It is hard to realize in these days of professional equality between the
sexes that only half a century ago a woman who desired to study medicine
was considered such a phenomenon that her morality and the purity of her
motives were questioned. And yet this desire is only natural, as the
life of every woman has moments when she has to call for medical help.
There are especially the transition to womanhood, all the experiences of
motherhood, and the many ailments peculiar to women. To be compelled to
consult in these cases a male physician, is for many bashful girls and
women such a repellant thought, that they quite often postpone it from
week to week, until too late.
No doubt such were the reasons and experiences which caused =Agnodice=,
an Athenian girl, born about 300 B. C., to disguise her sex in order
that she might study medicine. Like Dr. Mary Walker in the 19th Century,
she donned male attire and became a disciple of Herophilus, an eminent
physician and anatomist of the Alexandrian School. Her specialty was
midwifery and women’s diseases, and when she started to practice
herself, she met with such great success that her male colleagues became
jealous and tried to prevent her from practicing by accusing her of
corruption before the Areopagus. But the result of the proceedings was
quite contrary to their expectations, as a law was immediately passed
allowing all freeborn women to learn midwifery.
Since then female physicians practiced in Hellas as well as in
Alexandria and in Rome. And when in the 9th Century after Christ the
famous Schola Salernitana was established at Salerno, a department for
women’s diseases was included, with a number of female professors as
teachers. The names of several of these professors are still known; the
most noted was the celebrated =Tortula=, who lived in the 11th Century.
=Abella=, =Constanza=, =Calendas=, and =Hildegarde= too have been
praised for their great ability.
This eminent position held by women in the medical profession declined
slowly after the 12th Century, and practically disappeared after the
16th Century. The cause for this relapse was undoubtedly the increasing
hostility of the Christian Church toward any occupation of women with
sciences. This prejudice remained alive up to modern times. It was
dominant in 1845 when a young American woman, =Elizabeth Blackwell=,
decided to study medicine. The same motives as had moved the Athenian
Agnodice and the loss of a dear woman friend caused the young American
to write to various physicians asking as to the wisdom and possibility
of a woman becoming a doctor. The answers she received were unanimously
to the effect that while the idea was a valuable one it was impossible
of accomplishment for many reasons. This verdict only served to
intensify her determination to accomplish her purpose. After two years
of private study she went to Philadelphia, which in those days, 1847,
was considered the seat of medical learning in this country, and made
application to the four medical colleges for admission as a regular
student. But such a revolutionary idea was not to be entertained, and
all the doors remained closed to her. One kindly Quaker adviser said to
her: “Elizabeth, it is of no use trying. Thee cannot gain admission to
these schools. Thee must go to Paris and don masculine attire to gain
the necessary knowledge.”
It had now become a moral crusade with Miss Blackwell, and the justice
and common sense of her undertaking seemed so supreme that she
determined to push the warfare to the farthest limit. After similarly
unsuccessful attempts in New York, she obtained a complete list of all
the smaller institutions of the Northern States, examined their
prospectuses, and sent applications for admission to twelve of the most
promising. After long delay an answer came from the medical department
of the small university at Geneva, in the western part of New York
State. It seems that the faculty had submitted Miss Blackwell’s letter
to the medical class, who adopted the following resolutions:
“Resolved—That one of the radical principles of a republican government
is the universal education of both sexes; that to every branch of
scientific education the door should be open equally to all; that the
application of Elizabeth Blackwell to become a member of our class meets
our entire approbation; and in extending our unanimous invitation we
pledge ourselves that no conduct of ours shall cause her to regret her
attendance at this institution.”
Their gallantry won the day, the faculty cordially opened the doors of
the institution, and she began her studies there at once.
Being the first female student in the small place her appearance of
course gave rise to many comments. Many people looked at this new woman
in wonder; some even inclined to regard her as a lunatic, or a
disorderly person. But her behavior and seriousness compelled respect,
and when in 1849 she received her degree, the public press very
generally commented upon the event in favorable terms and even in Europe
some notice of it was taken. She found fewer obstacles in her path in
her studies abroad, especially in Paris. After her return to America she
began practice in New York City, and here again she had to do pioneer
work. The medical fraternity stood aloof, refusing to consult with her,
and society in general somewhat distrusted the innovation. But in time
her work received just recognition and the status of women in the
profession became fully established. In 1868 Dr. Blackwell founded the
“Woman’s Medical College of New York.” The later years of her life were
spent in England, where she also did much in moulding public opinion
along the lines of philanthropy, especially in opening hospitals and
dispensaries for women and children.
A few years after Miss Blackwell had received her diploma, another
remarkable woman, =Florence Nightingale=, aroused world-wide admiration
by her noble service during the Crimean war of 1853–56. Intensely
devoted to the alleviation of suffering, she had since 1849 paid great
attention to the sanitary conditions of civilian as well as military
hospitals, which in many cases she found rather poor. In 1851 she went
into training as a nurse, and when in 1853 war was declared with Russia,
and the hospitals on the Bosphorus were soon crowded with the sick and
wounded, she offered the English Government to go out and organize a
nursing department at Scutari. Starting with a unit of thirty-seven
nurses, she arrived at Constantinople when the mortality in the
hospitals had become appalling. Seeing clearly the cause for this
frightful state in the bad sanitary arrangements of the hospitals, Miss
Nightingale devoted incessant labor to the removal of these causes, as
well as to the mitigation of their effects, with such success, that in
the English army the death-rate fell from 22¼% to only 2¼%.
After her return to England, in 1856, the Government as well as Queen
Victoria and the public were not slow to acknowledge her splendid
services. While the Queen presented her with a cross set with diamonds,
the people subscribed a fund of several hundred thousand dollars for the
purpose of enabling her to found an institution for the training of a
superior order of nurses in connection with the St. Thomas’s and King’s
College Hospitals. Miss Nightingale also enriched the medical literature
by two valuable books, “Notes on Nursing” and “Notes on Hospitals,” in
which she gave the results of her lifelong observations.
The example of Miss Nightingale had much to do with calling forth the
exertions of American women during the Civil War. As soon as there were
wounded soldiers to heal, and military hospitals to serve, the patriotic
and benevolent women of America remembered the great work of Florence
Nightingale, and hastened to the front. As A. W. Calhoun states in his
“Social History of the American Family,” by 1864 there were busy in the
North 250 women physicians. Women planned and organized also the “U. S.
Sanitary Commission,” for the alleviation of the sufferings of the
battlefield. Its pre-eminent utility was universally recognized. It
caused likewise several great charity fairs, the last two of which were
held in New York and Philadelphia and yielded $1,000,000 and $1,200,000
respectively.
Among the female physicians, who did service during the Civil War, the
most noteworthy was =Dr. Mary E. Walker=. Having studied medicine at the
Medical College in Syracuse, N. Y., she was the first woman commissioned
to serve on the surgical staff of any army in time of war. On assuming
her duties as surgeon in the war, she found hospital efficiency and
hoopskirts incompatible; so she sacrificed the skirt and donned a man’s
coat and trousers. In recognition of her able services Congress not only
awarded her a Medal of Honor, but also allowed her—the only instance in
history—by a special act to continue to wear male attire. Dr. Walker
declared many times that her sole reason for advocating dress reform for
women were hygienic ones. A real pioneer in her profession, she also
maintained for many years a farm for sufferers from tuberculosis and
carried on a school for prevention of that disease modelled after a plan
of her own.
Among the women, whose names appear in the history of the Civil War, one
of the most brilliant was =Miss Clara Barton=. Devoting herself to the
care of the wounded soldiers, she won for herself as superintendent of
the hospitals in the army of the James the surname “the Florence
Nightingale of America.” During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71 she
joined the German branch of the Red Cross Society, that noble
institution, which in 1859 had been founded by Henry Durant, a citizen
of Geneva, Switzerland.
Inspired by the example of Miss Nightingale, and horrified by the
ghastly scenes of the Italian battlefields, he resolved to work for the
proper treatment and nursing of wounded soldiers, while still on the
ground. At his strong appeal the Swiss Federal Council invited all
European nations to a convention in order to discuss proper steps to be
taken in this direction. Attended by delegates from Baden, Belgium,
Denmark, France, the Netherlands, Prussia, Switzerland and Wurtemberg,
the convention met on August 22, 1864, in Geneva, and decided, that
henceforth not only all places where wounded soldiers are treated, but
also all persons, engaged in this samaritan service, should be regarded
as neutrals and distinguished by white flags or white bands showing a
red cross. Such places must not be attacked, but protected by the
soldiers of all combating armies.
In the further history and evolution of this international =Society of
the Red Cross= women have played a most prominent part. Miss Barton
established during the Franco-Prussian War several military hospitals
and, by conducting them, distinguished herself so that she was decorated
with the Iron Cross. After her return to the United States she organized
in 1882 the “American Red Cross Society,” of which she became the first
president. The work of Miss Barton and the Red Cross in the
Spanish-American War and the great help given to the sufferers after the
great tidal wave in Galveston, Texas, caused the United States Senate
and the Texas Legislature to adopt resolutions of thanks.
All these great efforts of women could not fail to create a most
favorable impression toward woman’s activity in medicine. In England an
act of 1868 for the first time opened the study of pharmacy to women;
and after a long struggle they obtained their footing as physicians. In
1874 a special medical school was opened for women in London. In 1876 an
act authorized every recognized medical body to open its doors to women.
In 1878 a supplemental charter enabled the University of London to grant
degrees to women in all its faculties, including medicine. As a result
up to the close of 1895 264 women had been placed on the British
register as duly qualified medical practitioners.
In the United States similar progress was made.
According to the census of 1910, there were 7399 women physicians and
surgeons in the United States.
Whereas fifty years ago there was great objection to admitting women to
the medical societies, now the men of the profession welcome women
physicians to the societies and to their discussions, and are more than
willing to consult with them. The advantage of employing women
physicians has been recognized likewise by many hospitals, sanitariums
and insane asylums; the courts too recognize the justice of women’s
preferring women in the physical examination required by law. There can
be no doubt, that the 20th Century opens to women physicians
undreamed-of possibilities in science and in the art of healing.
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