the smile of the
sceptic), and to him he referred the question. The answer showed both
the strength and the weakness of such psychic inquiries. Writing to me
in July 1920, he said:
"_Re Photographs_: The more I think of it the less I like it (I mean
the one with the Parisian-coiffed fairies). My own guide says it was
taken by a fair man, short, with his hair brushed back; he has a
studio with a lot of cameras, some of which are 'turned by a handle.'
He did not make it to sell Spiritualists a 'pup,' but did it to please
the little girl in the picture who wrote fairy stories which he
illustrated in this fashion. He is not a Spiritualist, but would laugh
very much if anyone was taken in by it. He does not live near where
we were, and the place is all different, i.e. the houses, instead
of being in straight lines, are dropped about all over the place.
Apparently he was not English. I should think it was either Denmark or
Los Angeles by the description, which I give you for what it is worth.
"I should very much like the lens which would take persons in rapid
motion with the clarity of the photo in question, it must work at F
4.5 and cost fifty guineas if a penny, and not the sort of lens one
would imagine the children in an artisan's household would possess
in a hand camera. And yet with the speed with which it was taken the
waterfall in the background is blurred sufficiently to justify a one
second's exposure at least. What a doubting Thomas! I was told the
other day that, in the unlikely event of my ever reaching heaven, I
should (_a_) Insist on starting a card file index of the angels, and
(_b_) Starting a rifle range to guard against the possibility of
invasion from Hell. This being my unfortunate reputation at the hands
of the people who claim to know me must discount my criticisms as
carping--to a certain extent, at all events."
These psychic impressions and messages are often as from one who sees
in a glass darkly and contain a curious mixture of truth and error.
Upon my submitting this message to Mr. Gardner he was able to assure
me that the description was, on the whole, a very accurate one of Mr.
Snelling and his surroundings, the gentleman who had actually handled
the negatives, subjected them to various tests and made enlarged
positives. It was, therefore, this intermediate incident, and not the
original inception of the affair, which had impressed itself upon Mr.
Lancaster's guide. All this is, of course, quite non-evidential to the
ordinary reader, but I am laying all the documents upon the table.
Mr. Lancaster's opinion had so much weight with us, and we were so
impressed by the necessity of sparing no possible pains to get at
truth, that we submitted the plates to fresh examination, as detailed
in the following letter:
_5 Craven Road, Harlesden, N.W.10, July 12, 1920._
DEAR SIR ARTHUR,
Just a line to report progress and acknowledge your kind letters and
enclosure from Kodak's.
A week back, after your reference to Mr. Lancaster's opinion, I
thought I would get a more careful examination of the negatives
made than before, though that was searching enough. So I went over
to Mr. Snelling's at Harrow and had a long interview with him,
again impressing him with the importance of being utterly certain.
I told you, I think, that this Mr. Snelling has had a varied and
expert connection of over thirty years with the Autotype Company and
Illingworth's large photographic factory and has himself turned out
some beautiful work in natural and artificial studio studies. He
recently started for himself at Wealdstone (Harrow) and is doing well.
Mr. Snelling's report on the two negatives is positive and most
decisive. He says he is perfectly certain of two things connected with
these photos, namely:
1. One exposure only;
2. All the figures of the fairies moved during
exposure, which was "instantaneous."
As I put all sorts of pressing questions to him, relating to paper
or cardboard figures, and backgrounds and paintings, and all the
artifices of the modern studio, he proceeded to demonstrate by showing
me other negatives and prints that certainly supported his view. He
added that anyone of considerable experience could detect the dark
background and double exposure in the negative at once. Movement was
as easy, as he pointed out in a crowd of aeroplane photos he had by
him. I do not pretend to follow all his points, but I am bound to
say he thoroughly convinced me of the above two, which seem to me to
dispose of all the objections hitherto advanced when they are taken
together! Mr. S. is willing to make any declaration embodying the
above and stakes his reputation unhesitatingly on their truth.
I am away from London from Wednesday next till the 28th when I go on
to Bingley for one or two days' investigation on the spot. I propose
that you have the two negatives, which are carefully packed and can
be posted safely, for this fortnight or so. If you would rather not
handle them I will send them to Mr. West of Kodak's, or have them
taken to him for his opinion, for I think, as you say, it would be
worth having, if he has had direct and extensive practical experience.
I am very anxious now to see this right through, as, though I felt
pretty sure before, I am more than ever satisfied now after that
interview the other day.
Yours sincerely,
EDW. L. GARDNER.
[Illustration: B. ELSIE AND THE GNOME
Photograph taken by Frances. Fairly bright day in September, 1917. The
"Midg" camera. Distance, 8 ft. Time, 1/50th sec. The original negative
has been tested, enlarged, and analysed in the same exhaustive manner
as A. This plate was badly under-exposed. Elsie was playing with the
gnome and beckoning it to come on to her knee.]
[Illustration: ELSIE AND FRANCES
A snapshot taken by Mr. Wright in June, 1917, with the "Midg" camera he
had just obtained--his first and only camera.]
[Illustration: COTTINGLEY BECK AND GLEN
Sites of photographs are marked A, B, C, D, E, and the cottage with an
X.]
After receiving this message and getting possession of the negatives
I took them myself to the Kodak Company's Offices in Kingsway,
where I saw Mr. West and another expert of the Company. They examined
the plates carefully, and neither of them could find any evidence
of superposition, or other trick. On the other hand, they were of
opinion that if they set to work with all their knowledge and resources
they could produce such pictures by natural means, and therefore
they would not undertake to say that these were preternatural. This,
of course, was quite reasonable if the pictures are judged only as
technical productions, but it rather savours of the old discredited
anti-spiritualistic argument that because a trained conjurer can
produce certain effects under his own conditions, therefore some woman
or child who gets similar effects must get them by conjuring. It was
clear that at the last it was the character and surroundings of the
children upon which the inquiry must turn, rather than upon the photos
themselves. I had already endeavoured to open up human relations with
the elder girl by sending her a book, and I had received the following
little note in reply from her father:
_31 Main Street, Cottingley, Bingley, July 12, 1920._
DEAR SIR,
I hope you will forgive us for not answering your letter sooner and
thanking you for the beautiful book you so kindly sent to Elsie. She
is delighted with it. I can assure you we do appreciate the honour you
have done her. The book came last Saturday morning an hour after we
had left for the seaside for our holidays, so we did not receive it
until last night. We received a letter from Mr. Gardner at the same
time, and he proposes coming to see us at the end of July. Would it be
too long to wait until then, when we could explain what we know about
it?
Yours very gratefully,
ARTHUR WRIGHT.
It was evident, however, that we must get into more personal touch,
and with this object Mr. Gardner went North and interviewed the whole
family, making a thorough investigation of the circumstances at the
spot. The result of his journey is given in the article which I
published in the _Strand Magazine_, which covers all the ground. I will
only add the letter he wrote to me after his return from Yorkshire.
_5 Craven Road, Harlesden, N.W.10, July 31, 1920._
MY DEAR CONAN DOYLE,
Yours just to hand, and as I have now had an hour to sort things out I
write at once so that you have the enclosed before you at the earliest
moment. You must be very pressed, so I put the statement as simply
as possible, leaving you to use just what you think fit. Prepared
negatives, prints of quarter, half-plate, and enlarged sizes, and
lantern slides, I have all here.
Also on Tuesday I shall have my own photographs of the valley scenery
including the two spots shown in the fairy prints, and also prints of
the two children taken in 1917 with their shoes and stockings off,
just as they played in the beck at the rear of their house. I also
have a print of Elsie showing her hand.
With regard to the points you raise:
1. I have definite leave and permission to act as regards the use made
of these photographs in any way I think best.
Publication may be made of them, the only reserve being that full
names and addresses shall be withheld.
2. Copies are ready here for England and U.S.A.
3. ... The Kodak people and also the Illingworth Co. are unwilling to
testify. The former, of course, you know of. Illingworths claim that
they could produce, by means of clever studio painting and modelling,
a similar negative. Another Company's expert made assertions
concerning the construction of the "model" that I found were entirely
erroneous directly I saw the real ground! They, however, barred
any publication. The net result, besides Snelling's views, is that
the photograph _could_ be produced by studio work, but there is no
evidence _positively_ of such work in the negatives. (I might add that
Snelling, whom I saw again yesterday evening, scouts the claim that
such negatives could be produced. He states that he would pick such a
one out without hesitation!)
4. My report is enclosed and you are at perfect liberty to use this
just as you please.
The father, Mr. Arthur Wright, impressed me favourably. He was
perfectly open and free about the whole matter. He explained his
position--he simply did not understand the business, but is quite
clear and positive that the plate he took out of the Midg camera
was the one he put in the same day. His work is that of electrician
to an estate in the neighbourhood near. He is clear-headed and very
intelligent, and gives one the impression of being open and honest. I
learnt the reason of the family's cordial treatment of myself. Mrs.
Wright, a few years back, came into touch with theosophical teachings
and speaks of these as having done her good. My own connection with
the Theosophical Society she knew of and this gave them confidence.
Hence the very cordial reception I have met with, which somewhat had
puzzled me.
By the way, I think "L.'s" guide ran up against innocent little
Snelling! He matches the description quite well, as I realized last
night. And he did prepare the new negatives from which the prints you
have were made, and he has a room full up with weird machines with
handles and devices used in photography....
Sincerely yours,
EDW. L. GARDNER.
I trust that the reader will agree that up to this point we had not
proceeded with any undue rashness or credulity, and that we had taken
all common-sense steps to test the case, and had no alternative, if
we were unprejudiced seekers for truth, but to go ahead with it, and
place our results before the public, so that others might discover the
fallacy which we had failed to find. I must apologize if some of the
ground in the _Strand_ article which follows has already been covered
in this introductory chapter.